Introduction to Matter Matter & Measurements · Small units of matter: atoms, compounds & molecules Atoms – Atoms are the smallest particles within matter – Atoms are made up
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Introduction to Matter
Matter & Measurements
BIOB111
CHEMISTRY & BIOCHEMISTRY
Session 1
Key concepts: session 1From this session you are expected to develop an understanding of the following concepts:
Concept 1: Valid measurements
Concept 2: Arrangement of subatomic particles within an atom
Concept 3: Atoms are neutral
Concept 4: Atomic number
Concept 5: Mass number
Concept 6: Isotopes
Concept 7: Arrangement of the periodic table
Concept 8: Number of electrons within the electron shells
Concept 9: Position of the electron shells within an atom
Concept 10: Properties of electron shells
These concepts are covered in the Conceptual multiple choice questions of tutorial 1
Session OverviewPart 1: Introduction to matter
• What is matter?
• How can matter change: chemical and physical change
• Small units of matter: atoms, compounds & molecules
• Using measurements to quantify matter
Part 2: Atoms
• Arrangement of subatomic particles within atoms
• Electron shells
Part 3: Each elements atoms are different
• Atomic mass scale: atomic number and mass number
• The periodic table of elements
• Metals vs non-metals
Part 1: Introduction to matter
• What is matter?
• How can matter change?: chemical and physical change
• Small units of matter: atoms, compounds & molecules
• Using measurement to quantify matter
What is matter?
SCIENCE is the study
of matter & what makes
it work
CHEMISTRY is the
study of structure,
properties &
transformation of matter
https://www.freeimages.com/photo/face-questions-1567164/
https://www.freeimages.com/photo/lab-work-1575852
Cake is made from:SugarFlourEggs
Water
Components of the cake contain many different molecules (groups of atoms)
Every compound is made up of multiple
atoms
e.g. Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
AtomStoker 2014,
Figure 3-1 p54
What is matter?
• Matter is anything that has mass & occupies space
• Matter is composed of atoms
• Matter can exist as either a solid, liquid or gas
Stoker 2014, Figure 1-1 p3
Stoker 2014, Figure 3-13 p81
The periodic table of elements• All matter is made up of one or more type(s) of atoms
• Each element has atoms that are different from all of the other elements atoms
How can matter change?:
chemical and physical change• Physical change:
– Matter can be changed from one state to another e.g. from solid into liquid
– Hallmarks of physical change:
• No new substances are created
• The type of matter present before the physical change is the same as the matter present after physical change
Changing the state of water via physical
change
How can matter change?:
chemical and physical change• Chemical change:
– Matter can be changed from one substance into another substance via a chemical reaction
– Hallmarks of chemical change:
• One or more new substances are created
• The type of matter present before the chemical change is different from the matter present after the chemical change
Changing original substance(s) into
different substance(s) via chemical change
Chemical reaction:
Small units of matter:
atoms, compounds & molecules
Stoker 2014, p11
Small units of matter:
atoms, compounds & molecules
ATOM
GROUP OF ATOMS =
MOLECULECOMPOUND
F
F F
H HO
H2O
O O
O2
Oxygen molecule
H HO
H2O
Water Compound
Water Molecule
Fluorine Atom
Atoms join together to form groups
Molecule that contains more than one type
of atom
Example
Example O OC
Carbon Dioxide compound
CO2
Example
Example
Small units of matter:
atoms, compounds & molecules
MATTER ATOMSIs
made up of
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
Contain three
different types of
PROTONPositively charged
subatomic particle in the
nucleus
NEUTRON
Subatomic particle in the nucleus with a neutral
charge
ELECTRON
Negatively charged subatomic particle,
around the outside of the nucleus
FFluorine
Atom
n0
p+
e-
Small units of matter:
atoms, compounds & molecules
Atoms
– Atoms are the smallest particles within matter
– Atoms are made up of subatomic particles
https://www.flickr.com/photos/31794186@N05/3283549829/
– An oxygen atom has 16 subatomic particles, whereas carbon has 12 subatomic particles
– The atoms of each different element have a different number of subatomic particles
What makes an oxygen atom different from
a carbon atom?
