Greece 2iii Alexander's Empire
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ANCIENT GREECEvii-b-The Second Military Revolution (cont.)
Alexander’s Empire
ANCIENT GREECEvii-b-The Second Military Revolution (cont.)
Alexander’s Empire
Detail of the Alexander Mosaic, representing Alexander the Great on his horse Bucephalus at the battle of Issus--at the House of the Faun, Pompeii, 1st century AD
PRINCIPAL TOPICS
I. Alexander “Frees the Greeks”
II. Gaugamela--Decision
III. India, “A Bridge Too Far”
IV. The Successors
ΜεγαλέξανδροςἈλέξανδρος ὁ ΜέγαςAlexander the Great
ΜεγαλέξανδροςἈλέξανδρος ὁ ΜέγαςAlexander the Great
“It began with an urgent need for booty and ended in megalomania.”
Peter Green
Philip II, Alexander’s father, may well have been assassinated by a cabal, perhaps involving Olympias and Alexander himself, the discarded wife and half-Macedonian son, who were nonentities among the dozens of wives (seven at the king’s death), concubines, legitimate and illegitimate sons that would result during the unexpectedly long reign of Philip. Upon succession, Alexander had murdered the two brothers...along with a few other...elites….Then almost every prominent Macedonian who was not immediately aligned with Alexander was murdered--Amyntas, son of Perdiccas, the general Attalus and his relatives, Philip’s last wife
Cleopatra and her infant, Alexander’s half-sister.
Hanson, The Wars of the Ancient Greeks, p. 187
winter 336-335--when word of Philip’s death reached the Greeks, several states took this as occasion to rebel against the “chains” imposed after Chaeronea
disregarding the advice of his generals to use diplomacy, Alexander rode south at the head of 3,000 cavalry
after defeating the Thessalians, he was recognized by the cowed rebels as head of the Sacred League of Delphi
Next he went to Corinth to organize an expedition against the Persians to “free the Greeks” of Asia Minor
here occurred his famous meeting with Diogenes the Cynic
ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου µετάστηθιApò toû hēlíou metástēthi"Stand a little out of my sun"
ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου µετάστηθιApò toû hēlíou metástēthi"Stand a little out of my sun"
ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου µετάστηθιApò toû hēlíou metástēthi"Stand a little out of my sun"
ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου µετάστηθιApò toû hēlíou metástēthi"Stand a little out of my sun"
ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου µετάστηθιApò toû hēlíou metástēthi"Stand a little out of my sun"
ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου µετάστηθιApò toû hēlíou metástēthi"Stand a little out of my sun"
ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου µετάστηθιApò toû hēlíou metástēthi"Stand a little out of my sun"
spring 335--After being acclaimed hegemon of the League of Corinth, Alexander next headed north to subdue the barbarian hill tribes. Among them were the Agrinanians who became his “Gurkhas.”
when word reached him that Thebes had rebelled against its Macedonian garrison he made a forced march south
December-after diplomacy failed Alexander made a successful siege and then burned the city to the ground. 6,000 Thebans perished in the battle. 30,000 were sold into slavery
no other Greek city was to rebel against Macedon during Alexander’s twelve-year absence despite Persian efforts to subvert them
spring 335--After being acclaimed hegemon of the League of Corinth, Alexander next headed north to subdue the barbarian hill tribes. Among them were the Agrinanians who became his “Gurkhas.”
when word reached him that Thebes had rebelled against its Macedonian garrison he made a forced march south
December-after diplomacy failed Alexander made a successful siege and then burned the city to the ground. 6,000 Thebans perished in the battle. 30,000 were sold into slavery
no other Greek city was to rebel against Macedon during Alexander’s twelve-year absence despite Persian efforts to subvert them
remains of the Cadmea, the citadel of Thebes
The leader of men in warfare can show himself to his followers only through a mask, a mask that he must make for himself, but a mask made in such form as will mark him to men of his time and place as the leader they want and need. What follows is an attempt, across time and place, to penetrate the mask of command.
John Keegan , The Mask of Command, p. 11
The leader of men in warfare can show himself to his followers only through a mask, a mask that he must make for himself, but a mask made in such form as will mark him to men of his time and place as the leader they want and need. What follows is an attempt, across time and place, to penetrate the mask of command.
John Keegan , The Mask of Command, p. 11
[By this time] the obvious superiority of Greek soldiery and generalship over those of the mainland powers of Asia [had become clear]. The lesson was there to be learned as early as the Greco-Persian wars at the beginning of the fifth century, but it took the tumults of the succeeding hundred years, when Greek mercenaries served as the major lever of power around the eastern Mediterranean, to underscore the inescapable conclusion.
F.E. Peters , Harvest of Hellenism, p. 29
After the assassination of Philip (336 B.C.), and Alexander’s
subsequent subjugation of the Greek states...the twenty-year-old king inaugurated his deceased father’s planned
Persian invasion with a victory at the Granicus River near
the Hellespont (334).
here, Alexander established his pattern:
brilliant adaptation to often unfavorable terrain (all his battles were on plains chosen by his adversaries)
generalship by frightful example of personal---and always near fatal---courage at the head of the Companion Cavalry
stunning cavalry blows focused on a spot in the enemy line, horsemen turning the dazed enemy onto the spears of the advancing phalanx
subsequent pursuit of enemy forces...reflecting Alexander’s impulse to eliminate, not merely to defeat, hostile armies
find the enemy, charge him, and annihilate him in open battle
Granicus334 BC
Hanson, Wars
(1) pierce the enemy’s left flank by a daring attack of the Macedonian cavalry
(2) turn the cavalry to the left and roll up the enemy line
(3) simultaneously bring the phalanx, covered by cavalry on the left, forward in echelon to engage the enemy
Griess, ed., West Point Military History Series, pp. 30-31
At the Granicus river in May 334 Alexander destroyed the Persian army outright,
surrounded the trapped Greek mercenaries, and massacred all except 2,000
whom he sent back in chains to Macedon. Our sources disagree over the precise
casualty figures, but Alexander may have exterminated between 15,000 and
18,000 Greeks after the battle was essentially won--killing more Hellenes in a
single day than the entire number that had fallen to the Mede at Marathon,
Thermopylae, Salamis and Plataea combined. In his first battle to liberate the
Greeks, it turned out that Alexander had killed more of them than all the Persian
kings combined in over a century and a half of trans-Aegean campaigning.
Perhaps as many as 20,000 Persians fell as well at Granicus.
Hanson, Wars of the Ancient Greeks, p. 176
AN INITIAL DÉBACLE?
