Transcript
Becoming a better reader
The importance of reading
Reading is an extremely important skill. It is by reading that you learn much of what you need to know
for your different school subjects. Reading is also an excellent way to improve your general English.
You can only learn from reading, however, if what you read is not too difficult. For this reason, it is
important to know what makes texts difficult and how you can improve your chances of understanding
them.
What makes texts difficult to understand
Most of your reading difficulties will be caused by a problem on the list below. Of course, when two or
more of these problems happen together, your chances of understanding will be even smaller.
many unknown words
long, complicated sentences
a topic you know nothing about
a topic you find boring
feeling tired
being distracted
small print, long paragraphs, no pictures
bad writing
How to understand more of what you read
You can do nothing about some of the reading difficulties: for example, you cannot change the print in
a book or make poor writing better. But there are many things you can do that will give you a better
chance of understanding what you read. Here are some suggestions:
Know your reading purpose - The way you read a book or a text depends very much on your
reasons for reading it. This is why it is so important to know your reading purpose. You should read a
question in your math exam differently from an entry in an encyclopaedia which you are looking at
quickly to find out the date of an event. The kind of reading you do in class or for your homework is
different from how you read a novel for pleasure in the summer vacation.
Teaching Notes : Reading 1
A common mistake of students is to read everything very slowly and carefully, looking up every
unknown word. Occasionally this is necessary - for example, when reading exam questions. But it
takes a long time, and it can even make understanding more difficult. Often it is better to use one of the
following quick reading methods:
Skimming - this is reading a text quickly to find out what information it contains. You should skim
when, for example, you want to check if a text has the information you need to answer some questions
or write a project.
Scanning - this is reading quickly to find a specific piece of information. You should scan when, for
example, you are looking for the answer to a question which you know is in the text.
If you know your reading purpose - perhaps by looking first at the questions you must answer after
reading - you can choose the best reading method.
Get background information - Find something out about the topic you have to read.
The more background information you have, the easier it will be to understand the text. You can get
this background information background in your own language. For example, if you are studying the
Italian Renaissance, you could read an encyclopaedia or textbook in your own language to find out the
most important details about this historical period. Your parents may also be able to give you useful
background information. Talk to them in your language.
You can sometimes get background information from the text itself. Many writers include a conclusion
or summary; if you read this first, it may give you a good start.
Use all the information in the book - Good textbooks are well-organised, with titles, sub-
titles, introductions, summaries or conclusions. Many books also have pictures with captions. Look at
all these first before starting to read.
Another aspect of good writing is that each paragraph has a topic sentence. A topic sentence is a
sentence, usually the first one in a paragraph, that contains the main idea of the paragraph. If you
concentrate on understanding the topic sentence, this may help you to understand what comes next.
Increase your vocabulary - Of course, reading itself is an excellent way to improve your
vocabulary, but there are many other things you can do. The better your vocabulary, the easier you will
find your reading.
Teaching Notes : Reading 2
Use your dictionary sensibly - It’s not a good idea to look up every new word you find. If you
do, it will take you a long time to read the text. This can be very boring, and usually will not help you
to a better understanding. (Click for advice on how and when to use your dictionary.)
Learn the important words that organise text - When you read texts in your science or
history books, you will find that most good writers organise their writing with cohesion markers. These
are words that connect different parts of the writing and help writers organise their ideas. If you learn
the important cohesion markers, you will find it easier to understand the text.
Here are some important cohesion markers: also, therefore, except, unless, however, instead,
(al)though, nevertheless, on the other hand, as a result, despite, in conclusion.
Choose the right place to read - You can’t really expect to understand a difficult book if you are
trying to read in the same room with the television on and your little brother distracting you. The same
goes for reading in the bus on the way to school. You also can’t expect to read a textbook and listen to
music at the same time. Try to find a quiet and comfortable place with good light, and your dictionaries
and other materials nearby.
Choose the right time to read - If you have a difficult text to read for homework, it’s probably
best to do this first. If you leave it until last when you are tired, you will find it even more difficult.
Important: If you have tried the advice above and you still cannot understand a text, then it is simply
too hard for you. Stop reading and ask someone to help you (your teacher, for example!). Nobody likes
to give up, but you will just be wasting your time if you continue to work at a text that is beyond you.
What to read
Most of the time you have to read what your teachers tell you to read. But as you know, reading is an
excellent way to improve your English, and so you should try to do some extra reading each week.
Here is some advice on how to choose what to read:
Try not to read something too difficult - There should be no more than about 6-10 new words per page;
reading for pleasure should not be hard work!
Reading easy books is good for you -You will improve your reading skills even if you read
simple books, as long as you read lots of them. (But you may find you don't really enjoy stories written
in English that has been over-simplified.)
Teaching Notes : Reading 3
Try to read some non-fiction - Reading non-fiction books or magazines will help you learn
some of the words you need to do well in your subject classes.
Choose something that is interesting to you - This is clear. In fact, if you are really
interested in a topic, you will probably be able to understand texts that would normally be too difficult
for you.
Teaching Notes : Reading 4
Reading comprehension
This section on reading comprehension deals with the following subjects:
1.Skimming and scanning
2.Non-verbal signals
3.Structure of texts
4.Structure of paragraphs
5.Punctuation
6.Author's viewpoint (inference)
7.Reader anticipation: determining the meaning of words
8.Summarizing
1. Skimming and scanning
Before starting to read a text in detail, the reader should take a moment to preview the text. Read
quickly, without pausing to study the details. This is called skim reading or skimming. The reader
should understand:
for which audience the text was written (general public, professionals, laymen,…)
what type of text it is (report, informal letter, formal letter, article, advertisement, …)
what the purpose of the author is (to describe, to inform, to explain, to instruct, to persuade)
the general contents of the text
After having skimmed the text, the reader can study the text in more detail, reading more slowly and
carefully and looking for specific information that he is interested in. This is called scanning.
2. Non-verbal signals
Teaching Notes : Reading 5
The meaning of a text is not only conveyed by means of words. All texts also contain non-verbal signs.
This can be the use of certain style features, such as different fonts, bold print, underlining, or italics.
The meaning of these style features can be different in different text. In one text italics may be used to
emphasize a word, in another text italics can indicate can be used to make subtitles.
Layout features are also non-verbal signals. For example:
heading:
a title printed at the top of a page to indicate the subject matter that is going to be discussed in a
particular chapter, column or section.
title:
tells you what the text is about.
subheading:
presents you with a brief summary, an introduction or explanation.
photographs:
pictures related to an article or a text.
captions:
comments on pictures related to a text
division into paragraphs:
each paragraph is a unity and deals with one particular idea.
figures, graphs, bar charts, etc:
to visualize facts and figures presented in the text.
3. The structure of the text
Most texts start with a title and sometimes a subtitle. After that, the introduction and the body followed
by a conclusion or summary.
An important aspect of reading is prediction. The better the reader can predict what he or she is going
to read, the faster and more effective he or she will read. The prediction process begins with the title.
The introduction mostly informs the reader about what he can expect.
The body consists of paragraphs. Each paragraph deals with one aspect of the subject matter.
Paragraphs are linked in a logical way.
Teaching Notes : Reading 6
The conclusion puts the subject matter in the right perspective
4. The structure of paragraphs
A paragraph is a group of sentences. The number of sentences and words in a paragraph depends on the
subject, but on average, paragraphs contain between 75 and 150 words. Each paragraph deals with one
aspect of the subject of the text. So, it is usually possible to give each paragraph its own subtitle, which
summarizes the contents of the paragraph in one sentence.
A typical paragraph consists of three parts. The first sentence contains the topic sentence, which is the
heart of the paragraph. The topic sentence (also called thesis sentence or key sentence) contains the
new aspect of the subject of the text. The second part of the paragraph contains sentences which
develop the aspect. These sentences may contain arguments, explanations, details, examples, and other
supporting evidence. The last sentence of a paragraph is often a summary of the paragraph or a linking
sentence to the next paragraph.
In many well written texts the reader will get a good impression of the contents by reading just the first
sentences (= the topic sentences) of each paragraph.
Paragraphs are linked in a logical way by link words. These link words are also used within a
paragraph.