Small units of matter:
atoms, compounds & molecules• PROTON
– Has 1 positive charge → p+
• NEUTRON– Has NO charge, is neutral,
does not repel or attract → n0
• ELECTRON– Has 1 negative charge → e-
(magnitude equal to p+ but opposite in sign)
Stoker 2014, Figure 3-1 p54
http://www.timetoast.com/timelines/75510
Small units of matter:
atoms, compounds & molecules
Subatomicparticle
Location within atom
Charge Mass
ProtonNucleus Positive (+) 1 amu
Electron Around the outside of the nucleus Negative (-) 0 amu
NeutronNucleus Nuetral 1 amu
p+
n0
e-
Small units of matter:
atoms, compounds & molecules
ATOM
GROUP OF ATOMS =
MOLECULECOMPOUND
F
F F
H HO
H2O
O O
O2
Oxygen molecule
H HO
H2O
Water Compound
Water Molecule
Fluorine Atom
Atoms join together to form groups
Molecule that contains more than one type
of atom
Example
Example O OC
Carbon Dioxide compound
CO2
Example
Example
Small units of matter:
atoms, compounds & molecules
Molecules
– Molecules are
composed of 2 or more
atoms joined together
via chemical bonds
– The atoms within a
molecule can either be
from one type of element
or two or more different
elements
Small units of matter:
atoms, compounds & molecules
Compound
– A compound is a
molecule that contains
more than one type of
atom, where the atoms
are joined via chemical
bonds
– E.g. H2O, CO2
Water is a vital compound for the human body• 50 to 65% of the average human body is made up of water (H2O)
• Water is needed to transfer components between cells that make up the human body
Small units of matter:
atoms, compounds & molecules
Small units of matter:
atoms, compounds & molecules
Element
– Elements are found in nature in the
form of single atoms only or as
molecules containing only 1 type of
atom
– E.g. Fe, Zn, Cu, O2, H2, N2
• Elements & compounds are
referred to as pure substances
MOLECULE
O O
O2
Oxygen molecule
Small units of matter:
atoms, compounds & moleculesEach element has a different type of atom
• Due to the atoms containing different numbers of
subatomic particles (protons, neutrons and electrons)
1-Letter Symbols 2-Letter Symbols Symbols from Latin/Greek
C carbon Ca calcium Na sodium (Natrium)
H hydrogen Mg magnesium K potassium (Kalium)
O oxygen Zn zinc Fe iron (Ferrum)
N nitrogen Mn manganese Cu copper (Cuprum)
I iodine Co cobalt Pb lead (Plumbum)
S sulphur / sulfur Se selenium Hg mercury (Hydrargyrum)
P phosphorus Cr chromium Sn tin (Stannum)
F fluorine Cl chlorine Ag silver (Argentum)
Using measurements to quantify matter
• Accurate measurements
are important to assess
the structure & properties
of matter
• A measurement must include a number followed by an appropriate unit to be valid
Quantity Units of Measurements
Symbols
Mass kilogram kg
Volume Cubic meter/Litres
m3/L
Temperature Kelvin/Celsius K/ °C
Pressure Pascal Pa
Concentration Molarity M
Energy, work Joule J
Common types measurements made in the laboratory:
Why is it that both the number and unit
are important when measuring the
amount of water in a dam?
• Both the number and unit are required to
make the measurement meaningful:
2.87×1010 Litres of water in the Wivenhoe Dam
• Without the unit the number could represent
anything: 2.87×1010
• Without a number the unit has no position
on its scale: Litres
Why is it that both the number and unit are important when measuring the amount of water in a dam?
Using measurements to quantify matter
Scientific notationWays of expressing measurements
• Standard / Decimal Notation:
The expression of a number using a decimal point e.g. 0.0387
• Scientific notation:
Useful for expressing very large or very small numbers
more easily e.g. 3.87 x 10-2
Using measurements to quantify matter
Scientific notationChanging 93,000,000.00 into scientific notation
• Move the decimal point so that the decimal point is placed behind the first whole number– In this case the first whole number is 9
• Count the number of places you had to move the decimal point– In this case the number of places is 7 (exponent)
..
Original decimal point position
New decimal point position
The exponent is positive because the number being converted into scientific notion is above 1
Using measurements to quantify matter
Scientific notationChanging 0.0000037 into scientific notation
• Move the decimal point so that the decimal point is placed in front of the first whole number– In this case the first whole number is 3
• Count the number of places you had to move the decimal point– In this case the number of places is 6 (exponent)
. .