Peter Green suggests that there may have been, not one, but two battles at the Granicus. In an appendix he writes a model analysis of the ancient accounts and their discrepancies. It is known that Alexander took official historians along to glorify his accomplishments. Green believes Alexander led an impetuous attack against a strong Persian position against the advice of his second-in-command, 65-year-old Parmenio. It was defeated. That night he went upstream, crossed unopposed and won a decisive victory. The
record was doctored to begin the story of an ἀνίκητος (invincible)
Alexander. This explains his savage treatment of the captured Greek mercenaries.
Green, Alexander, “Propaganda at the Granicus,” pp. 489-512
Alexander’s decisive victory at the Granicus changed the character of the war.
Defeat deprived the Persians of a principal advantage: no longer could they
mount an effective defense in Anatolia while exploiting their naval superiority
and financial resources to harass Alexander’s communications with Macedon
and foment rebellion in Greece. With most of the Persian commanders dead and
much of their best cavalry and Greek mercenaries lost, the Persian position in
Anatolia disintegrated.
Pomeroy et al. Ancient Greece, p. 437
he conducts his first of many successful sieges at Halicarnassus
he marches to the interior to the city of Gordium
“...the true situation was … accurately reflected in the symbolism of Alexander’s
dramatically severing the “Gordian knot.” According to a famous legend, rule
over Asia was promised to whoever loosened the complex knot connecting the
drawpole to the wagon the first Midas had ridden when he became the king of
Phrygia. While he was at Gordium, Alexander fulfilled the prophecy by slashing
through the knot with his sword, allowing no doubt that a new king had arisen in
Asia.
Pomeroy et al. Ancient Greece, p. 438
“...the true situation was … accurately reflected in the symbolism of Alexander’s
dramatically severing the “Gordian knot.” According to a famous legend, rule
over Asia was promised to whoever loosened the complex knot connecting the
drawpole to the wagon the first Midas had ridden when he became the king of
Phrygia. While he was at Gordium, Alexander fulfilled the prophecy by slashing
through the knot with his sword, allowing no doubt that a new king had arisen in
Asia.
Pomeroy et al. Ancient Greece, p. 438
he conducts his first of many successful sieges at Halicarnassus
he marches to the interior to the city of Gordium
then defeats the main Persian force at Issus
The Battle of Alexander at Issus (German: Alexanderschlacht) is a 1529 oil painting by the German artist Albrecht Altdorfer (c. 1480–1538), a pioneer of landscape art. The painting is widely regarded as Altdorfer's masterpiece, and exemplifies his affinity for scenes of monumental grandeur.
The painting's subject is explained in the tablet suspended from the heavens. The wording, probably supplied by William's court historian Johannes Aventinus, was originally in German but was later replaced by a Latin inscription. It translates:Alexander the Great defeating the last Darius, after 100,000 infantry and more than 10,000 cavalrymen had been killed amongst the ranks of the Persians. Whilst King Darius was able to flee with no more than 1,000 horsemen, his mother, wife, and children were taken prisoner.
The painting was one of 72 taken to Paris in 1800 by the invading armies of Napoleon I
(1769–1821), who was a noted admirer of
Alexander the Great. The Louvre held it
until 1804, when Napoleon declared
himself Emperor of France and took it for
his own use. When the Prussians captured the
Château de Saint-Cloud in 1814 as part
of the War of the Sixth Coalition, they
supposedly found the painting hanging in
Napoleon's bathroom.
The climactic moments of the battle of Issus (333) are captured in this famous Roman floor mosaic from Pompeii, from which the earlier portrait of Alexander was taken. Darius III amidst his bodyguard catches the deadly gaze of the charging Alexander who is intent on his destruction.
Hanson, op. cit., pp. 180-181
The mosaic is composed of app. 1.5 million pieces, 0.12 inches square
The Alexander Sarcophagus is a late 4th century BC Hellenistic stone sarcophagus adorned with bas-relief carvings of Alexander the Great. The work is remarkably well preserved and has been celebrated for its high aesthetic achievement. It is considered the outstanding holding of the Istanbul Archaeology Museum.--Wikipedia
first came two tough sieges
“29 July 332-Tyre fell after [9] months of heroic defense. On that city’s final day of existence nearly 8,000 residents were butchered. 2,000 males were crucified, 20-30,000 women and children were enslaved
Hanson, op. cit. pp. 178-180
The contradiction of siege engineering, as Vauban knew and Arrian succinctly puts it, is that the front-line men must be ‘clad rather for work than for warfare’. Siege warfare is navvying [Br. term for grunt work] under fire; armour must be laid aside; half-naked and sweating bodies are exposed to the enemy at close range, pick and shovel wielded in the closest proximity to men handling missiles and edged weapons. In circumstances like these, the example of leadership is not enough; men must be bribed and rewarded to run the risks. Alexander, running risks with the boldest, bribed and rewarded as the best of siegemasters were to
do for centuries afterward.
Keegan, pp. 74-75
EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN--TYRESIEGE OF TYRE Nov 333-Aug 332 B.C.
SCALE OF YARDS
0 250 500Griess, ed., West Point Military History Series, after p. 42
Burden of the Lord’s doom, where falls it now? … This Tyre, how strong a fortress has she built, what gold and silver she has amassed, till they were as common as clay, as mire in the streets! Ay, but the Lord means to dispossess her; cast into the sea all that wealth of hers, and herself burnt to the ground! [Zachariah ix, 1-8]
quoted in Green, p. 263
first came two tough sieges
“29 July 332-Tyre fell after months of heroic defense. On that city’s final day of existence nearly 8,000 residents were butchered. 2,000 males were crucified, 20-30,000 women and children were enslaved
“Gaza was next. After a two-month siege Alexander let his troops murder at will. He bound Batis, the governor, pierced his ankles with thongs, and then dragged him around the city, Achilles-style, until the tortured victim expired.”
Hanson, op. cit. pp. 178-180
after the sieges, he conquers Persia’s rich vassal Egypt. Here he founds the first and most famous of the cities which bore his name
after the sieges, he conquers Persia’s rich vassal Egypt. Here he founds the first and most famous of the cities which bore his name
thence he made a mysterious pilgrimage to the Egyptian oracle of Ammon-Zeus at Siwa. Did he really believe in his divinity proclaimed there?
after the sieges, he conquers Persia’s rich vassal Egypt. Here he founds the first and most famous of the cities which bore his name
thence he made a mysterious pilgrimage to the Egyptian oracle of Ammon-Zeus at Siwa. Did he really believe in his divinity proclaimed there?
strengthened by prophesy, he went east to finish off Darius
...mountain skirmishing [before the Asian invasion] and siege warfare [333-332] cannot substitute tutorially for the test of leadership in pitched battle. It is on the open field, when armies clash face to face in the grip of those terrible unities of time, place and action, that a man’s real powers of anticipation, flexibility, quick-thinking, patience, spatial perception, thrift and prodigality with resources, physical courage and moral strength are tried to the extreme. The trial is potentially destructive for any leader; perhaps no fate on earth is worse than that of the defeated general who must live out his days with the burden of wasted life on his conscience.
