Transcript
Animal-Assisted Therapy 1
Chapter I
Introduction
“No, she doesn’t want to touch! She has cerebral palsy and doesn’t know what
that thing is!”
I remember this statement clearly from one of my first days working as a public
educator for The Virginia Zoo in Norfolk, Virginia. I was conducting a children’s
birthday party and amongst the chaos of excited four-year-olds, I noticed a woman taking
an older girl out of a utility wheelchair and holding her away from the group in the back
of the room. The woman placed the girl on her lap and watched me gather the rest of the
children into a circle. I motioned to the girl to join us, but the woman holding her shook
her head and waved me away. I continued on, bringing out a variety of animals and
allowing each child the opportunity to touch and ask questions. I presented a millipede, a
frog, and then a snake. Each animal brought its own squeals and excited questions from
the children, but each time I came near the woman with the girl on her lap, she put her
hand up and silently waved me away.
“Well, maybe she’s not a millipede, frog or snake fan,” I thought to myself.
The last animal proved to be a crowd favorite – a golden lionhead rabbit named
Snickers. This time, I approached the woman and kneeled down with Snickers before the
girl. Her eyes opened wide, her facial expression lit up and she began reaching towards
the rabbit. That is when the woman pulled her back, and snapped the comment that
changed my career direction as a biologist and educator:
“No, she doesn’t want to touch! She has cerebral palsy and doesn’t know what
that thing is!”
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With that comment, the girl was deprived of her chance to experience something
new and possibly even opening a therapeutic outlet into her world. No, I didn’t care if she
grasped that Snickers was a mammal, a lagomorph, or any other biological jargon that
can be found in any textbook. That did not matter. What could make a difference
however were the sensory benefits the girl would gain from feeling the rabbit’s soft fur,
his warmth, and the emotional bond gained from interaction between a non-judgmental
animal and a child trapped in a labeling world.
This experience has led me to explore the power of the human-animal bond and
the possible therapeutic effects on special needs children. This concept, often referred to
as Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) or Animal-Assisted Intervention (AAI), is not new.
Dogs have been utilized for therapeutic purposes for decades and canine use has captured
much of the attention, both positive and negative, surrounding AAT over the years.
However, I believe different animal species and nature experiences can also provide
therapeutic benefits and reach special needs children not often considered eligible for
AAT due to behavioral issues and/or severity of the disability.
For my project, I would like to explore the past, present and future of AAT and
investigate the successes and controversies surrounding the practice. Of greatest interest
to me is how animal and nature-based therapy can be applied to special education
curriculums to enhance children with special needs’ motivation, learning comprehension
and sensory exploration while increasing comfort and reducing stress in a classroom
setting. I would like to then apply my research into a comprehensive handbook for
special education teachers that will assist them in utilizing animals and nature into their
classrooms in a fun and safe manner.
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Problem Statement
The therapeutic affects of animals are well known to pet owners and animal-
lovers alike. The very act of stroking a cat or dog’s fur or watching aquarium fish swim
among bubbling cascades seem to produce a calming effect for many people. As a public
educator at a zoo, I have seen how strangers open up when an animal is presented to them
in a relaxing environment. Smiles overtake stern faces, and shy young children come
from behind their parents’ backs to inspect the new “friend” they have just been
introduced to. I have also incorporated my experiences as an animal educator into my
work with adults with severe and profound intellectual disabilities. Again, I have
witnessed how an animal can calm behaviors and bridge communication gaps when
traditional methods have failed.
This claim that animals have this power to reach those labeled “unreachable” is
not new. However, it is only recently that the benefit of animal-assisted therapy has been
given an in-depth look by both scientists and educators. Despite this recent academic
interest, methods of putting animal-assisted therapy into practice remain in its infancy,
especially among educators of children with special needs in a classroom setting.