Exercise: Paragraphs
Read the following paragraph and indicate:
the topic sentence
link words linking sentences
link words linking paragraphs
There is the first problem with tipping: the more discretion you have in the matter the more unpleasant
it is. Tipping is an aristocratic conceit - "There you go, my good man, buy your starving family a loaf"-
best left to an aristocratic age. The practicing democrat would rather be told what he owes right up
front. Offensively, rich people may delight in peeling off hundred-dollar bills and tossing them out to
groveling servants. But no sane, well-adjusted human being cares to sit around and evaluate the
performance of some beleaguered coffee vendor.
Teaching Notes : Reading 7
5. Punctuation
Punctuation is partly based on grammar. For example, commas are often used to separate clauses. If the
reader understands the meaning and usage of punctuation marks, it will be easier to understand the
grammatical structures.
Punctuation marks also indicate how the author wants the reader to interpret a piece of text. For
example, if the author puts something in brackets, the part of the sentence should be interpreted as an
addition to the sentence.
6. The author’s viewpoint (inference)
In reading a text the reader makes inferences or assumptions about the position of the author. Is the
author neutral or does the author show his own opinion. The author often shows his opinion either by
adding certain phrases or by adding a value to a word.
The author can add words like luckily, unfortunately to show that he is pleased or not pleased with
something. He can also add words which show his surprise, regret or other emotions, for example
surprisingly, to shock, unexpectedly, regrettably, pity, desirable, to be disappointed, etc. The author may
also use words to indicate the level of certainty, for example: certain, obviously, undoubtedly, naturally,
always, often, likely, probably, maybe, unlikely, hardly, rarely, never, etc. Another possibility is that the
author adds words to comment on more or less objective facts. For example Only 40% of the staff is
female has quite a different meaning than As much as 40% of the staff is female.
The author can also reveal his viewpoint by adding value to a word. For example, if something is big
he may use the word huge or gigantic to indicate he is impressed. If something is small he may use
words like tiny or microscopic to indicate that he is not impressed. If someone is afraid he may use the
word terrified to add suspense, if something is good he may use the word fantastic.
Exercise: author’s viewpoint
Read the following paragraph and write down which word indicates the author’s opinion. Also explain
what his opinion is.
Teaching Notes : Reading 8
There is the first problem with tipping: the more discretion you have in the matter the more unpleasant
it is. Tipping is an aristocratic conceit - "There you go, my good man, buy your starving family a loaf"-
best left to an aristocratic age. The practicing democrat would rather be told what he owes right up
front. Offensively, rich people may delight in peeling off hundred-dollar bills and tossing them out to
groveling servants. But no sane, well-adjusted human being cares to sit around and evaluate the
performance of some beleaguered coffee vendor.
7. reader anticipation: determining meaning of words
Even readers who have a wide and flexible vocabulary will encounter words of which they do not
know the meaning. Very often there is not enough time to look up all those words in a dictionary. This
means that readers should be able to guess the meaning of the word. This is often possible if the reader
understands the relationships between words in meaning and form.
To make a good guess at the meaning of the word, the reader must look for clues, indications, that help
him find that meaning. The following steps may help to disclose the meaning of unknown words:
step 1
determine the word class, i.e. a verb, a noun, an adjective, an adverb, etc.
step 2
determine its function in the sentence, i.e. how is it related to other words in the sentence?
step 3
contextual clues, i.e. is the context in which we find this word positive or negative; what does the
context tell us about the word?
step 4
is there any relation between this word and a word that is familiar to you? Consider the word "aging" in
"the population is aging rapidly". We recognise the word "age" in "aging" and therefore we can easily
derive its meaning.
step 5
try and derive the eventual meaning of the word
Exercise: determining the meaning
Read the following paragraph and try to find out what the meaning is of
Teaching Notes : Reading 9
conceit
groveling
Follow the 5 steps above and do not use a dictionary
There is the first problem with tipping: the more discretion you have in the matter the more unpleasant
it is. Tipping is an aristocratic conceit - "There you go, my good man, buy your starving family a loaf"-
best left to an aristocratic age. The practicing democrat would rather be told what he owes right up
front. Offensively, rich people may delight in peeling off hundred-dollar bills and tossing them out to
groveling servants. But no sane, well-adjusted human being cares to sit around and evaluate the
performance of some beleaguered coffee vendor.
8. Summarizing
It is very difficult to remember the complete contents of long texts. For that reason it is often advisable
to make notes of information in the text that is essential for the reader. The result is a short outline of
the text containing all aspects of the text. The length of the summary largely depends on the density of
the text. The average length of a good summary is about one-third of the original text, but summaries of
texts which contain many facts may be longer.
The following steps can be taken when summarizing a text.
Step 1: Familiarize with the material.
After you have read the text or a section of it, you can start summarizing. The length of the section read
through depends on the structure and the complexity of the text. With reports it is often a good idea to
read one section and then summarize. Newspaper articles are often best read as a whole before starting
with the summary.
Step 2: Select important information
You should go through each paragraph, sentence by sentence, asking yourself which information is
absolutely essential to the argument. You should write down complete sentences as much as possible.
This way it is avoided that information is written down in an unclear manner, forcing you to read again.
An alternative is to underline or highlight important sentences or phrases.
The main difficulty at this stage is to determine what is important and what is not. Some general rules:
Important: author, title, reason why the text was written, purpose, theme, key words, link words, all
Teaching Notes : Reading 10
major aspects (especially topic sentence of each paragraph), explanations, author’s opinion Less
important: introduction, summary, repetition, examples, anecdotes, analogies
Step 3: Paraphrase the information
Write down the information of the previous step in your own words. Writing down information in your
own words forces you to completely understand what you are writing down. You should try to
condense long and complex sentences into much shorter ones. So, your sentences should preferably be
short and to the point. Use active sentences as much as possible and avoid adjuncts.
Be careful with regard to the wording of your sentences. Avoid descriptions if they can be summarized
in one word. So, do not write down The state exclusively controls and possesses the trade in stamps but
use the word monopoly.
Step 4: Insert links between sentences and paragraphs
Make sure that the connection between sentences is clear and logical and that each group of sentences
smoothly fit in one paragraph. This can be done by inserting link words such as therefore, nevertheless,
but, however, because, on the other hand, etc. Sentences can also be linked by relative pronouns, for
example: who, which, whose, that. Using the correct links means that your summary becomes more
logical and coherent.
Step 5: Adjust the length of the summary
If you have to make a summary as part of an assignment and you are assigned a maximum number of
words, count the words and leave out information that is not essential or add important information.
Teaching Notes : Reading 11
READING COMPREHENSION
MAIN IDEAS: TOPICS
1. WHAT IS A MAIN IDEA?, where you will learn what you need to know about a main idea.
2. GENERAL VERSUS SPECIFIC IDEAS, where you will learn the difference between general and
specific ideas. There will be practice exercises to help you with this concept.
3. WHAT IS A TOPIC?, where you will learn to identify the topic of a paragraph. Practice will be
provided with this concept.
4. PRACTICE EXERCISES AND ANSWERS provide 3 exercises on different levels of difficulty,
followed by the correct answers.
5. REVIEW lets you see if you have remembered what you should for this lesson.
1.WHAT IS A MAIN IDEA?
The main idea is the central point of a paragraph. Very often, the main idea appears in one sentence --a
general sentence called the topic sentence.
The rest of the paragraph contains sentences made up of specific ideas and details that support and
explain the main idea.
2. GENERAL VERSUS SPECIFIC IDEAS
The main idea in a paragraph is a general idea. In contrast, the supporting information in a paragraph is
made up of specific ideas and details. To improve your skill at finding main ideas, you need to practice
distinguishing between general and specific ideas.
First, try it on the three groups of words below. Each group of words has one general idea and three
specific ideas. The general idea includes all the specific ideas. See if you can identify the general word
in each group. Then read the Answers and Explanations that follow:
Teaching Notes : Reading 12
1. jealousy hatred emotion worry
2. spiders cockroaches mosquitoes insects
3. chemistry science physics biology
Answers and Explanations
1. The general idea is "emotions" because it includes all of the others as examples.
2. The general idea is "insects" because it includes all of the others as examples.
3. The general idea is "science" because it includes all of the others as examples.
3. TOPICS
A paragraph's topic is the subject of the paragraph -- who or what the paragraph is about. Finding the
topic of a paragraph is the first step in finding out what the paragraph is trying to say to you. This
simple question will help you find the topic of a paragraph. In general, who or what is this paragraph
about?
Your answer to this question will be the paragraph's topic. Your answer must not be too broad nor too
narrow.