For the heroic leader it is destructive in the most direct sense. To know when and how to risk his person entails a narrowness of choice between death and triumph.
Keegan, pp. 77-78
Gaugamela--Decision
Gaugamela--Decision
Darius flees the battle, 18th century ivory
“the battle plan adopted by Darius was influenced by his superior cavalry” and inferior infantry
he hoped to envelop both flanks of his enemy, an operation facilitated by the greater length of his battle front
Alexander could see an opportunity for success. As the Persian cavalry rode forward the infantry would probably not be able to maintain contact, and gaps would develop
Griess, ed., West Point Military History Series, after p. 42
Alexander & CompanionsGAUGAMELA PHASE I
In late September 331, Alexander met Darius III in the northern Tigris valley at Gaugamela, a small village, to force the decisive battle for the Persian empire. Alexander had collected his largest force ever, but it was still under 50,000 men.
Cretan spearmen & archers
Alexander & CompanionsGAUGAMELA PHASE I
In late September 331, Alexander met Darius III in the northern Tigris valley at Gaugamela, a small village, to force the decisive battle for the Persian empire. Alexander had collected his largest force ever, but it was still under 50,000 men.
Cretan spearmen & archers
cavalry
cavalry
cavalry
chariots
15 war elephantschariotsinfantry
Darius deploys his army in two massivelines, cavalry on theflanks, chariots and
elephants to the front
Alexander & CompanionsGAUGAMELA PHASE I
In late September 331, Alexander met Darius III in the northern Tigris valley at Gaugamela, a small village, to force the decisive battle for the Persian empire. Alexander had collected his largest force ever, but it was still under 50,000 men.
Cretan spearmen & archers
cavalry
cavalry
cavalry
chariots
15 war elephantschariotsinfantry
Mace
donian phalanx
Macedonian phalanx
Darius deploys his army in two massivelines, cavalry on theflanks, chariots and
elephants to the front
Alexander, out-numbered, deploysflank guards to his
central Macedonianphalanx
GAUGAMELA PHASE II
Persian army moves
forward. The left
and right flanks
attempt to encircle
Alexander’s army
GAUGAMELA PHASE II
Persian army moves
forward. The left
and right flanks
attempt to encircle
Alexander’s army
Chariots prove
ineffective, after
several charges are
stopped by archers
and spearmen
GAUGAMELA PHASE II
Persian army moves
forward. The left
and right flanks
attempt to encircle
Alexander’s army
Alexander and his
Companion cavalry
advance through a screen
of light infantry and
attack the Persian center
Chariots prove
ineffective, after
several charges are
stopped by archers
and spearmen
GAUGAMELA PHASE II
Parmeniocommands
the left flank
Persian army moves
forward. The left
and right flanks
attempt to encircle
Alexander’s army
Alexander and his
Companion cavalry
advance through a screen
of light infantry and
attack the Persian center
Chariots prove
ineffective, after
several charges are
stopped by archers
and spearmen
Alexander’s flank guards move to
engage advancing Persian cavalry
Alexander on the battlefield, once in the heat of action, can have seen or heard little
that might be dissected afterwards, by himself or anyone else. His experience must
have been a boiling of bodies, sword-arms and horse flesh, a clamour of voices,
urgent or terrified, animal screams, a clang of metal on metal. Physical pressure
stronger or weaker would have told him how combat went immediately around
him; a thinning of the dust cloud which fighting threw up would have signified that
the enemy’s line was breaking or broken through.
Keegan, p.155
[At Gaugamela] Parmenio...was terrified about the very survival of his entire wing,
and with it the fate of a Macedonian army thousands of miles from the Aegean. That
same specter struck Napoleon centuries later [at Borodino], when he remarked that
Gaugamela was a great victory but too risky, since defeat “would have stranded
Alexander “nine hundred leagues from Macedonia.”
Hanson, Carnage and Culture, p. 66
[At Gaugamela] Parmenio...was terrified about the very survival of his entire wing,
and with it the fate of a Macedonian army thousands of miles from the Aegean. That
same specter struck Napoleon centuries later [at Borodino], when he remarked that
Gaugamela was a great victory but too risky, since defeat “would have stranded
Alexander “nine hundred leagues from Macedonia.”
Hanson, Carnage and Culture, p. 66
GAUGAMELA PHASE III
Parmenio’sleft flank
Persian left wing
crumbles under
pressure and begins to
flee the field.
[At Gaugamela] Parmenio...was terrified about the very survival of his entire wing,
and with it the fate of a Macedonian army thousands of miles from the Aegean. That
same specter struck Napoleon centuries later [at Borodino], when he remarked that
Gaugamela was a great victory but too risky, since defeat “would have stranded
Alexander “nine hundred leagues from Macedonia.”
Hanson, Carnage and Culture, p. 66
GAUGAMELA PHASE III
Parmenio’sleft flank
Persian left wing
crumbles under
pressure and begins to
flee the field.
Persian cavalry
advances and almost
envelops Alexander’s
left flank.
[At Gaugamela] Parmenio...was terrified about the very survival of his entire wing,
and with it the fate of a Macedonian army thousands of miles from the Aegean. That
same specter struck Napoleon centuries later [at Borodino], when he remarked that
Gaugamela was a great victory but too risky, since defeat “would have stranded
Alexander “nine hundred leagues from Macedonia.”
Hanson, Carnage and Culture, p. 66
GAUGAMELA PHASE III
Parmenio’sleft flank
Persian left wing
crumbles under
pressure and begins to
flee the field.
Persian cavalry
advances and almost
envelops Alexander’s
left flank.
Alexander, seeing the danger to his left
flank, attacks with his Companion cavalry
and restores the situation. Meanwhile Darius
flees with a few faithful followers, leaving his
army leaderless.
[At Gaugamela] Parmenio...was terrified about the very survival of his entire wing,
and with it the fate of a Macedonian army thousands of miles from the Aegean. That
same specter struck Napoleon centuries later [at Borodino], when he remarked that
Gaugamela was a great victory but too risky, since defeat “would have stranded
Alexander “nine hundred leagues from Macedonia.”
Hanson, Carnage and Culture, p. 66
GAUGAMELA PHASE III
Parmenio’sleft flank
Persian left wing
crumbles under
pressure and begins to
flee the field.
Persian cavalry
advances and almost
envelops Alexander’s
left flank.
Alexander, seeing the danger to his left
flank, attacks with his Companion cavalry
and restores the situation. Meanwhile Darius
flees with a few faithful followers, leaving his
army leaderless.