Introducing an animal into a classroom can be an intimidating and daunting
experience for teachers. Considerations must be made for school policies and the safety
of teachers, children and animals. Not all animal species are suited for therapy, and not
all children will benefit from the experience. Additionally, knowledge of animal behavior
and care are essential before introducing an animal to a group setting, and careful
observation by the handler is needed to prevent undue stress on the animal. Such
obstacles can easily persuade educators to stay away from introducing animal-assisted
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therapy into the classroom. Bringing certified animal-therapy experts is a recommended
option to overcome such obstacles. However, animal-assisted therapists are often
difficult to find and scheduling conflicts may not be conducive to classroom schedules
and education plans. Such conflicts have led me to wonder if there was a way to equip
educators with a “one-stop tool box” to assist them in incorporating animals into special
education classrooms while taking policies and safety into consideration.
My experiences as both a biologist and educator have led me to explore whether
the use of animals can be useful in correcting disruptive behaviors and influencing
positive ones among special needs children and if so, how teachers can apply animal-
assisted therapy in a special education classroom setting. With this thought in mind, I
would like to create a “tool box” for educators in the form of a handbook on how to
incorporate animal-assisted therapy, complete with policies, safety considerations and
educational plans, into classrooms with special needs children.
Rationale
Creating a comprehensive handbook for utilizing animal and nature-based therapy
into special education classrooms can be an important tool for educators who may be
unfamiliar with animal husbandry, safety considerations and regulations. Such a guide
may serve as a motivational factor when teachers are looking for other methods or tools
they can use to assist children who may have been perceived as “difficult” or “hard-to-
reach.” It is my hope that through my research and by compiling this guide, teachers will
feel more confident to try these techniques in their own classrooms and enhance the
learning experience for their students.
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Many resources are already available that provide lesson plans on how to
incorporate animals into learning, but I also hope that my experiences in biology,
education and human services will add a different perspective into AAT and provide a
more complete reference on how animals can be safely and humanely integrated into the
educational experience of special needs children. For this reason, I feel this study and
handbook can be beneficial for students, educators, parents, therapists and counselors and
therefore, worth the effort.
Anticipated Outcomes
Through the course of my project, I hope to gain knowledge of the various
benefits research has shown through the use of AAT/AAI and where future studies into
this field are heading. I also expect to increase my awareness of the ethical issues
surrounding the use of animals for human benefit and regulations regarding standards of
care in place to prevent the misuse of AAT/AAI practices. Because of the potential for
both human and animal injury, I expect to find debates about animal and human welfare
and whether AAT/AAI only serves as a “one-sided” partnership where only humans
benefit. I hope to analyze and address these concerns as part of my project and
incorporate them into my handbook where appropriate.
In addition to the benefits and ethics of AAT/AAI, I anticipate finding a wealth of
information available on utilizing specific species such as dogs and cats in AAT/AAI,
especially in senior populations and as service animals. However, I expect to find limited
information on the use of “non-traditional” species for AAT/AAI, methods to incorporate
nature experiences as a form of therapy and corresponding lesson plans that focus on the
therapeutic benefits of animals instead of only meeting educational outcomes. This gap in
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information serves as a primary goal of my project and the basis for creating the
handbook.
Research Question
Can children with special needs benefit from a greater variety of animal and
nature-based therapeutic resources and how can teachers safely and effectively utilize
such resources in the classroom?
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Chapter II
Pioneers in Animal-Assisted Intervention: A History of the Human-Animal Bond
Modern scientific evidence dates Ardipithecus ramidus, the first bipedal human
on fossil record, to nearly 4.4 million years ago (White, Suwa & Asfaw, 1994). While
archeologists and biologists are still debating over “Ardi’s” place in history, one fact is
known: she had plenty of company. Animals - whether fish, amphibian, reptile, avian and
even fellow mammals - called our planet home millions of years before Ardipithecus
emerged from present-day Ethiopia (White, Suwa & Asfaw, 1994). With such established
“neighbors,” it was inevitable that our primal ancestors would interact with and
eventually develop bonds with the creatures who share our environment.