Original decimal point position
New decimal point position
The exponent is negative because the number being converted into scientific notion is below 1
The measurement 8310.90 expressed
in scientific notation becomes?
a) 0.83109 x 103
b) 8.3109 x 104
c) 8.3109 x 102
d) 8.3109 x 103
Summary- Part 1: Introduction to matter
• What is matter?– Everything is made up of matter
– The smallest unit of matter is the atom
• How can matter change?: chemical and physical change– Chemical reactions (chemical change) allows matter to change from
one substance into another
• E.g. a chemical reaction where methane burns in the presence of oxygen forming carbon dioxide and water
– Physical change allows matter to change from one state to another
• E.g. an ice cube melting turning water from a solid to a liquid
Summary- Part 1: Introduction to matter
• Small units of matter: atoms, compounds
& molecules– Atoms come together to form groups
• A molecule is a group of atoms connected via chemical bonds
– The molecules can contain either one type of atom or multiple different types of atom
• A compound is a molecule that contains more than one different type of atom connected via chemical bonds
– Atoms are made up of subatomic particles:
• Protons
• Neutrons
• Electrons
• Using measurement to quantify matter– For a measurement to be valid it must have both a number and unit
• e.g. 1 litre of water
– Scientific notation: 3.87 x 10-2 vs decimal notation: 0.0387
Part 2: Atoms
• Arrangement of subatomic particles within atoms
• Electron shells
Arrangement of subatomic
particles within atoms• The word atom is an ancient Greek work
that means “undivided”
– It was thought that atoms can not be divided into smaller components
– We now know this is not true:
Atoms contains subatomic particles
protons, neutrons and electrons
• The average atom is one about
one billionth of 10 cm
• Your body contains about 7 billion billion billion atoms– 98% of these atoms are replaced every year
https://www.flickr.com/photos/hazelcatkins/14322405577/
Arrangement of subatomic
particles within atomsDalton’s atomic theory
• All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms
• Atoms are in constant motion
• All atoms of the same element are identical
• Atoms of any one element are different from those of any other element
• Atoms are never created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction– only rearranged
https://www.flickr.com/photos/31794186@N05/3283549829/
Arrangement of subatomic
particles within atoms
MATTER ATOMSIs
made up of
SUBATOMIC PARTICLE
Contain three
different types of
PROTONPositively charged
subatomic particle in the
nucleus
NEUTRON
Subatomic particle in the nucleus with a neutral
charge
ELECTRON
Negatively charged subatomic particle,
around the outside of the nucleus
FFluorine
Atom
n0
p+
e-
Arrangement of subatomic
particles within atoms• PROTON
– Has 1 positive charge (P+)
– Mass = 1.673 x 10-24 g = 1 atomic mass unit
• NEUTRON– Has NO charge, is neutral, does not repel or attract
– Mass = 1.675 x 10-24 g = 1 atomic mass unit
• ELECTRON– Has 1 negative charge (e-)
– Mass = 9.109 x 10-28 g
• The electrons mass is so small that it doesn’t count towards the atoms mass
http://www.timetoast.com/timelines/75510
Small units of matter:
atoms, compounds & molecules
Subatomicparticle
Location within atom
Charge Mass
ProtonNucleus Positive (+) 1 amu
Electron Around the outside of the nucleus Negative (-) 0 amu
NeutronNucleus Nuetral 1 amu
p+
n0
e-
Arrangement of subatomic
particles within atoms
Stoker 2014, Figure 3-1 p54
NucleusElectron shells
• The nucleus is at the centre of the atom– Protons & neutrons are tightly
packed together in the nucleus
• Electrons
– Orbit around the outside
of the nucleus
– The negative charge of electrons
is attracted to the positive charges
of the protons in the nucleus
• Like charges attract
Electron shells• Electron shell
– Electron shells contains a group of electrons with
similar energies
– The group of electrons in the electron shell are
positioned a certain distance away from the
nucleus
Each shell can hold a different number of electrons2n2 = the maximum No. of electrons that can be placed onto a shell • Sub in the shell number in place of n
Shell 1 → 2 e-, shell 2 → 8 e-, shell 3 → 18 e-, shell 4 → 32 e-, and so on