Darius flees to the
north and the road
to Ekbatana
[At Gaugamela] Parmenio...was terrified about the very survival of his entire wing,
and with it the fate of a Macedonian army thousands of miles from the Aegean. That
same specter struck Napoleon centuries later [at Borodino], when he remarked that
Gaugamela was a great victory but too risky, since defeat “would have stranded
Alexander “nine hundred leagues from Macedonia.”
Hanson, Carnage and Culture, p. 66
GAUGAMELA PHASE III
Parmenio’sleft flank
Hanson, The Wars of the Ancient
Greeks, pp. 172-177
Persian left wing
crumbles under
pressure and begins to
flee the field.
Persian cavalry
advances and almost
envelops Alexander’s
left flank.
Alexander, seeing the danger to his left
flank, attacks with his Companion cavalry
and restores the situation. Meanwhile Darius
flees with a few faithful followers, leaving his
army leaderless.
Darius flees to the
north and the road
to Ekbatana
Griess, ed., West Point Military History Series, after p. 42
the gap did indeed develop, allowing Alexander to make a “penetration of opportunity”
as the Persians disintegrated on their left and center, Alexander made a timely rescue of his own left
in spite of many casualties and the intensity of the battle, Alexander ordered a relentless pursuit in the futile hope of capturing Darius and destroying as much of his forces as possible
Five hundred Persians had fallen at Gaugamela (camel’s house) for every
Macedonian---such were the disparities when a polyglot, multicultural force of
panicked men fled on level ground before heavily armed veteran killers with pikes
and seasoned cavalry, whose one worry was not to turn fainthearted in front of
lifelong companions-in-arms. The myriad corpses of his enemies were left to
decompose in the autumn sun. Alexander, worried only about the rot and smell,
quickly moved his army away from the stink and headed south to Babylon and the
kingship of the Achaemenids. “The battle,” Plutarch remarks, “resulted in the utter
termination of the Persian Empire.” (Alexander 34.1).
Hanson, Carnage and Culture, pp.73-74
Concern for subordinates’ welfare comes less naturally when the leader is distracted
by impending danger…. Alexander was notably thoughtful even at such times.
Before Issus he made sure his men had eaten--better than Wellington could
manage before Waterloo, when much of his army fought on stomachs empty for
two days--and before Gaugamela ‘he bade his army take their meal and rest’. He
had already rested for four days and so arranged his base that his men could
advance to battle ‘burdened with nothing but their arms’. After Issus, ‘despite a
sword wound in his thigh’, he ‘went round to see the wounded...He promised all
who, by his own personal witness or by the agreed report of others [an exact
anticipation of the modern practice in citation for medals], he knew had done
valorous deeds in the battle--these one and all he honored by a donation suitable to
their desert.’
Keegan, The Mask of Command, p. 46
“3-TAKE CARE OF YOUR MEN”--DOUGLAS SOUTHALL FREEMAN (1886-1953)
It was a repetition of his behaviour [sic] after the Granicus when ‘he showed much concern about the wounded, visiting each, examining their wounds, asking how they were received, and encouraging each to recount and even to boast of his exploits’ (excellent psychotherapy, however wearisome for the listener).
Ibid.
“3-TAKE CARE OF YOUR MEN”--CONTINUED
...theatricality was at the very heart of Alexander’s style of leadership, as it perhaps
must be of any leadership style. Throughout the Alexander story, acts of theater
recur at regular intervals. Daily, of course, he had to make sacrifice to the gods; in
Macedonian culture, only the king could perform that central religious act. Bizarre
though it seems to us, therefore, his day began with his plunging of a blade into the
living body of an animal and his uttering of a prayer as the blood flowed. Before
Gaugamela, uniquely in his whole kingship, he performed sacrifice in honor of Fear
[Φοβος Phobos].
op. cit, p. 46
CEREMONY AND THEATER
Pursuing and
consolidatingGaugamela
Persepolis
Susa
Babylon
Ekbatana
“The cheerful, luxury-loving citizens of Babylon, reflecting (with good reason0 that it was better to collaborate than to suffer the fate of Tyre, went out of their way to give the Macedonian troops a month’s leave they would never forget. Officers and men alike were billeted in luxurious private houses, where they never lacked for food,wine, or women. Babylon’s professional courtesans were reinforced by countless enthusiastic amateurs, including the daughters and wives of many leading citizens. (After dinner striptease seems to have been very popular.) Their guests were shown the usual tourist sites, including the fabulous Hanging Gardens--a stone-terraced forest of trees and
shrubs, built by an Assyrian king whose wife pined for the forests and uplands of her native Iran.”
Green, p. 303
Gold double staterAlexander the Great, 323.Alexander could haveminted over 90 million ofsuch coins from the bullionlooted from Persepolis alone.
Hanson, Wars of the Ancient Greeks, p. 199
...he had to build up an authority similar to that wielded by the Great King
himself. The imposition of a new coinage was an obvious step in this process.
Old issues were called in, melted down, and restruck with Alexander’s name and
type: what began at Tarsus was very soon copied by mints on Cyprus and all
down the Phoenician coast….Alexander achieved his main object---to get himself
‘recognized as the master in all parts of his new territory’. He also had a
convenient centre from which to pay the army.
Green, p. 222
Bactria
Sogdiana
Ἀλεξάνδρεια Ἐσχάτη
In Bactria, Alexander began to execute in earnest when faced with local revolts and
secession. An expatriate community of Greeks...were wiped out to a man. Then it
was the turn of the Sacai of Sogdiana, whose forces were extinguished and whose
territory ravaged. Convinced that the rich villages of the Zervashan valley to the
south had aided the rebellions in Sogdiana, Alexander stormed their fortresses and
executed all the defenders he found (329 BC)--8,000 alone were killed in the
capture of Cyrupolis. The revolts in Bactria and Sogdiana (329-328) were little
more than two years of uninterrupted fighting, looting and executing.
Yet with Alexander’s approach into India (327-326) the real barbarity begins.
Hanson, op. cit, p. 182
India--”A Bridge Too Far”
India--”A Bridge Too Far”
Alexander and Porus by Charles Le Brun, painted 1673.
India--”A Bridge Too Far”
The four century evolution of Greek warfare had now come down to the mastery
of murder on a grand scale.
On many occasions, Alexander’s sheer recklessness and megalomania had
disastrous consequences, when the expertise and advice of his generals and
logisticians were ignored and the absence of postwar investigation assured….
Hanson, op. cit., p. 183
Alexander attacks the center in the b a t t l e o f t h e Hydaspes River, 326 BC
"Victory coin" of Alexander the Great, minted in Babylon c.322 BCE,
following his campaigns in India.Obverse: Alexander being crowned by
Nike.