Read the paragraph below. As you do so, ask yourself "In general, who or what is this paragraph
about?" After you have chosen what you think is the topic, read the Explanation that follows:
Each year, thousands of people are bitten by snakes. Here is what to do if you are a victim of a
snakebite. First, keep still and warm. Next, remove rings and tight clothing. Wrap a bandage above the
bite. Do not apply a tourniquet, as this may cut blood circulation. Also, do not try to remove snake
venom. Finally, seek medical attention as soon as possible.
The topic of this paragraph is:
(a) snakebites
(b) things to do after a snakebite
(c) keeping still after a snakebite
Teaching Notes : Reading 13
Explanation
The first choice, "snakebites" is too general. It is true that the paragraph is about snakebites, but it is
only talking about one aspect of snakebites.
The second choice, "things to do after a snakebite" is the right answer -- this is what the paragraph is
about.
The third choice, "keeping still after a snakebite," is too specific -- it is only one of the things you
should do after being bit.
Now, read the next paragraph and look at the choices for the topic. One is too general, one is just right,
and one is too specific. Think about which is which, then read the Explanation that follows.
The cost of printing money and then destroying old ones has become too expensive for the government.
As a result, serious efforts are being taken to replace the dollar bill with a dollar coin. The dollar coin
will last far longer than a dollar bill. It could also be used in vending machines easier than a dollar
bill. And it will help cities, too. Cities spend a lot of time counting bills placed in collection boxes. A
dollar coin would change that.
The topic of this paragraph is:
a. Using a dollar coin in a vending machine
b. Reasons for a dollar coin
c. A dollar coin
Explanation
The first choice, "using a dollar coin in a vending machine," is too specific. It does not tell what the
paragraph is about.
The second choice, "reasons for a dollar coin," is the right answer -- this is what the paragraph is about.
Most of the sentences present reasons that a dollar coin is better than a dollar bill.
The third choice, "A dollar coin," is too general. The right topic will tell you what the paragraph is
likely to say about a dollar coin.
Teaching Notes : Reading 14
Topics: Exercise
There are five paragraphs below. After each paragraph are two questions about the topic of the
paragraph. Read the paragraphs and answer the questions. The correct answers and explanation follow
the five paragraphs.
A. A national contest to find the worst boss in the nation had some remarkable candidates. One person
nominated a boss who had a sign on his desk saying "people are animals." Another named a boss who
liked to choke and bite his employees. And the winner was a boss who would not let his employees go
to a funeral unless they produced a death notice that was printed in the local paper.
1. As a topic of this paragraph, "A national contest" is
a. too general b. just right c. too specific
2. As a topic of this paragraph, "A contest to find the worst boss in the nation" is
a. too general b. just right c. too specific
B. Hot tubs have become popular places to relax and relieve muscle tension. However, if you use a hot
tub, you should be careful. Dipping your body in hot water makes your heart beat faster. This can be a
problem for people with high blood pressure. The hot water also raises your body temperature. This
can cause a loss of important body fluids. And five to ten minutes in a hot tub burns off blood sugar.
This can be harmful for people with diabetes.
3. As a topic of this paragraph, "Cautions for using a hot tub" is
a. too general b. just right c. too specific
4. As a topic of this paragraph, "What five to ten minutes in a hot tub can do" is
a. too general b. just right c. too specific
C. The highest military honor in the land is to be named as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Only
a few military men have held this post. The first Chair an was General Omar Bradley, who was
nominated by President Harry Truman. Other Chairs have included General Maxwell Taylor, Admiral
William Crowe, and General Colin Powell, who became famous for his handling of the Gulf War.
Teaching Notes : Reading 15
5. As a topic of this paragraph, "General Colin Powell" is
a. too general b. just right c. too specific
6. As a topic of this paragraph, "Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff" is
a. too general b. just right c. too specific
D. There are currently 5.5 billion people living in the world today. Population is expected to grow
rapidly in coming years. By the year 2000, this figure is expected to grow to 6.3 billion. Twenty five
years later, it is estimated that over 8 billion people will inhabit the planet. And in sixty years,
population will be over 10 billion.
7. As a topic of this paragraph, "Population" is
a. too general b. just right c. too specific
8. As a topic of this paragraph, "The number of people in the world today" is
a. too general b. just right c. too specific
E. People who don't brush their teeth regularly usually have bad breath. There are other causes of bad
breath. A throat infection is one source of bad breath. A sinus problem can also cause bad breath. Even
too much coffee or alcohol can cause bad breath. And a stomach problem resulting in acid buildup can
be a contributor, as well.
9. As a topic of this paragraph, "Bad breath" is
a. too general b. just right c. too specific
10. As a topic of this paragraph, "Causes of bad breath" is
a. too general b. just right c. too specific
Answers and Explanation
A. 1. a 2. b (The paragraph gives examples of bad bosses who have been nominated in a contest to find
the worst boss in the nation. "A national contest" is too general, since the paragraph is talking about one
particular contest.)
B. 3. b 4. c (The paragraph lists cautions for people who use a hot tub. "What five to ten minutes in a
hot tub can do" is too specific because it is one of the cautions.)
Teaching Notes : Reading 16
C. 5. c 6. b (This paragraph identifies people who have been Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
"General Colin Powell" is too specific because he is only one of the people who were Chairmen.)
D. 7. a 8. c (If you ask yourself the question "Who or what is this paragraph about?", your answer
should be "Population growth in years to come." Thus, "Population" is too general, and "The number of
people in the world today" is too specific, since it says nothing about the future.)
E. 9. a 10. b (This paragraph gives the causes of bad breath. "Bad breath" is too general because it does
not focus on the actual subject that is discussed.)
Teaching Notes : Reading 17
5. REVIEW: MAIN IDEAS: TOPICS
To review what you have learned in this tutorial, answer each of the following questions. Then check
your answers below.
1. True or False : In a paragraph, supporting details are always more specific than the main idea.
2. When the main idea is stated in one sentence of a paragraph, that sentence is called the
a. topic b. topic sentence c. central point
3. To find the main idea of a paragraph, you should first look for the
a. topic b. topic sentence c. supporting details
4. The question to ask when looking for a paragraph's topic is:
a. What details support the main idea?
b. What meaning is the author trying to get across?
c. In general, who or what is the paragraph about?
5. The topic of a paragraph should be
a. neither too general nor too specific.
b. explained at the beginning of the paragraph.
c. explained by all of the sentences in a paragraph.
1. True
2. b
3. a
4. c
5. a
Teaching Notes : Reading 18
MAIN IDEAS: TOPIC SENTENCES
1. WHAT IS A TOPIC SENTENCE? where you will learn what you need to know about a topic
sentence.
2. WHERE IS A TOPIC SENTENCE LOCATED? where you will learn the different parts of a
paragraph where a topic sentence may be located, and how to find that sentence.
3. PRACTICE EXERCISES AND ANSWERS provide 3 exercises on different levels of difficulty,
followed by the correct answers.
4. REVIEW lets you see if you have remembered what you should for this lesson and this important
skill.
WHAT IS A TOPIC SENTENCE?
A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main idea of a paragraph. It is a general statement that
covers all or most of the material in the paragraph. Locating the topic sentence in a paragraph is one of
the most important reading skills there is.
To find a paragraph's topic sentence, you should do the following:
1. Identify the topic of the paragraph by asking yourself Who or what is this paragraph about?"
2. Find the sentence that is a general statement telling you what you need to know about the topic.
WHERE IS A TOPIC SENTENCE LOCATED?
A topic sentence may be anywhere within a paragraph: It can be the first sentence in the paragraph.
When this occurs, the first sentence will be a general statement that will introduce a subject and will
then be followed by sentences that will support that statement in some important way.
It can be in the middle of a paragraph. This will occur in two circumstances:
Teaching Notes : Reading 19
1. Sometimes, a paragraph begins with an introductory sentence that is meant to grab your attention.
It may be a very general statement that looks like a topic sentence, but then is followed by a sentence
than changes direction.
This sentence is the one that is explained in the rest of the paragraph, and it becomes the topic sentence.
2. You will also find a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph when the paragraph starts with a
question. Question will never be a topic sentence. Look for the answer to the question - this will be the
topic sentence of the paragraph. Of course, if the answer to a question is "Yes," or "No," this will not be
your topic sentence.
The explanation that follows this one-word answer will be the topic sentence. a topic sentence can
appear at the end of a paragraph, either as a summary or a conclusion.