Electron shell 1
Electron shell 2
Electron shell 3
Nucleus
Electron
Proton
Neutron
Electron shell 1:– Shell that is closest to the nucleus
– First shell that is filled with electrons
– Contains a maximum of 2 electrons
Electron shell 2:– Shell that is 2nd closest to the nucleus
– Filled with electrons after shell 1 is full of electrons
Electron shell 3:– Shell that is 3rd closest to the nucleus
– Filled with electrons after shell 2 is full of electrons
– Contains a maximum of 18 electrons
Electron shells
• Electron shells closest to the nucleus contain electrons with the lowest energy
– Electrons have a high level of attraction to the protons
• Hence, the electrons need a low amount of energy to hold their position close to the nucleus
• Electron shells further away from the nucleus contain electrons with higher energies
– Electrons have a lower level of attraction to the protons
• Hence, the electrons need a higher amount of energy to hold their position further away from the nucleus
Electron shells
Nucleus Nucleus
Electron orbital containing 1 electron
Electron orbital containing 2 electrons
Atom that contains 4 electrons in electron shell 2• Each electron is unpaired
Atom that contains 8 electrons in electron shell 2• Each electron is paired
Orbital:
A position within an electron shell where a maximum of 2 electrons are held
• Electron shell 1 has 1 orbital
• Electron shell 2 has 4 orbitals
Each orbital within the electron shell must have one electron, before any of the orbital can have two electrons (paired electrons)
Electron
Proton
Neutron
Participation+:
What is participation+?
BIOB111
CHEMISTRY & BIOCHEMISTRY
Participation+What is Participation+?
– An exercise where students discuss questions which require critical thinking• Done in pairs
– 2 questions that cover content essential to your understanding of the BIOB session
When will Participation+ run?– In every BIOB session of semester 1 and 2 2018 for on campus students
– At the conclusion of an important topic within the BIOB111 session
What can Participation+ do for me?– Allows students to interact with their peers and the lecturer while discussing
science in an informal setting
– Confirm your understanding of subject matter
– Develop a structured approach to addressing written questions
(will be in the BIOB exam)
Why Endeavour students
like participation+…
• The students said:
– "Participation+ helped us to think about what we had learnt and
cement ideas and concepts"
– "Participation+ was very useful as it helped me to understand the
content more and I also retained more information”
– "Participation+ clarified a lot of concepts which at first seemed
complex and contained a lot of information"
Important points about Participation+
– Participation+ is an interactive activity that is student centric
– Participation+ gives the students an opportunity to talk about what
they’ve learnt earlier in the session in an informal setting
• Conversation between students is the key to Participation+
• Ask questions of your partner to help understand the question
– No right or wrong answers >>> students work towards a possible
solution together
Participation+ Regime
Lecturer
introduces
the first Participation+
question
2 to 3 minute
conversation
between
student pairs
Whole class discussion forum or
conversation between the lecturer and
pair of students
Students attempt
conceptual MCQs via Socrative
related to the original
Participation+ questions
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
What happens during a chemical reaction
(hint: think about the reactants and products?)
How do atom rearrangements facilitate
the conversion of reactants into products?
Is it possible for products to be converted back into
reactants? Why/why not?
G
Key concept: chemical reactions
Example question
Example Socrative questionAs part of Participation+ students answer conceptual MCQs in Socrative
Example Socrative questionStudents receive real-time feedback on their answers to questions in Socrative
What is an electron shell?
What is the order that electron shells 1, 2 and 3
are are filled with electrons? Why?
Does an electron positioned close to the nucleus have
a higher or lower energy than an electron that
is further away from the nucleus? Explain why.