Reverse: Alexander attacking King Porus on his elephant.
Silver. British Museum
The Battle of the Hydaspes River was fought by Alexander the Great in 326 BC against King Porus of the Hindu Paurava kingdom on the banks of the Hydaspes River in the Punjab...in what is now modern-day Pakistan. The battle resulted in a complete Macedonian victory and the annexation of the Punjab, which lay beyond the confines of the defeated Persian empire, into the Alexandrian Empire.Alexander's tactics to cross the monsoon-swollen river despite close Indian surveillance to catch Porus' army in the flank has been referred as one of his "masterpieces". Although victorious, it was also the most costly battle fought by the Macedonians. The resistance put up by King Porus and his men won the respect of Alexander who asked him to become a Macedonian satrap.The battle is historically significant for opening up India for Greek political (Seleucid Empire, Indo-Greeks) and cultural influence (Greco-Buddhist art) which was to continue for many centuries.
Wikipedia
Classic
Move1. Craterus pins
2. Alexanderflanks
Napoleon will
copy it dozens
of times
Griess, ed., West Point Military History Series, after p. 42
Griess, ed., West Point Military History Series, after p. 42x
Pomeroy et al. Ancient Greece, p. 455
Although Alexander didn’t realize it at the time, the confrontation at the Hydaspes was to be his last pitched battle. As the army marched further eastward through the Punjab, morale dropped steadily. The crisis came when Alexander reached [another] river….Exhausted by the stress of fighting and marching during the endless rains of the summer monsoon, terrified by rumors of yet another great river valley occupied by a great kingdom possessing thousands of war elephants, and doubtful that they would ever return home, the army mutinied. This time not even Alexander’s formidable powers of verbal and moral persuasion could convince his
soldiers to go on. Ultimately, Alexander yielded, defeated by his own army, and agreed to return to the Indus, where he had already ordered the construction of a great fleet.
Keegan, John. The Mask of Command, p. 2
“...when Alexander learnt in India that his army yearned for Greece more strongly than for new worlds to conquer, he managed an appearance of good grace and turned his steps homeward.”
The long retreat t h r o u g h t h e Gedrosian desert
ALEXANDER’S FORMULA FOR VICTORY...his extraordinary battlefield performances….Reconnaissance and a staff discussion
preceded the advance to contact. Then he addressed his men, sometimes the whole
army, sometimes only their officers. Finally, when the light troops and cavalry had
made touch with the enemy’s line, Alexander, clothed in his unmistakably
conspicuous battle garb, charged into the brown [Br. for the thick of the fight]. At this
moment his power to command the battle passed from him. He lost sight of the line,
lost all means to send orders, could think only of saving his own life and taking that of
as many of the enemy as put themselves within reach of his sword-arm. But the
knowledge that he was risking his skin with theirs was enough to ensure that the
whole army, from that moment onwards, fought with an energy equal to his. Total
exposure to risk was his secret of total victory.
Keegan, pp. 89-90
ALEXANDER & “THE BROTHERHOOD OF MAN”Those who would idealize Alexander point to his many attempts to merge his
Macedonian and Persian subjects. The most grandiose of these was the mass wedding
of his soldiers with Persian brides at Susa in 324. Alexander’s own Persian bride,
Roxana, was already pregnant with their son (the future Alexander iv), born after his
father’s death.
Alexander had also taken on many aspects of the Persian culture such as his oriental
garments. The one which caused the most friction was requiring those coming before
him to prostrate themselves, proskinesis, which Greeks traditionally reserved as a
mark of respect to the gods.
Many of the Macedonian “Old Fighters,” (Hitler’s Alte Kämpfer) were becoming
rebellious, especially when he started blending Persian officers and soldiers into their
units.--jbp
Too many scholars like to compare Alexander to Hannibal or Napoleon. A far
better match would be Hitler, who engineered a militarily brilliant but similarly
brutal killing march into Russia during the summer and autumn of 1941. Both
Alexander and Hitler were crack-pot mystics, intent solely on loot and plunder
under the guise of bringing ‘culture’ to the East and ‘freeing’ oppressed peoples
from a corrupt empire. Both were kind to animals, showed deference to women,
talked constantly of their own destiny and divinity, and could be especially
courteous to subordinates even as they planned the destruction of hundreds of
thousands, and murdered their closest associates.
Hanson, op.cit., pp. 189-190
Alexander the Great’s legacy was to leave the Hellenistic world with generations of would-be Alexanders, who practiced their master’s savage brand of political autocracy and butchery of all under suspicion. The army in the West was now not to be a militia or even a professional force subject to civilian oversight, but, like the later Nazi military, an autocratic tool that would murder at will far from the battlefield, friend and foe, soldier and civilian alike. Alexander the Great was no philosopher-king, not even a serious colonizer or administrator, and surely not a well-meaning emissary of Hellenism. Instead he was an
energetic, savvy adolescent, who inherited from his father a frighteningly murderous army and the loyal cadre of very shrewd and experienced battle administrators who knew how to take such a lethal show on the road.
Hanson, op. cit. p. 188
...once Alexander was gone, there was no unified structure to ensure a smooth succession. Nor is there any indication that this was a problem that bothered Alexander himself overmuch. His pursuit of Homeric glory was essentially solipsistic [self-centered]: it did not concern itself with the future. Dying, he was asked to whom he left his kingdom. “To the strongest,” he reportedly said.
Peter Green, The Hellenistic Age, p. 16
κρατιστῳ (kratistō, to the strongest)
“It is those who endure toil and who dare dangers that achieve glorious deeds, Arrian has him say at Opis [site of another of his soldiers’ mutinies]. “It is a lovely thing to live with courage and to die leaving behind an everlasting renown”
Keegan, p. 91
THE SUCCESSORS
THE SUCCESSORS
Διάδοχοι(Diadochoi, Successors)
κοσµοπολις(Cosmopolis, World State)
The Diadochi were as much competitors in heroism with Alexander as mediators,
and the posthumous fragmentation of his empire was the result of their desire to
equal his achievement rather than to propagate it. His essentially unstable
system was held in equilibrium only by his day-to-day efforts; when his death
disturbed the balance, both army and empire fell apart.