Early human-animal interactions were primarily based on humans’ need for food
and safety. However, archeological evidence indicates human-animal social interaction
and domestication dates back more than 14,000 years ago, when wolves lived alongside
humans in settlements (Walsh, 2009). Animals also played crucial roles in farming
communities 9,000 years ago, with dogs serving as herding guides and cats reducing the
disease-ridden rodent population (Walsh, 2009).
Walsh (2009) also illustrates how the human-animal bond grew through Egyptian,
Greek and Roman empires, where animals were revered as companions and worshipped
as Gods. Even the literature of the time notes the strong bond a dog has with its owner. In
Homer’s Odyssey, an incognito Odysseus returned home after many years at sea. Only
his dog Argus recognized him, wagging his tail before collapsing in death (as cited in
Walsh, 2009).
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Animals continued to play a comforting role as societies grew throughout Europe
and Asia, with specialized breeding developed for desired traits in cats and dogs and links
to the aristocracy. These specially bred animals soon found their way from the barnyard
into luxury, and earned their place as a beloved member of the household. According to
the American Pet Products Association 2009-2010 national survey, there are more than
77.5 million dogs and 93.6 million cats in homes across the United States today
(American Pet Products, 2010). Factor in the millions of “non-traditional” pets such as
birds, rodents, reptiles and fish, and it is easy to see that humans’ love affair with their
animal companions remain strong.
Although the human-animal bond can be traced throughout history, the idea to
utilize animals as an alternative healing therapy is mostly a modern concept. Some early
uses for therapy animals were documented in England around 1792, when birds and
rabbits were introduced into an insane asylum in York as part of patient treatment plans
(Hooker, Freeman & Stewart, 2002). Nursing pioneer Florence Nightingale also gave
credence to the healing powers of animals for the ill in the late 1800s, writing in her book
Notes on Nursing (as cited in Hooker, et al., 2002, p. 18) that “a pet bird in a cage is
sometimes the only pleasure of an invalid confined for years to the same room.”
Nightingale herself was extremely fond of birds, and her beloved pet owl Athena remains
preserved and on display at the Florence Nightingale Museum in London (Hooker, et al.,
2002; florence-nightingale, 2010).
Pet therapy in the United States had its first documentation in 1919, when dogs
were introduced to psychiatric patients at a hospital in Washington, DC. Their use was
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informal, however, and no data was recorded on the outcome to both patient and animal
(Hooker, et al., 2002).
Animal therapy remained in the background of medical interest in the United
States until 1961, when child psychologist Dr. Boris M. Levinson published Pet-Oriented
Child Psychotherapy and presented his findings to the American Psychological
Association (AMA). In his book, Levinson (as cited in Kruger & Serpell, 2006) wrote
how his dog helped a young client with communication and rapport building. The AMA
received his work with mixed reviews; however, Levinson (as cited in Kruger & Serpell,
2006) continued his research and eventually set the framework for modern animal-
assisted techniques (Kruger & Serpell, 2006; Hooker, et al., 2002).
In the 1970s, animal-assisted intervention gained further scientific acceptance
when veterinarian Dr. Leo K Bustad shared his experience with pets as therapeutic tools
with Dr. William McColloch and his brother, psychiatrist Dr. Michael J. McCulloch, who
had also witnessed the benefits of animals with patients. They, in turn, combined their
expertise with four other veterinarians to form the Delta Society, a non-profit
organization dedicated to multi-disciplinary research into the human-animal therapeutic
bond. The Delta Society remains at the forefront in developing research-based animal-
assisted programs and service animal handling certification (Kruger & Serpell, 2006;
Anderson, 2004; DeltaSociety, 2009).