A summary will bring together all of the points made in the paragraph. A conclusion is where all of the
points lead up to a final, important point.
3. PRACTICE EXERCISES AND ANSWERS
The following exercises will help you master the concept of "Locations of Main Ideas." There are three
exercises, increasing in difficulty.
Topic Sentences: Exercise 1
In the following five paragraphs, the topic sentence is in different places. Read each paragraph and
decide which sentence is the topic sentence. Write the number or numbers of the topic sentence in the
space provided.
The answers and explanation follow the exercise.
A. (1)Do you know what to do if you are stung by a bee or a hornet? (2)There is a number of steps that
should be followed if this happens to you. (3)The first thing to do is remove the stinger. (4)A stinger
contains venom. (5)It will continue to release venom as long as it is contact with skin. (6)When the
stinger is removed, put ice on the wound. (7)This will reduce the swelling. (8)Then, apply a small
amount of baking soda. (9)It contains enzymes that will weaken the venom. (10)Finally, look for signs
of an allergic reaction such as difficulty in breathing. (11)People have died from strong allergic
reactions to stings. (12)When one occurs, the victim should be taken to the hospital for treatment.
Teaching Notes : Reading 20
The topic sentence is # ____.
B. (1)The world's oldest known bound book is a prayer book. (2)The book is over 1,600 years old. (3)It
was discovered in a child's grave in 1984. (4)The book's nearly 500 hand-written pages were stuck
together. (5)Experts had to separate each page. (6)The book is now on display in the Coptic Museum in
Cairo, Egypt.
The topic sentence is # _____.
C. (1)Black ice is an invisible coating of ice that forms on an asphalt road surface. (2) Black ice is very
dangerous. (3)It is caused by drizzle falling on the frozen pavement. (4)Drivers don't know the roadway
is icy. (5)When their cars hit the ice, they skid out of control. (6)Sometimes cars bounce off of each
other like characters in an arcade game. (7)Sometimes they skid off the roadway into ditches.
(8)Incidences of black ice have caused numerous collisions and deaths in the colder regions of the
country.
The topic sentence is # _____.
D. (1)Albert Einstein was one. (2)So was artist Pablo Picasso. (3)American writer and humorist Mark
Twain was one, as well. (4)Others include Babe Ruth, General Norman Schwartzkopf, Johann
Sebastian Bach, and Joan of Arc. (5)What do all of these famous people have in common? (6)All of
them are left-handed.
The topic sentence is # _____.
E. (1)A low fat diet may prevent major illnesses, including cancer and heart disease. (2)Because of
this, doctors and nutritionists have suggested many ways for people to lower the fat in your diet. (3)
They recommend using non-fat milk instead of whole milk. (4) Also, they suggest that people eat little
or no meat. (5)For people who eat meat, poultry is recommended. (6)It has less fat than beef or pork.
(7) People should also cut down on the number of eggs they eat. (8)Eating non-fat yogurt for dessert
instead of ice cream is also recommended.
The topic sentence is # _____.
Teaching Notes : Reading 21
IMPLIED MAIN IDEAS
1. WHAT IS AN "IMPLIED MAIN IDEA?" where you will learn how a main idea of a paragraph can
be implied or unstated.
2. HOW TO CREATE AN IMPLIED MAIN IDEA will teach you what you should do when you find a
paragraph that has no topic sentence.
3. PRACTICE EXERCISES AND ANSWERS provide three exercises on different levels of difficulty,
followed by correct answers.
4. REVIEW lets you see if you remember what you should for this lesson.
1. WHAT IS AN "IMPLIED MAIN IDEA?"
When you read a paragraph, you must look for its main idea. Many paragraphs have topic sentences
that express the main idea of the paragraph. Some paragraphs have no topic sentence. This does not
mean that there is no main idea in the paragraph. When a paragraph has no topic sentence, the
supporting details suggest the main idea. The main idea is implied, or unstated, which means that you
have to figure it out by deciding what point the supporting details are making.
Here is an example of a paragraph with an implied main idea. Read the paragraph and try to figure out
the main idea of the paragraph by piecing together the details of the paragraph. Then read the
Explanation that follows.
(1)Area codes are numerical codes assigned by the telephone company to tell which part of the country
you are calling. (2)Area codes were first introduced in 1947. (3)At that time, there were 86 area codes.
(4)Today there are over 150. (5)California, the most populous state in the country, has the most area
codes. (6)An area code can serve almost 800 three-digit prefixes. (7)Each prefix has almost 10,000
possible telephone numbers.
Explanation
Teaching Notes : Reading 22
Every sentence in this paragraph is talking about "area codes," with each looking at a different aspect
of area codes. The sentences are connected only by the fact that each deals with area codes. Thus, the
implied main idea must reflect this fact. It might read: "There are various interesting facts about area
codes."
HOW TO CREATE AN IMPLIED MAIN IDEA
When you see that no sentence is general enough to include all of the others -- that each sentence is too
specific to cover all the others -- the paragraph's main idea is implied. Your task is to figure out the
author's main idea. You can do so by asking two questions:
1. What is the topic, or subject, of the paragraph? In other words, who or what is the entire paragraph
about?
2. What is the main point being made about the topic?
To find the answer to the first question, you must see what subject is constantly being referred to.
Once you have found the topic, ask yourself, "What is the author's main point about the topic?" In other
words, "What is the author saying about the topic?" Your answer should not be too general nor too
specific. Try to make it broad enough to include all the supporting details in the paragraph, and make
sure you state it in a complete sentence.
Try it on the following paragraph. Read each sentence, then ask yourself what the topic of the
paragraph is. Once you identify the topic, ask what the individual sentences are saying about the topic.
Then read the Explanation that follows.
(1)College and university sports teams have nicknames. (2)Most are common, such as the Bears, Lions,
and Tigers. (3)However, some are unusual. (4)For instance, the University of California at Irvine is
nicknamed "Anteaters." (5)The University of Washburn's sports teams are called the "Ichabods."
(6)Richland College sports teams are called "Thunderducks." (7)And perhaps the strangest of all
belongs to the University of California at Santa Cruz. (8)Their nickname is the "Banana Slugs."
Explanation
What is the main idea of the paragraph? No one sentence expresses it. When this happens, you must
consider the topic of the paragraph and then look at the details to try to piece together the "missing
topic sentence."
Teaching Notes : Reading 23
This paragraph starts talking about college nicknames. But it does not focus on common nicknames.
The signal word "however" at the beginning of Sentence 3 tells you that the paragraph is changing
directions, and will focus on "Unusual college nicknames." This is the topic of the paragraph.
Sentences 4 - 8 are detail sentences that provide the following examples:
1. The University of California at Irvine is nicknamed "Anteaters."
2. The University of Washburn's sports teams are called the "Ichabods."
3. Richland College sports teams are called "Thunderducks."
4. The University of California at Santa Cruz team nickname is the "Banana Slugs."
Once you have identified the important details, ask yourself this question: "What point do all the details
add up to?" In the above paragraph, the details all add up to the main idea that "Some college sports
teams have unusual nicknames." This is the implied main idea of the paragraph.
A Note about paragraphs that begin with a Question
Sometimes, a paragraph will begin with a question. The answer to that question is the main idea of the
paragraph. Often, that idea is expressed as a sentence. Sometimes, however, it is not. When this
happens, you must formulate the answer to the question in your mind.
The answer will be the "missing topic sentence," or the implied main idea of the paragraph.
Here is an example. Read the paragraph, trying to answer the question that is asked in the first sentence
of the paragraph. Then read the Explanation that follows.
(1)What happens to thoroughbred race horses when they are too old to race? (2) Essentially, there are
two groups of "over-the-hill racer horses. (3)The first group are the unlucky ones. (4)They are sold to
slaughter houses, where they become pet food or are killed and their meat becomes delicacies in
Europe or Japan. (5)The second group are the lucky ones who find their way to an Equine Retirement
Foundation ranch. (6)These ranches are run by people who love horses and who want to provide a
final resting place for horses that gave their all as they raced. (7)The people running the ranches
understand the stress and effort that each horse went through in training and in running races. (8)They
reward the horses by letting them roam pastures, feeding them well, and letting them enjoy the
companionship of other horses. (9)And the horses are cared for by people who love and understand
these gentle yet competitive animals.
Teaching Notes : Reading 24
Explanation
This paragraph starts with a question. When looking for a paragraph's topic sentence, you should
always look for the answer to the question. In this paragraph, no one sentence answers the question.