Keegan, p. 318
SUCCESSION STRIFE
the problem with µοναρχεια (monarcheia, monarchy, any sort of one-man rule) is determining the strongman’s successor. America’s democratic constitutional process, which seems so “messy” to us, is a historically rare, peaceful exception
traditional solutions fall in two broad categories:
dynastic--an adult male heir, preferably seen as competent, with political support
a new strongman--usually from the military, who can collect political support
323-276 BC-lacking the first, Alexander’s new empire would be racked with the second alternative, until, with the death of the last Successor, the Hellenistic era would take shape as a series of rival dynastic states
DIADOCHOI--PART I
“The First Rank”
Perdiccas
Craterus
Antipater
“The Second Rank”
Somatophylakes (Bodyguards)
Ptolemy I Soter, Lysimachus, Peucestas, Peithon & Leonnatus
Macedonian satraps
Antigonus I Monopthalmus, Neoptolemus, Seleucus I Nicator, Polyperchonnames in bold are men which we will
examine at length
DIADOCHOI--PART II
Other Successors
Royal Family
Philip iii of Macedon, Alexander iv of Macedon, Olympias, Euridice ii & Cleopatra of Macedon
Non-Macedonian Satraps and Generals
Eumenes of Cardia & Pyrrhus of Epirus
Sons of the Diadochoi
Cassander, Demetrius Poliorcetes & Ptolemy Keraunos
THE PARTITION OF BABYLON--323BC
is the distribution of the territories of Alexander the Great between his generals after his death.The partition was a result of a compromise, essentially brokered by Eumenes, following a conflict of opinion between the party of Meleager, who wished to give full power to Philip III of Macedon [Alexander’s half-witted brother], and the party of Perdiccas, who wished to wait for the birth of the heir of Alexander (the future Alexander IV of Macedon) to give him the throne under the control of a regent. Under the agreement, Philip III became king, but Perdiccas, as a regent, ruled. Perdiccas, as regent, managed the repartition of the territories between the former generals and satraps of Alexander. Meleager and about 300 of his partisans were eliminated by Perdiccas soon after.
Wikipedia
The Initial Situation
commanded a battalion of the Macedonian phalanx. Distinguished in the Indian campaign
324-when Hephaestion [Alexander’s “Patroclus”] died suddenly, Perdiccas was appointed his successor as commander of the Companions
323-at Alexander’s death, he was appointed regent for the two potential heirs to the empire, the unborn son & the half-wit
322-he broke off his engagement to Antipater’s daughter because Olympias offered him the hand of her daughter Cleopatra, Alexander’s half-sister. Antipater allied with Ptolemy & Antigonus
war broke out, he moved against Egypt. “A botched attempt to cross the Nile at the wrong place cost 2,000 men to drowning and crocodiles. This was no successor to Alexander.”--Green
he was assassinated by his own officers, including Seleucus (about whom much later)
PerdiccasΠερδίκκας, Perdikkas
died 321/320 BC
Noimage
available
323-was left in control of Greece by Perdiccas
321-after Perdiccas’ death, became regent, guardian of Alexander's brother Philip III and now-born son
Having quelled a mutiny of his troops, he commissioned Antigonus to continue the war against Eumenes and the other partisans of Perdiccas
320-Antipater returned to Macedonia. Soon after, he was seized by an illness which terminated his active career
319-died, leaving the regency to the aged Polyperchon, passing over his own son, Cassander, a measure which gave rise to much later strife
was he the assassin of Alexander? All the ancient sources mention this rumor, most, only to deny it
Antipater Ἀντίπατρος Antipatros
c. 397 BC – 319 BC
340s-son of Antipater, taught by the philosopher Aristotle at the Lyceum in Macedonia. He was educated alongside the Crown Prince Alexander in a group that included Hephaestion and Ptolemy
319-Cassander rejected his father’s decision to give the regency to Polyperchon, and immediately went to seek the support of Antigonus, Ptolemy and Lysimachus as allies
317-after waging war on Polyperchon, and destroying his fleet, Cassander put Athens under the control of Demetrius of Phaleron, and declared himself Regent
Alexander IV, Roxana, and Alexander’s supposed illegitimate son Heracles were all executed on Cassander's orders, and a guarantee to Olympias to spare her life was not respected
301-after the Battle of Ipsus, in which Antigonus was killed, he was undisputed in his control of Macedonia; however, he had little time to savor the fact, dying of dropsy in 297
coin of CassanderBritish Museum
Cassander Κάσσανδρος Ἀντίπατρος, Kassandros Antipatros
ca. 350 – 297
king of Macedon (305–297).
founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty
323-one of the organizers of the Partition. Became satrap of Egypt, nominally under the two kings
without authorization, he quickly annexed Cyrenaica to the west (modern eastern Libya)
320-he then organized the war against Perdiccas
318-he secured Syria and Cyprus
315-when Antigonus One-Eye showed dangerous ambition, he joined the coalition against him
311-309--a brief peace interrupted the warsMarble bust in the Louvre
3rd century BC
Ptolemy I Soter Πτολεµαῖος Σωτήρ, Ptolemaĩos Sōtḗr,
Ptolemy the Saviorc. 367 BC – c. 283 BC
founder of the Antigonid dynasty
321-with the death of Perdiccas, a new attempt at division of the empire took place. Antigonus found himself entrusted with the command of the war against Eumenes, who had joined Perdiccas against the coalition of Antipater, Antigonus, Ptolemy, Craterus, and the other generals
319-Antigonus and the other dynasts refused to recognize Polyperchon, since it would undermine their own ambitions. Once again, war broke out
315-Antigonus now was in possession of the empire's Asian territories, his authority stretching from the eastern satrapies to Syria and Asia Minor in the west. He seized the treasures at Susa and entered Babylon. The governor of the city, Seleucus fled to Ptolemy and entered into a league with him, Lysimachus and Cassander against Antigonus
Antigonus I Monophthalmus Ἀντίγονος ὁ Μονόφθαλµος, "Antigonus the
One-eyed"382 BC – 301 BC
son of Antigonus I Monophthalmus (One-eyed)
315-At the age of twenty-two he was left by his father to defend Syria against Ptolemy. He was defeated at the Battle of Gaza, his first (unsuccessful) siege
310-he was soundly defeated when he tried to expel Seleucus I Nicator from Babylon; his father was defeated in the autumn. As a result of this Babylonian War, Antigonus lost almost two thirds of his empire: all eastern satrapies became Seleucus'
Marble bust, Roman, 1st century AD of a Greek original from 3rd century BC
Demetrius I ( Δηµήτριος, 337 – 283 ) Poliorcetes ( Πολιορκητής - "The
Besieger") king of Macedon (294–288).