G
Key concept: electron arrangement
Have a go at your first Participation+ question
Attempt Socrative questions: 1 to 5
Google Socrative and go to the student login
Room name:
City name followed by 1 or 2 (e.g. PERTH1)
1 for 1st session of the week and 2 for 2nd session of the week
Summary- Part 2: Atoms
• Arrangement of subatomic particles within atoms
– The nucleus contains the protons (positive charge) and neutrons
(neutral)
– The electrons are positioned around the outside of the nucleus in
electron shells
Summary- Part 2: Atoms
• Electron shells
– Electron shell 1 is closest to the nucleus and is filled with electrons
first, followed by shell 2 and then shell 3 (further away from the
nucleus)
– The electrons in shells close to the nucleus have low energy, due to a
high level of attraction to the nucleus
– The electrons in shells further away from the nucleus have high
energy, due to a lower level of attraction to the nucleus
– Electron shells contain orbitals
• Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
Part 3: Each elements atoms are different
• Atomic mass scale: atomic number and mass number
• The periodic table of elements
• Metals vs non-metals
Small units of matter:
atoms, compounds & moleculesEach element has a different type of atom
• Each elements atom contains different numbers of
subatomic particles (protons, neutrons and electrons)– Only difference between the atoms of each element
1-Letter Symbols 2-Letter Symbols Symbols from Latin/Greek
C carbon Ca calcium Na sodium (Natrium)
H hydrogen Mg magnesium K potassium (Kalium)
O oxygen Zn zinc Fe iron (Ferrum)
N nitrogen Mn manganese Cu copper (Cuprum)
I iodine Co cobalt Pb lead (Plumbum)
S sulphur / sulfur Se selenium Hg mercury (Hydrargyrum)
P phosphorus Cr chromium Sn tin (Stannum)
F fluorine Cl chlorine Ag silver (Argentum)
Stoker 2014, Figure 3-13 p81
The periodic table of elements
Stoker 2014, Figure 3-3 p63
The Periodic Table of Elements
Atomic mass scale:
atomic number and mass number• The atomic mass scale is used to determine how much mass
atoms, compounds and molecules contain
• 1 atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as 1/12th of the mass of
the carbon-12 atom (contains 6 protons and 6 neutrons)
An atom’s atomic mass is equal to
the mass of the atom’s
nucleus
Arrangement of subatomic
particles within atoms• PROTON
– Has 1 positive charge (P+)
– Mass = 1.673 x 10-24 g = 1 atomic mass unit
http://www.timetoast.com/timelines/75510
• NEUTRON– Has NO charge, is neutral, does not repel or attract
– Mass = 1.675 x 10-24 g = 1 atomic mass unit
• ELECTRON– Has 1 negative charge (e-)
– Mass = 9.109 x 10-28 g• The electrons mass is so small that it doesn’t count
towards the atoms mass
• Each element on the periodic table has an
atomic number (smaller number)
and a mass number (larger number)
23
11Na
Atomic mass scale:
atomic number and mass number
Chemical symbol for sodium
Mass number = mass of the atom
Number of subatomic particles
in the nucleus = protons + neutrons
Atomic numberNumber of protons
in the nucleus
8O
16.00
Atomic mass scale:
atomic number and mass numberEach element has a
different chemical symbol e.g. Na for sodium
Atomic number = number of
protons in the nucleus of the
elements atoms
Each element
has a different
number of protons
Each element has a different mass (amount of subatomic
particles in the nucleus)
Mass number = number of
protons + number of neutrons in the
nucleus of the elements atoms
23
11Na
Na has 11 protons, hence
a atomic number of 11
Na has 11 protons + 12
neutrons, hence a mass number of 23
Electron shell 1
Electron shell 2
Nucleus
Electron
Proton
Neutrons
1. What is the atomic number for the atom on the left?
2. What is the mass number for the atom on the left?
3. What type of element is the atom? Hint: use the periodic table
Atomic mass scale:
atomic number and mass number
Atomic mass scale:
atomic number and mass number
Electron shell 1
Electron shell 2
Nucleus
Electron
Proton
Neutrons
1. What is the atomic number for the atom on the left?9 protons = atomic number of 9
9F
19.00
3. What type of element is the atom? FluorineMass number is 19Atomic number is 9
2. What is the mass number for the atom on the left?9 protons + 10 neutrons = mass number of 19
Atoms are neutral– Atoms have an equal number of positive and negatively
charged subatomic particles, making them neutral
• No. of protons = No. of electrons in an atom
– Atomic number of the element atom is equal to both the number of protons and also the number of electrons
• Carbon atom = overall net zero charge• 6 positive charges from the 6 protons are cancelled out by
the 6 negative charges of the 6 electrons
– Atomic number = 6 = No. of protons = No. of electrons
– Mass number = 12 = No. of protons + No. of neutrons
Atomic mass scale:
atomic number and mass number
6C
12.01
http://www.timetoast.com/timelines/75510
Isotopes
• Atoms of an element that
have the same Atomic
No. but a different Mass
No.