When this happens, you have to piece together the details to come up with the "missing topic
sentence."
First, look for the paragraph's topic. The topic of this paragraph is "What happens to thoroughbred race
horses when they are too old to race." The details of the paragraph should provide you with the answer
-- they tell you that there are two categories of such horses. Identify them and you have come up with
the answer to the question. A good implied main idea might be: "Thoroughbred race horses that are too
old to race are either sold for slaughter or enjoy life at an Equine Retirement Foundation ranch."
Teaching Notes : Reading 25
3. PRACTICE EXERCISES AND ANSWERS
The following exercises should help you to master the concept of "Implied Main Ideas." The three
exercises increase in difficulty.
Implied Main Ideas: Exercise 1
DIRECTIONS: There are five paragraphs below. Read each paragraph and then choose what you think
is the implied main idea. When you are finished, read the Answers and Explanations that follow.
1. The biggest living thing in America is a tree. So is the oldest living thing. Both are found in
California. The oldest living tree is a bristlecone pine tree. Nicknamed "Methuselah," it is 4,700 years
old. "General Sherman" is the largest tree. It is a giant sequoia, standing 385 feet in height. It weighs
over 1,400 tons, more than the combined weight of 360 elephants.
The implied main idea of this paragraph is:
a. In America, things that are old and large have nicknames.
b. The biggest and oldest living things in the world are in America.
c. Trees are both the biggest and oldest living things in America.
d. General Sherman probably named the largest tree in America.
2. Each year, Fortune magazine lists the world's largest corporations. Of the top 500 companies, 157
call the United Stateshome. Five of the ten largest companies are from the United States. General
Electric is ranked eighth. IBM is sixth. Ford is ranked fourth. Exxon is third. At the top of the list is
General Motors.
The implied main idea of this paragraph is:
a. The United States has a significant number of the world's largest corporations.
b. More large corporations call the United States home than any other country.
c. The number of corporations calling the United States home is on the decline.
d. General Motors is always at the top of Fortune magazine's list of the largest corporations in the
world.
Teaching Notes : Reading 26
3. Is there any one day of you year you dread? For some people, it is their birthday. After all, a
birthday is a reminder that we are getting older. Others are anxious as April 15 approaches. This is the
day that federal taxes are due. For others, the most feared day is Friday the 13th. On this day, wedding
chapels are usually shut down. Toy stores sell out ouija boards. Travel is down, especially on airplanes.
And people have been known to stay in their house the entire day rather than risk anything happening
to them.
The implied main idea of this paragraph is:
a. The most feared day of the year is Friday the 13th.
b. Different people fear different days of the year.
c. Everyone dreads the date their birthday falls on.
d. Someone whose birthday falls on Friday the 13th is in real trouble.
4. Hummingbirds are the world's smallest birds. The Bee hummingbird of Cuba is only 2 inches long.
This is just a little bigger than a penny. Hummingbirds live only in the western hemisphere. Most
migrate north in the early spring and return south in early fall. Their life span is between nine and
twelve years. The colorful birds are very curious. They are also aggressive toward each other. Perhaps
their best known trait is their ability to fly backwards. They are the only bird in the world that can do
this.
The implied main idea of this paragraph is:
a. There are no hummingbirds in the eastern hemisphere.
b. There are a number of interesting facts about the hummingbird.
c. Hummingbirds are migratory birds that are curious, aggressive, and can fly backwards.
d. Hummingbirds are the most fascinating birds in the world.
5. Local pizza parlors are found in most neighborhoods throughout the country. Because costs are low
and their products are popular, most are money-making operations. Estimates are that local pizza
parlors and small chains take in well over a billion dollars each year. Nationwide, three chains take in
even more money. Little Caesar's takes in over 2.2 billion dollars in sales. Domino's takes in $2.4
billion. And the leader of the pack is Pizza Hut. Yearly, they take in $4.5 billion, accounting for 28% of
all pizza sales in the country.
The implied main idea of this paragraph is:
a. No pizza chain will ever make as much money as Pizza Hut.
b. If you want to get wealthy, you should own a pizza parlor.
c. Everyone in the Unites States loves pizza.
Teaching Notes : Reading 27
d. Pizza is big business in the United States.
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATION
1. c (There are three major details that have to be pieced together to come up with the implied main
idea. First, the paragraph is centered in America. Second, it is talking about the oldest living thing.
Third, it is talking about the largest thing. The only choice that brings these elements together is "c:
Trees are both the biggest and oldest living things in America.")
2. a (The topic of the paragraph is "The world's largest corporations." The point being made about the
topic is that a lot of them are located in the U.S. Thus, the implied main idea is "a. The United States
has a significant number of the world's largest corporations.")
3. b (The paragraph begins with a question. Answer the question and you have come up with the
implied main idea. The answer is "b. Different people fear different days of the year.")
4. b (Each sentence in the paragraph focuses on a specific fact about hummingbirds. The implied main
idea must reflect this.
The only choice that does this is "b. There are a number of interesting facts about the hummingbird." If
you were tempted to answer "d. Hummingbirds are the most fascinating birds in the world," remember
that your implied main idea cannot be too general. The statement may be true, but it is not made in the
paragraph.)
5. d (The paragraph is talking about local and national pizza establishments. Its focus is on the money
that is generated by pizza establishments. The only clear choice to connect these ideas is "d. Pizza is
big business in the United States.")
Teaching Notes : Reading 28
Implied Main Ideas: Exercise 2
DIRECTIONS: There are five paragraphs below. Read each paragraph and then write in you think is
the implied main idea. Each implied main idea is started for you. When you are finished, read the
Answers and Explanations that follow.
1. Scientists who work with domestic turkeys are concerned. A new disease has been identified that is
responsible for the deaths of sick and healthy turkeys. The disease is called "round heart syndrome." It
expands the hearts of turkeys to four times normal size. This causes the turkey to die of cardiac arrest.
It is not unusual for healthy turkeys to die, as well. When they see a turkey that has died, some turkeys
become so panicked that they go into convulsions. This often leads to their dying of a heart attack, too.
"Scientists are worried about_____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________."
2. Orthodontists usually straighten the teeth of children. Lately, they have found a growing clientele
with adults. The major reason for this is that different kinds of braces are now available. Many adults
do not like the "tin grin" that goes along with metal braces. They now have two choices not available
before. One is clear braces. Made of plastic, they are much less obvious than metal braces. The second
choice is lingual braces. These are attached to the back of the teeth, so they are out of sight. Thus,
business people need no longer feel self-conscious about wearing braces.
"Because different kind of braces are available, _____________________________
____________________________________________________________________________."
3. Spring showers can result in hazardous road conditions. The National Safety Council has put
together a list of suggestions for drivers. First, make sure your windshield wipers and tires are in good
shape. Check the depth of the grooves in your tires by putting a penny into the grooves. If the top of
Abraham Lincoln's head appears, you need new tires. The oil on the roadway mixes with water, causing
slippery roads. Leave more distance between you and the car in front of you. Cars need as much as ten
Teaching Notes : Reading 29
times more space to stop on wet roads. Next, don't drive through large puddles. The splashing water
could affect your brakes and your vision. Above all, drive defensively in the rain. Be alert for any
hazard, including other drivers who are not being cautious.
"The National Safety Council has suggestions for ____________________________
____________________________________________________________________________."
4. Until recently, scientists thought the first humans to reach North America migrated from Asia about
11,500 years ago. The first inhabitants were thought to have walked across a land bridge that is now a
body of water called the Bering Strait. New evidence from archeological digs shows that the scientists
may have been wrong. Digs from the past two decades have turned up artifacts from much earlier. A
dig in a cave in New Mexico turned up steel tools, a human palm print in clay, and a spear imbedded in
a bone. A scientific procedure that dates artifacts shows that these are about 30,000 years old. Other
digs have turned up evidence that man may have been here even longer, perhaps as early as 45,000
years ago.
"Scientists who thought the first humans to reach North America migrated from Asia about 11,500
years ago now believe
that ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________."
5. Insurance companies are in business to make money. Some companies feel that it is safe to insure
just about anything. For instance, Bruce Springsteen's voice is insured for $5.5 million. Actor
Christopher Reeve was insured for $20 million during the filming of "Superman." A radio station in
Memphis, Tennessee, offered a prize of $1 million to anyone who found Elvis Presley alive. An
insurance company guaranteed the prize. And Chicago's Second City comedy troupe took out an
insurance policy should any member of the audience die laughing.