Antigonus
Cassander
Ptolemy
Seleucus
Lysymachus
Antigonus
Cassander
Ptolemy
Seleucus
Lysymachus
Antigonus
Cassander
Ptolemy
Seleucus
Lysymachus
Antigonus
Cassander
Ptolemy
Seleucus
Lysymachus
Antigonus
Cassander
Ptolemy
Seleucus
Lysymachus
Antigonus
Cassander
Ptolemy
Seleucus
Lysymachus
Antigonus
Cassander
Ptolemy
Seleucus
Lysymachus
Antigonus
Cassander
Ptolemy
Seleucus
Lysymachus
Antigonus
Cassander
Ptolemy
Seleucus
Lysymachus
Antigonus
Cassander
Ptolemy
Seleucus
Lysymachus
Ἀλεξάνδρεια ἘσχάτηAlexandria Eschatē
the farthest Alexandria
Antigonus
Cassander
Ptolemy
Seleucus
Lysymachus
Ἀλεξάνδρεια ἘσχάτηAlexandria Eschatē
the farthest Alexandria
they were the actors of the first major interaction
between an urbanized Indo-European culture and the
Chinese civilization, which led to the opening up the Silk
Road from the 1st century BCWikipedia
son of Antigonus I Monophthalmus (One-eyed)
315-At the age of twenty-two he was left by his father to defend Syria against Ptolemy. He was defeated at the Battle of Gaza, his first and last unsuccessful siege
310-he was soundly defeated when he tried to expel Seleucus I Nicator from Babylon; his father was defeated in the autumn. As a result of this Babylonian War, Antigonus lost almost two thirds of his empire: all eastern satrapies became Seleucus'
After several campaigns against Ptolemy on the coasts of Cilicia and Cyprus, Demetrius sailed with a fleet of 250 ships to Athens. He freed the city from the power of Cassander and Ptolemy, expelled the garrison which had been stationed there under Demetrius of Phalerum
307-besieged and took Munychia. After these victories he was worshipped by the Athenians as a tutelary deity under the title of Soter (σωτήρ) ("Preserver") [or “Savior”]Marble bust, Roman copy, 1st century AD of a
Greek original from 3rd century BC
Demetrius I ( Δηµήτριος, 337 – 283 ) Poliorcetes ( Πολιορκητής - "The
Besieger") king of Macedon (294–288).
Helepolis (Greek: ἑλέπολις, English: "Taker of Cities") was an ancient siege engine invented by Polyidus of Thessaly and improved by Demetrius I Poliorcetes of Macedon and Epimachus of Athens for the unsuccessful siege of Rhodes, based on an earlier, less massive design used against Salamis (305–304 BC)
C l o s e - u p s h o w i n g t h e capstan which d r o v e t h e massive wheels and the catapults which could fire w h e n t h e i r shut ters were raised
C l o s e - u p s h o w i n g t h e capstan which d r o v e t h e massive wheels and the catapults which could fire w h e n t h e i r shut ters were raised
C l o s e - u p s h o w i n g t h e capstan which d r o v e t h e massive wheels and the catapults which could fire w h e n t h e i r shut ters were raised
The Helepolis was essentially a large tapered tower, with each side about 130 feet high, and 65 feet wide that was manually pushed into battle. It rested on eight wheels, each 12 feet high and also had casters, to allow lateral movement as well as direct. The three exposed sides were rendered fireproof with iron plates, and stories divided the interior, connected by two broad flights of stairs, one for ascent and one for descent. The machine weighed 160 tons, and required 3,400 men working in relays to move it, 200 turning a large capstan driving the wheels via a belt, and the rest pushing from behind.The Helepolis bore a fearsome complement of heavy armaments, with two 180-pound catapults, and one 60-pounder (classified by the weight of the projectiles they threw) on the first floor, three 60-pounders on the second, and two 30-pounders on each of the next five floors. Apertures, shielded by mechanically adjustable shutters, lined with skins stuffed with wool and seaweed to render them fireproof, pierced the forward wall of the tower for firing the missile weapons. On each of the top two floors, soldiers could use two light dart throwers to easily clear the walls of defenders.
Wikipedia
Antigonus clearly meant to secure firm control of the eastern Mediterranean sea routes, since he at once sent Demetrius to reduce that...great naval bastion, Rhodes….For over a year (305/4), Demetrius assaulted the island’s capital with a fearsome array of siege engines, fire arrows, rams and torsion catapults. Ptolemy’s ships ran the blockade to supply the defenders, and in the end Demetrius was forced to leave the Rhodians independent. His title of “the Besieger” thus had a decidedly ironic flavor about it. The Rhodians celebrated by erecting a colossal statue of Helios at the harbor entrance, paid for by the sale of Demetrius’ abandoned siege-gear. They also bestowed on Ptolemy the title of “Savior.”
Green, The Hellenistic Age, pp. 36-37
The Colossus of Rhodes was a statue of the Greek Titan Helios, erected between 292 and 280 BC. It is considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Before its destruction in 226 BC - due to an earthquake - the Colossus of Rhodes stood over 30 meters (107 ft) high, making it one of the tallest statues of the ancient world.
320-After Alexander’s death, Seleucus was nominated as the satrap of Babylon
Antigonus forced Seleucus to flee from Babylon, but, supported by Ptolemy, he was able to return in 312
Seleucus' later conquests include Persia and Media. He was defeated by the emperor of India, Chandragupta Maurya and accepted a matrimony alliance for 500 elephants after ceding the territories considered as part of India
Seleucus defeated Antigonus in the battle of Ipsus in 301 BC and Lysimachus in the battle of Corupedium in 281
He was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus during the same year. His successor was his son Antiochus I
established the Seleucid dynasty and the Seleucid Empire. His kingdom would be one of the last holdouts of Alexander's former empire to Roman rule. It was only outlived by the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt by roughly 34 years. He founded many cities, the most famous, Antioch Roman copy from a Greek original, from
Herculaneum. Now in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, Italy.
Seleucus I (given the surname by later
generations of NicatorΣέλευκος Νικάτωρ, Seleucus the
Victor) ca. 358 – 281
somatophylax,( σωµατοφύλαξ, literally, bodyguard) of first Philip ii, then Alexander
323-after Alexander’s death, he was appointed to the government of Thrace as strategos
315-he joined Cassander, Ptolemy I Soter and Seleucus I Nicator against Antigonus I Monophthalmus
309-he founded Lysimachia in a commanding situation on the neck connecting the Chersonese with the mainland. He followed the example of Antigonus I in taking the title of king
Lysimachus Λυσίµαχος, Lysimachos
c. 360 – 281
302 BC-when the second alliance between Cassander, Ptolemy I and Seleucus I was made, Lysimachus, reinforced by troops from Cassander, entered Asia Minor, where he met with little resistance
On the approach of Antigonus I he retired into winter quarters near Heraclea, marrying its widowed queen Amastris, a Persian princess
301-Seleucus I joined him and at the battle of Ipsus where Antigonus I was defeated and slain. His dominions were divided among the victors. Lysimachus' share was Lydia, Ionia, Phrygia and the north coast of Asia Minor
Lysimachus Λυσίµαχος, Lysimachos
c. 360 – 281
Situation c. 301 BC
after the battle of Ipsus
c. 300-Feeling that Seleucus I was becoming dangerously great, Lysimachus now allied himself with Ptolemy I, marrying his daughter Arsinoe II of Egypt. When Antigonus I’s son Demetrius I renewed hostilities (297), during his absence in Greece, Lysimachus seized his towns in Asia Minor
294- concluded a peace whereby Demetrius I was recognized as ruler of Macedonia.