– Difference in mass
numbers between isomers
is due to different numbers
of neutrons in the nucleus
http://socratic.org/questions/how-do-isotopes-of-carbon-differ-from-one-another
Atomic mass scale:
atomic number and mass number
Abundance in nature: 98.93 %
Abundance in nature: 1.07 %
Abundance in nature: 10-12 %
Carbon 12 isotope Carbon 13 isotope Carbon 14 isotope
What are the different groups of subatomic
particles within a Carbon-12 atom?
What is the charge of each different
subatomic particle present in the Carbon-12 atom?
What is the location of each different type of subatomic
particle within the Carbon-12 atom?
G
Key concept: sub-atomic particles
Attempt Socrative questions: 6 to 9
Google Socrative and go to the student login
Room name:
City name followed by 1 or 2 (e.g. PERTH1)
1 for 1st session of the week and 2 for 2nd session of the week
Periodic Table of Elements• The elements are arranged by
increasing Atomic No.
– i.e. first element has an atomic number of 1
• PERIOD is a single horizontal row within the periodic table
– There are 7 periods
• GROUP is a vertical column of elements within the periodic table
– Groups contain elements with similar physical & chemical properties
– There are 8 groups of group A elements
PERIODS
G
R
O
U
P
S
• The groups are numbered on the top & are divided into A & B
– A Groups =
Representative elements
(main focus)
– B Groups =
Transition elements
Metals vs Nonmetals
• BIOB
Stoker 2014, p83
Non-metal elements seen extensively in the course include: Oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N)
Metals vs non-metals
Modified from Stoker 2014, p83
METALS
– Shiny solid substances at room temperature (except Hg!)
– Good conductors of heat & electricity
– Malleable
– Typical metals: Na, Cu, Au, Ag, Fe
– Metal atoms donate electrons (to a non-metal) when forming an ionic compound
NON-METALS
– Dull, not shiny, - solid, liquid or gas
– Poor conductors of heat & electricity
(except Carbon) → good insulators
– Not malleable
– Typical non-metals: H, C, O, N, S, P
– Non-metal atoms accept electrons (from a metal) when forming an ionic compound
Adapted from Stoker 2014, Table 3-3 p66
Stoker 2014, Figure 1-9 p13
NOBLE GASES: Neither donate nor accept electrons, as their atoms are already stable
Metals vs non-metals
Attempt Socrative questions: 10
Google Socrative and go to the student login
Room name:
City name followed by 1 or 2 (e.g. PERTH1)
1 for 1st session of the week and 2 for 2nd session of the week
Summary Part 3: Each elements atoms are different
• Atomic mass scale: atomic number and mass number
– Atomic mass is used to quantify the mass of atoms, molecules and
compounds
– The mass of 1 proton is 1 atomic mass unit, the mass of 1 neutron is
one atomic mass unit
– The atomic mass of an atom is called the mass number
– The mass number is equal to the number of protons + neutrons in the
atom’s nucleus
– The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
• Each element has a different number of protons in its nucleus
Summary Part 3: Each elements atoms are different
• The periodic table of elements
– The periodic table is a catalogue of all the known elements
– Each element has an atoms that contain different numbers of
subatomic particles
– The representative elements are in group A of the periodic table
– The non-representative elements are in group B of the periodic table
– The groups of the periodic table are the vertical columns
– The periods of the periodic table are the horizontal rows
Summary Part 3: Each elements atoms are different
• Metals vs non-metals
– The elements on the periodic table can be divided into
metal and non-metals
– In general the non-metal atoms are located at the top right of the
table, whereas the majority of the other elements are metals (except
hydrogen)
Readings & Resources• Stoker, HS 2014, General, Organic and Biological Chemistry, 7th edn,
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, Belmont, CA.
• Stoker, HS 2004, General, Organic and Biological Chemistry, 3rd edn, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA.
• Timberlake, KC 2013, General, organic, and biological chemistry: structures of life, 4th edn, Pearson, Boston, MA.
• Alberts, B, Johnson, A, Lewis, J, Raff, M, Roberts, K & Walter P 2008, Molecular biology of the cell, 5th edn, Garland Science, New York.
• Berg, JM, Tymoczko, JL & Stryer, L 2012, Biochemistry, 7th edn, W.H. Freeman, New York.
• Dominiczak, MH 2007, Flesh and bones of metabolism, Elsevier Mosby, Edinburgh.
• Tortora, GJ & Derrickson, B 2014, Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 14th edn, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ.
• Tortora, GJ & Grabowski, SR 2003, Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 10th edn, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
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