"Insurance companies have written _______________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________."
Teaching Notes : Reading 30
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATION
1. Possibilities: "Scientists are worried about the health of domestic turkeys."; "Scientists are worried
about a new disease that is responsible for the deaths of sick and healthy turkeys. (Since this sentence is
already started for you, you simply have to figure out what scientists are worried about. Your answer
must focus on turkeys, and on their health.)
2. Possibilities: "Because different kinds of braces are available, orthodontists are straightening the
teeth of more adults."; "Because different kinds of braces are available, more adults are having their
teeth straightened." (Your implied main idea must include the fact that adults are getting their teeth
straightened more than ever."
3. Possibilities: "The National Safety Council has suggestions for people who drive during spring
showers."; "The National Safety Council has suggestions for driving when spring showers have caused
hazardous road conditions." (Your implied main idea must be broad enough to include the notion of
"spring showers;" it should not be so specific that any of the suggestions is listed.)
4. Possibilities: "Scientists who thought the first humans to reach North America migrated from Asia
about 11,500 years ago now believe that man may have been here long before that."; "Scientists who
thought the first humans to reach North America migrated from Asia about 11,500 years ago now
believe that man may have been here 45,000 years ago."
(Your implied topic sentence must include the notion that scientists now believe their earlier estimate
was wrong. It is not enough to just say this, however. You should go further by telling why they believe
this.)
5. Possibilities: "Insurance companies have written some unique insurance policies."; "Insurance
companies have written some strange policies." (The examples in the paragraph are of policies written
by insurance companies that are hard to believe. This must be reflected in your implied main idea;
make sure that none of the examples are included in your sentence.)
Teaching Notes : Reading 31
Implied Main Ideas: Exercise 3
DIRECTIONS: There are five paragraphs below. Read each paragraph and then write what you think is
the implied main idea in the space provided. When you are finished, read the Answers and
Explanations that follow.
1. Kidney stones are calcium deposits that form in the kidney. These stones can be very painful and may
have to be removed surgically. Calcium deposits have been linked to low fluid intake. For many people,
kidney stones can be prevented. Doctors and nutritionists recommend that people drink at least eight
glasses of non-alcoholic fluid per day. This should include drinking two glasses of fluids before going
to bed.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. "BMI" is a formula for estimating the amount of body fat people have. BMI stands for "body mass
index." The formula divides a person's weight by the square of the person's height. This gives a figure
that is designed to tell if a person is too skinny, about right, or too fat. While the formula may seem
complicated, it is actually easy. It is becoming an accepted way to determine the amount of body fat a
person has.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Have you ever wonder how automobile models get their names? Some, such as "Edsel," are named
after a person. Edsel Ford a son of the founder of Ford Motors. A second way is to remind people of
another car. Ford's "Windstar" replaced its popular "Aerostar." Ford wanted people to be reminded of
Teaching Notes : Reading 32
the earlier minivan. A third way is to take a word from a foreign language. "Mondeo" means "world" in
Italian. The Mondeo is a car that was designed in America and is built in the U.S. and Europe. Finally,
some cars are named with words that mean nothing but suggest something. "Acura"
sounds like the word accurate. It is meant to suggest that the car has been precisely engineered.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. Large companies can afford to spend millions of dollars to build up a following. This is not the case
for small companies. Most small businesses depend on word of mouth to improve sales. This makes the
company name especially important. It helps to have a name that people will remember. For instance, a
successful California health spa that provides massages is called "Nice to be Kneaded." "You Gotta
Have Art" is the name of a successful graphics arts firm. And "The Pickup Artist" is a company that
doing a booming business in recycling.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5. The term "killer bees," refers to a group of aggressive bees that escaped from an experiment in
Brazil in 1957. They have migrated at a rate of 100-300 miles per year, and have arrived in the United
States. There have been reports that killer bees are larger than the European honeybees we have grown
accustomed to in the United States. In truth, they are a little smaller. Some people who have been stung
have said that the killer bees have stung them repeatedly. They are incapable of stinging more than
once, as they lose their stinger with the first sting. Some have claimed that the venom of the killer bee is
stronger than other bees. Actually, it is the same strength as other honeybees. And some people have
claimed that they were "hunted" by killer bees. They do not hunt. However, they are more easily
provoked than other bees, and when they become agitated they sting in groups, often chasing their
victim.
Teaching Notes : Reading 33
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATION
1. Kidney stones may be prevented by drinking a large amount of non-alcoholic fluids.
(The key details that must be included in your implied main idea are "kidney stones," "prevention,"
and "a large amount of non-alcoholic fluids." The above sentence combines all of these details in a
complete sentences.)
2. An easy formula can be used to determine the amount of body fat people have.
(This paragraph is about a formula known as "BMI." Your implied main idea must acknowledge this,
and tell what the formula is designed to do. Naming the formula is not necessary, as this is done in the
paragraph.)
3. Automobile models get their names in different ways.
(This paragraph begins with a question. The answer to the question's focus will be your implied main
idea. The focus is not whether you have wondered how automobiles get their name. This is just the
author's way of grabbing your attention.
The focus is how automobile models get their names. Several examples of ways that automobiles get
their names are given. You should not give each of these ways; rather, you should lump these examples
together using a general phrase such as "different ways" or "various ways.")
4. A company name that people will remember is important to the success of a small business.
(The focus of this paragraph is on how small businesses can become successful. While there may be
many ways, the paragraph mentions only one: the importance of a good company name. These are the
only two details that should be incorporated into your implied main idea.)
5. There are a lot of myths about "killer bees."
(This paragraph is clearly about "killer bees." Your implied main idea must look at what is being said
about killer bees. The ideas that are presented are all incorrect beliefs about killer bees.)
Teaching Notes : Reading 34
4. REVIEW
To review what you've learned in this tutorial, answer each of the following questions. Then check with
the answers that
follow:
1. TRUE OR FALSE? A paragraph without a topic sentence may have an implied main idea.
2. TRUE OR FALSE? A paragraph without a topic sentence does not have supporting details.
3. An implied main idea is also called
a. a general idea
b. an unstated main idea
c. a non-essential idea
4. To find an implied main idea of a paragraph, you should first look for the
a. topic of the paragraph
b. length of the paragraph
c. topic sentence of the paragraph
5. To find the implied main idea of a paragraph requires
a. a dictionary
b. some detective work
c. topic sentences
1. True
2. False
3. b
4. a
5. b
Teaching Notes : Reading 35
VOCABULARY IN CONTEXT
1. WHAT IS "VOCABULARY IN CONTEXT"? Where you will learn what this important concept is
about.
2. USING CONTEXT CLUES shows you how this concept will help you with your reading.
3. TYPES OF CONTEXT CLUES presents four common context clues and gives you practice with
each type of clue.
4. PRACTICE EXERCISES AND ANSWERS provide 3 exercises on different levels of difficulty,
followed by the correct
answers.
5. REVIEW lets you see if you have remembered what you should for this important skill.
1. WHAT IS "VOCABULARY IN CONTEXT"?
Vocabulary in context means using clues found in the sentence or paragraph you are reading to figure
out the meaning of a word you are not familiar with.
Here's how it works.
What would you say if someone asked you what the word culpable means?
Just thinking of the meaning of the word might be difficult for you. But if you saw the word in a
sentence, you would be
more likely to know what it means. Here is the word emanate in a sentence.
See if you can figure out its meaning.
Read the sentence, choose its meaning, then read the Explanation.
After the automobile accident, police must try to determine who is culpable. The party who is not to
blame is not charged with any offense. Culpable means:
Teaching Notes : Reading 36
a. believable b. hurt c. to blame
Explanation
Culpable means "to blame." Choices a and b may work in the first sentence, but the second sentence
eliminates them as possibilities. The phrase "the party who is not to blame" makes it clear that culpable
means "to blame."
2. USING CONTEXT CLUES
In order to determine what culpable meant, you used clues that were provided by the words
surrounding the word culpable. These words are called "context."
Knowing how to use the context surrounding difficult or unfamiliar words can help you figure out what
new words mean.
Context clues help you in three ways:
1. Context clues will save you time when you are reading, since you won't have to stop and look up
every new word you read.
2. Context clues will improve your understanding of what you read, since you will know the meaning
of more of the words you are reading.
3. Context clues will expand your vocabulary, because you will be learning the meanings of many new
words. When you see these words more than once, they will become a part of your reading vocabulary.