288- Lysimachus and Pyrrhus of Epirus in turn invaded Macedonia, and drove Demetrius I out of the country. Lysimachus left Pyrrhus in possession of Macedonia with the title of king for around seven months before Lysimachus invaded. For a short while the two ruled jointly
285-Lysimachus expelled Pyrrhus
Lysimachus Λυσίµαχος, Lysimachos
c. 360 – 281
a second cousin of Alexander through Olympias. He was brother-in law to Demetrius I Poliorketes
302-first expelled from the throne by Cassander. Taken as hostage to Alexandria where he married Ptolemy’s step-daughter Antigone
297-briefly restored to Epirus by Ptolemy, Pyrrhus had his co-ruler Neoptolemus II of Epirus, puppet of the now-deceased Seleucus, murdered. Next, he went to war against his former ally and brother-in-law Demetrius
by 286- he had taken control over the kingdom of Macedon. Pyrrhus was driven out of Macedon by Lysimachus in 284
Pyrrhus or PyrrhosΠύρρος, Pyrros
319/318–272
king of Epirus (306-302 & 288–285)king of Macedon (274–272)
a second cousin of Alexander through Olympias. He was brother-in law to Demetrius I Poliorketes
302-first expelled from the throne by Cassander. Taken as hostage to Alexandria where he married Ptolemy’s step-daughter Antigone
297-briefly restored to Epirus by Ptolemy, Pyrrhus had his co-ruler Neoptolemus II of Epirus, puppet of the now-deceased Seleucus, murdered. Next, he went to war against his former ally and brother-in-law Demetrius
by 286- he had taken control over the kingdom of Macedon. Pyrrhus was driven out of Macedon by Lysimachus in 284
one of the strongest opponents of early Rome. Some of his battles, though successful, cost him heavy losses, from which the term "Pyrrhic victory" was coined
Pyrrhus or PyrrhosΠύρρος, Pyrros
319/318–272
king of Epirus (306-302 & 288–285)king of Macedon (274–272)
a second cousin of Alexander through Olympias. He was brother-in law to Demetrius I Poliorketes
302-first expelled from the throne by Cassander. Taken as hostage to Alexandria where he married Ptolemy’s step-daughter Antigone
297-briefly restored to Epirus by Ptolemy, Pyrrhus had his co-ruler Neoptolemus II of Epirus, puppet of the now-deceased Seleucus, murdered. Next, he went to war against his former ally and brother-in-law Demetrius
by 286- he had taken control over the kingdom of Macedon. Pyrrhus was driven out of Macedon by Lysimachus in 284
one of the strongest opponents of early Rome. Some of his battles, though successful, cost him heavy losses, from which the term "Pyrrhic victory" was coined
Pyrrhus or PyrrhosΠύρρος, Pyrros
319/318–272
king of Epirus (306-302 & 288–285)king of Macedon (274–272)
Pyrrhus’ Wars Against Rome & Carthage281-275 BC
Plutarch records that Hannibal ranked Pyrrhus as the greatest commander the world had ever seen, though Appian gives a different version of the story, in which Hannibal placed him second after Alexander the Great.--Wikipedia
the eldest son of Ptolemy I Soter, ruler of Egypt, and his third wife Eurydice, daughter of the regent Antipater
His younger half-brother, also called Ptolemy, became heir apparent and, in 282, ascended to the throne as Ptolemy II
Ptolemy Keraunos had left Egypt and arrived at the court of Lysimachus, the king of Thrace, Macedon, and part of Asia Minor. His half-sister, Arsinoe, was wife of Lysimachus
After Lysimachus' defeat and death in the Battle of Corupedium in 281 BC, against Seleucus I Nicator, Ptolemy Keraunos murdered Seleucus I in order to gain the power of his former protector. He then rushed to Lysimacheia where he had himself acclaimed king by the Macedonian army. At this time he also formally relinquished his claim to the Egyptian throne. To stabilize his throne, Ptolemy asked his half-sister Arsinoe, the widow of Lysimachus, to marry him
279-he was captured and killed during the wars against the Gauls, who conducted a series of mass raids against Macedon and the rest of Greece
Ptolemy KeraunosΠτολεµαῖος Κεραυνός
died 279 His epithet Keraunos is Greek for
"Thunder" or "Thunderbolt"king of Macedon (281–279)
The Gallic threat was brief, but it had significant consequences. The Gauls soon
transferred their terror to Anatolia, but only after being defeated at Delphi and
Lysimacheia by the Aetolian League (the organization of the city-states of
northwest Greece) and Antigonus Gonatas (“Knock-knees”), the son of
Demetrius Poliorcetes. Their victories over the Gauls transformed the position of
both the Aetolians and Antigonus, legitimizing the emergence of the former as
the preeminent power in central Greece and the protector of Delphi and the
latter as king of Macedon. The final pieces of the new political system that had so
gradually and painfully emerged from the wreckage of Alexander’s empire had
fallen into place.
Pomeroy et al., Ancient Greece, p 476
So-called Ludovisi Gaul and his wife. Marble, Roman copy after an Hellenistic original from a monument built by Attalus I of Pergamon after
his victory over Gauls, ca. 220 BC
...Alexander’s rejection of constitutional government, of civic militarism, and of municipal autonomy ensured that his conquests would never result in a stable Hellenic civilization in Asia, or even liberty in Greece--but simply the Successor’s (Διάδοχι, Diadochi) kingdoms (323-31 B.C.) of his like-minded marshals who followed. For three centuries theocrats--Macedonians, Epirotes, Selucids, Ptolemies, Attalids--would rule, fight, plunder and live in splendor amid a Hellenic veneer of court elites and professionals in Asia and Africa until at last they were subdued by the legions of republican Rome.
Hanson, Carnage and Culture, p. 82
...Alexander’s rejection of constitutional government, of civic militarism, and of municipal autonomy ensured that his conquests would never result in a stable Hellenic civilization in Asia, or even liberty in Greece--but simply the Successor’s (Διάδοχι, Diadochi) kingdoms (323-31 B.C.) of his like-minded marshals who followed. For three centuries theocrats--Macedonians, Epirotes, Selucids, Ptolemies, Attalids--would rule, fight, plunder and live in splendor amid a Hellenic veneer of court elites and professionals in Asia and Africa until at last they were subdued by the legions of republican Rome.
Hanson, Carnage and Culture, p. 82
but, that’s another story, for another time (but not next week!)
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