3. TYPES OF CONTEXT CLUES
Here are four common types of context clues:
1. Examples
2. Synonyms
3. Antonyms
4. General Sense of the Sentence or Passage
Here is a look at each of these common clues.
Teaching Notes : Reading 37
1. Examples
A difficult word may be followed by examples that will reveal what the word means.
The examples often follow signal words such as for example, including, or instance, such as, or e.g.
(which means "for example"). Here are three sentences that use examples as clues to help you
determine the meaning of a word you may not be familiar with. See if you can come up with the
meaning of the word that is in italics. Then read the Answers and Explanation that follows the three
sentences.
1. Adversities such as poverty, poor grades, and a weak family background can be overcome with hard
effort.
Adversities are:
a. obstacles b. pleasures c. obligations
2. Pungent odors, including those from a lemon, garlic, and ammonia, can cause allergic reactions in
some people.
Pungent means:
a. unusual b. strong c. mild
3. Carla had a reputation for doing perilous activities. For instance, she loved to climb steep mountains
without a safety rope, and she enjoys diving among sharks.
Perilous means:
a. fun-filled b. boring c. dangerous
Answers and Explanation
In each sentence, the examples probably helped you to figure out the meanings of the words in italics:
1. Poverty, poor grades, and a weak family background are all examples of OBSTACLES that can be
overcome. The second choice, "pleasures," and the third choice, "obligations," do not work at all.
2. The odor that comes from a lemon, garlic, and ammonia is STRONG. The first choice,"unusual," is
not correct because all three examples are of common items. The third choice, "mild," does not apply at
all.
3. The activities listed are DANGEROUS. The first choice, "fun-filled," does not work, because diving
Teaching Notes : Reading 38
among sharks is not generally thought of as a pleasant thing to do. And neither activity could be
thought of as "boring."
2. Synonyms
Synonyms are words that have similar meanings. For example, the words club, organization, and
association are synonyms - they all mean about the same thing. Synonyms may be purposely provided
by an author to help readers understand a word.
Synonyms may be introduced in three ways:
1. Often the synonym will be directly before or after an unfamiliar word, and it will be set of by
commas, dashes, or parentheses.
Here is an example:
After six years of drought, California had a copious -- abundant -- amount of rain in 1993.
The word copious is explained in the sentence by the synonym ABUNDANT.
2. Synonyms may be introduced by the words or and that is
Here are examples:
(a) Johnny had the audacity, or nerve, to tell me he could do anything better than I could.
The terms audacity and "nerve" are synonyms. The word "or" coming between them signals this fact.
(b) Brothers and sisters sometimes like to play innocuous, that is, harmless, pranks on each other.
The terms innocuous and "harmless" are synonyms. The phrase "that is" coming between the two terms
signals this.
3. Synonyms may appear somewhere else in a sentence, or in an entirely different sentence, as a
restatement of the
meaning of an unknown word.
Teaching Notes : Reading 39
Here is an example:
A good detective tries to corroborate statements made by witnesses. Sometimes statements can be
confirmed by
interviewing witnesses separately.
The terms corroborate and "confirm" are synonyms. The second sentence is a restatement of the first
sentence, and
"confirm" is used in place of "corroborate."
3. Antonyms
Antonyms are words with opposite meanings.
For example, summer is the opposite of winter; soft is the opposite of hard, and wet is the opposite of
dry.
When authors use antonyms as context clues, the opposite meaning of an unknown word is provided.
Antonyms are often signaled by words such as unlike, but, however, instead of, in contrast, and on the
other hand.
The examples below should help you to understand how this type of clue works. Each sentence has an
antonym as a context clue. Read each sentence and see if you can come up with the right meaning for
the word in italics. Then read the Answers and Explanation that follows.
1. Even though Sarah claimed she was not at the dance, Mike's videotape of her dancing with Fred was
irrefutable proof.
Irrefutable means:
a. definite b. unreliable c. published
2. Instead of alleviating the situation, Mark's explanation of why he was two hours late for his date only
made things worse.
alleviate means:
a. make things worse b. keep things the same c. make things better
3. After a twenty-mile hike, I assumed I would be ravenous, but I was so happy that the hike was over
Teaching Notes : Reading 40
that I couldn't eat a thing.
Ravenous means:
a. sad b. hungry c. crazy
Answers and Explanation
If you looked for the antonyms of the words in italics, you should have come up with these answers:
1. Irrefutable means "a. definite."
A videotape of Sarah is reliable, so "b. unreliable" cannot be correct. And there is no reason to believe
the videotape was released, so "c. published" could not be the correct response.
2. Alleviate means "c. make things better."
The sentence tells us that Mark's explanation made things worse. The opposite of making things worse
is making things better.
3. Ravenous means "b. hungry."
The signal word but tells you that the opposite meaning of ravenous will be in the next part of the
sentence. When the sentence says that the author "couldn't eat a thing," you should have determined the
meaning of ravenous.
4 General Sense of the Sentence or Passage
Often the context surrounding an unknown word contains no examples, synonyms, or antonyms.
How, then, can you understand the word? You can use the general sense of the sentence or passage.
Careful reading and your experiences with the situation being described will give you the meaning of
the word.
Here are three sentences that you will have to sense in order to get the meaning of the word in italics.
Try to find its meaning, then read the Answers and Explanations that follows the three sentences.
1. In general, people who achieve success despite obstacles such as handicaps, poverty or a poor
upbringing are lauded by society.
Lauded means to:
a. not believed b. praised c. hated
2. Residents of Malibu and other seaside resides have to buttress the foundations of their houses before
Teaching Notes : Reading 41
a big storm.
Buttress means:
a. strengthen b. remove c. purchase
3. Because he was hit from behind, Ray was unable to identify his assailant.
An assailant is:
a. a priest b. a mother c. an attacker
Answers and Explanation
Each sentence provides context clues that become clear if you read carefully and think about the
situation being described.
1. Lauded means "b. praised."
Experience should tell you that this is what is done for people who become successful despite
obstacles.
2. Buttress means "a. strengthen."
Even if you don't live in a seaside community, watching the news or reading about accounts in the
newspaper should help you to know this.
3. An assailant is "c. an attacker."
Someone who hits you from behind must be an attacker.
Teaching Notes : Reading 42
4. PRACTICE EXERCISES AND ANSWERS
Vocabulary in Context: Exercise1
For each sentence below, do two things. First, using context clues for help, choose the letter of the best
meaning for each word in italics. Then, choose which type of context clue was provided by the
sentence. When you finish, check your answers in the section that follows the exercise.
1. When John ran out of gas, a friendly motorist stopped and let him siphon, or draw off, a gallon of
gas from his car.
Siphon means to:
a. stick to b. draw off c. steal
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
2. When Coach Day was hit with a barrage of complaints, including his lack of leadership, his inability
to win, and the fact that he showed up late for practice all the time, he decided it was time to quit.
A barrage is:
a. a limited number b. a warning of a threat c. a large number
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
3. The cockroach is found just about everywhere on earth because it can adapt to almost any
environment.
Adapt to means to:
a. move to b. adjust to c. reject
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
4. You constantly renege on your promises, but I have been taught to live up to my word at all times.
Teaching Notes : Reading 43
Renege means to:
a. go back on b. live up to c. speak freely
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
5. Military ordnance including guns, tanks, missiles, and bombs, is expensive and becomes obsolete
quickly.
Ordnance is:
a. reserves b. employees c. weapons
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
6. A respite such as a half-time at a football game and the time between innings in baseball is common
in sporting events.
A respite is:
a. a rest period b. a busy time c. an unplanned break
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
7. The aperture, or opening, in a camera lens met be set precisely for a good shot.
An aperture is:
a. a camera b. an opening c. a good shot
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
8. Only Alaska and Hawaii are not part of the 48 contiguous states in the U.S.
Contiguous means:
a. original b. connecting c. polluted
Teaching Notes : Reading 44
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
Answers
1. Meaning: b Technique: b
2. Meaning: c Technique: a
3. Meaning: b Technique: d
4. Meaning: a Technique: c
5. Meaning: c Technique: a
6. Meaning: a Technique: a
7. Meaning: b Technique: b
8. Meaning: b Technique: d
Teaching Notes : Reading 45
Vocabulary in Context: Exercise2
For each sentence below, do two things. First, using context clues for help, choose the letter of the best
meaning for each word in italics. Then, choose which type of context clue was provided by the
sentence. When you finish, check your answers in the section that follows the exercise.
1. A benign -- harmless -- tumor can still cause pain and discomfort.
Benign means:
a. harmful b. harmless c. small
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
2. The Academy of Esteemed Scientists announced that they were going to honor Dr. Horace Block for
his work at their annual meeting in June, and that Dr. Block would appear and speak to the group.
When Doctor Block died in May, the Academy decided they could still honor him posthumously.
Posthumously means:
a. after a person's death b. before a person dies c. carefully
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
3. Good students know that you don't have to copy a lecture verbatim in order to get the general
meaning intended by the professor.
Verbatim means:
a. in part b. alone c. word for word
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
4. May's dog "Skipper" was acting listless at home, so May brought the dog to the vet, where he was
Teaching Notes : Reading 46
still unresponsive.
Listless means:
a. not responsive b. sore c. sick
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
5. When you are asked to explain yourself, a concise explanation is usually preferable to a lengthy one.
Concise means:
a. lengthy b. short c. dull
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
6.Although I felt my argument was tenable, everyone else in my study group thought it was not
defensible at all.
Tenable means:
a. colorless b. liked by everyone c. able to be defended
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
7. Luis does not make a lot of money, but he believes in donating what he can to charity. Thus, he gives
a nominal amount of his salary to charity each year.
Nominal means
a. large b. small c. normal
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
Answers
1. Meaning: b Technique: b
Teaching Notes : Reading 47
2. Meaning: a Technique: d
3. Meaning: c Technique: d
4. Meaning: a Technique: b
5. Meaning: b Technique: c
6. Meaning: c Technique: c
7. Meaning: b Technique: d
Teaching Notes : Reading 48
Vocabulary in Context: Exercise 3
For each sentence below, do two things. First, using context clues for help, choose the letter of the best
meaning for each word in italics. Then, choose which type of context clue was provided by the
sentence. When you finish, check your answers in the section that follows the exercise.
1. Colonel Harlan Sanders failed at several enterprises before he began to make and sell fried chicken
at the age of 65.
An enterprise is
a. an assignment b. a marriage c. a business
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
2. Amnesty International is an organization that lists countries that commit heinous crimes against the
residents and visitors of the country.
Heinous means
a. proper b. inhuman c. merciful
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
3. Some people are impervious to bee stings, while others are affected by them so severely that they
require hospitalization.
Impervious to means
a. unaffected by b. concerned about c. severely bothered by
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
4. Prodigious actors such as Orson Welles, John Candy, and Jackie Gleason may have lived longer had
they lost weight.
Teaching Notes : Reading 49
Prodigious means
a. heavy b. light c. eye-catching
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
5. It is not unusual for people to vacillate when they try to buy a car. At one point, their minds are set
on one car, but they hesitate when they see another.
Vacillate means to
a. purchase b. change your mind c. overreact
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
6. When Professor Heckberger found no discernable difference in the essays submitted by Alan and
Mike, she gave a failing grade to each.
Discernible means
a. introductory b. unintentional c. noticeable
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
7. While salacious comments such as "Your team plays like old ladies;" "When's the real team going to
show up?": and "My little sister plays better than your team" are common at sporting events between
schools, they have been known to incite riots that have resulted in police actions.
Salacious means
a. admirable b. humorous c. offensive
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
8. Muscles that are not used will atrophy. To make them larger, workouts with weights are often
recommended.
Atrophy means to
Teaching Notes : Reading 50
a. become smaller b. become stronger c. fall off
The Vocabulary in Context Technique used is:
a. example b. synonym c. antonym d. general sense
Answers
1. Meaning: c Technique: d
2. Meaning: b Technique: d
3. Meaning: a Technique: c
4. Meaning: a Technique: a
5. Meaning: b Technique: d
6. Meaning: c Technique: d
7. Meaning: c Technique: a
8. Meaning: a Technique: c
Teaching Notes : Reading 51
5. REVIEW
To review what you have learned in this tutorial, answer each of the following questions. Then check
your answers in the Answers section that follows.
1. The context of a word is
a. its meaning b. its opposite meaning c. the words around it.
2. This type of context clue helps readers figure out the meaning of a new word with signal words such
as however, but, and on the other hand.
a. example b. synonym c. antonym
3. This type of context clue helps readers figure out the meaning of a new word with signal words such
as for example, including, or instance, such as, or e.g.
a. example b. synonym c. antonym
4. In the sentence below, which type of context clue is used for the word in italics?
a. example b. synonym c. antonym
Urban, or city, problems, seem to be getting worse each year.
5. In the sentence below, which type of context clue is used for the word in italics?
a. example b. synonym c. antonym
Peter can convey his feelings easily, but his brother Paul has trouble expressing what he feels.
Answers
1. c
2. c
3. a
4. b
5. c
Teaching Notes : Reading 52
Other Techniques
Scanning the details
To prepare for a career in engineering, a student must begin planning in high schools. Mathematics
and science should form the core curriculum. For example, in a school where sixteen credit hours are
required for high school graduation, four should be in mathematics, one each in chemistry, biology,
and physics. The remaining credits should include four in English and at least three in the humanities
and social sciences. The average entering freshman in engineering should have achieved at least 1 2.5
grade point average on a 4.0 scale in his or her high school. Although deficiencies can be corrected
during the first year, the student who needs additional work should expect to spend five instead of four
years to complete a degree.
1. What is the average grade for an entering freshman in engineering?
2. When should a student begin planning for a career in engineering?
3. How can a student correct deficiencies in preparation?
4. How many credits should a student have in English?
5. How many credits are required for a high school diploma?
Teaching Notes : Reading 53
Making inferences
When an acid is dissolved in water, the acid molecule divides into two parts, a hydrogen ion and
another ion. An ion is an atom or a group of atoms which has an electric charge. The charge can be
either positive or negative. If hydrochloric acid is mixed with water, for example, it divides into
hydrogen ions and chlorine ions.
A strong acid ionizes to a great extent, but a weak acid does not ionize so much. The strength of an
acid, therefore, depends on how much it ionizes, not on how many hydrogen ions are produced. It is
interesting that nitric acid and sulfuric acid become greatly ionized whereas boric acid and carbonic
acid do not.
1. What kind of acid is sulfuric acid?
2. What kind of acid is boric acid?
Answers:
1. A strong acid ionizes to a great extent, and sulfuric acid becomes greatly ionized.
Conclusion: Sulfuric acid is a strong acid.
2. A weak acid does not ionize so much and boric acid does not ionize greatly.
Conclusion: Boric acid is a weak acid.
Teaching Notes : Reading 54
Identifying exceptions
All music consists of two elements – expression and design. Expression is inexact and subjective, and
may be enjoyed in personal or instinctive way. Design, on the other hand is exact and must be analyzed
objectively in order to be understood and appreciated. The folk song, for example, has a definite
musical design which relies on simple repetition with a definite beginning and ending. A folk song
generally consists of one stanza of music repeated for each stanza of verse.
Because of their communal, and usually uncertain origin, folk songs are often popular verse set to
music. They are not always recorded, and tend to be passed on in a kind of musical version of oral
history. Each singer revives and perfects the song. In part as a consequence of this continuous revision
process, most folk songs are almost perfect in their construction and design. A particular singer’s
interpretation of the folk song may provide an interesting expression, but the simple design that
underlies the song itself is stable and enduring.
1. All of the following is true of a folk song except
a. There is a clear start and finish.
b. The origin is often not known.
c. The design may change in the interpretation.
d. Simple repetition is characteristic of its design.
Teaching Notes : Reading 55
Locating references
The National Road, also known as the Cumerland, was constructed in the early 1800s to provide
transportation between the established commercial areas of the East and Northwest Territory. By 1818,
the road had reached Wheeling, West Virginia, 130 miles from its point in Cumberland, Maryland. The
cost was a monumental thirteen thousand dollars per mile.
Upon reaching the Ohio River, the National Road became one of the major trade routes to the western
states and territories, providing Baltimore with a trade advantage over neighboring cities. In order to
compete, New York state authorized the construction of the Erie Canal, and Philadelphia initiated a
transportation plan to link it with Pittsburgh. Towns along the rivers, canals, and the new National
Road became important trade centers.
1. The word “its” in line 3 refers to _________________ .
2. The word “it” in line 8 refers to _________________ .
Teaching Notes : Reading 56
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