Today, research into animal-assisted therapy has branched from the boundaries of
psychology into mainstream health care, with studies occurring on the benefits of animal
therapy for patients with high blood pressure, Alzheimer’s disease, spinal cord injuries
and other disabilities (Hooker, et al., 2002). Additionally, different forms of animal-
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assisted interventions have recently evolved to incorporate species ranging from equine
(horse) therapy to dolphin hydrotherapy, with both targeting physical therapy and mental
health goals for patients (Anderson, 2004).
Defining Animal-Assisted Interventions
Despite the historical evidence linking animal companions to human well-being, a
precise definition of the practice remains elusive, as a researcher uncovered upon
searching for such a definition. According to Kruger and Serpell (2006), a doctorial
candidate’s review of literature on the subject revealed at least 20 definitions for the term
“animal-assisted therapy” and more than 12 related terms such as “pet therapy, pet
psychotherapy, pet-facilitated therapy, pet-mediated therapy, emotional support animals,
etc…” Many of these terms can be classified under the “catch-all” term of Animal-
Assisted Interventions, or AAI. However, animal service organizations like the Delta
Society and the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) have agreed to
standard definitions of animal-assisted therapy and animal-assisted activities based on the
extent of therapeutic monitoring and data collection.
Today’s current standard definition of animal-assisted therapy, or AAT, is:
A goal-directed intervention in which an animal that meets specific criteria
is an integral part of the treatment process. AAT is directed and/or delivered
by a health/human service professional with specialized expertise, and within
the scope of practice of his/her profession (DeltaSociety, 2009).
Walsh (DeltaSociety, 2009) further clarifies the Delta Society’s definition by adding that
AAT “involves the carefully planned and monitored use of the therapist’s companion
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animal in sessions to build rapport, enhance the therapeutic process and facilitate positive
change” (2009, p. 474).
The Delta Society’s (2000) definition further distinguishes AAT from other
animal-assistance categories by the requirement of specific goals, objectives and
accompanying plans for each person utilizing AAT, along with documentation of
measurable progress. For example, a child with fine motor skill difficulties may utilize
AAT by working with a physical therapist to open a cat food container and attempt to
feed a cat. Specific goals are set for the child (i.e. develop motor skills to open a
container, grasp a piece of food, hold food out for the cat), and progress can be easily
measured. Other uses for AAT as outlined by the Delta Society include: Improving
wheelchair skills, increasing verbal/social interactions, developing leisure skills, anxiety
reduction and improving attention skills (DeltaSociety, 2009).
Comparatively, the Delta Society (2009) also defines any activity utilizing an
animal for “motivational, educational, recreational, and/or therapeutic benefits to enhance
the quality of life” (DeltaSociety, 2009, ¶ 1) as animal-assisted activity (AAA). Under
this definition of AAA, persons directing the activity can be professionals,
paraprofessionals or even specially trained volunteers in a variety of environments. There
are no specific goals intended for the visits, detailed progress notes are not required by
those directing the activities, and participant animal interaction is voluntary and
spontaneous. An example of AAA would include casual visits by a dog to a nursing home
or hospital. Although staff and professionals may be involved in the “visit,” there are no
specific goals or plans other than to improve the patients’ quality of life.
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It is also important to note that “service” or “assistance” animals are not classified
under AAI, AAT or AAA, and are considered a separate entity by the Delta Society and
other animal-assisted intervention organizations (DeltaSociety, 2009; Walsh, 2009).
The Evidence for Utilizing Animals for Human Therapeutic Benefits
With millions of dogs, cats, horses, fish, birds, reptiles and other animals living
with humans as companions, it is not surprising that pet owners claim many benefits from
their relationship with their animals. Companionship, exercise, entertainment, relaxation,
compassion, emotional stability, trust and unconditional acceptance are all components
pets can help their human companions develop (Brodie & Biley, 1999). Many scientific
studies conducted over the past 30 years have uncovered correlations between pet
ownership and health benefits such as lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels,
improved human immune system functioning, faster recovery times from illness, and
higher survival rates from heart attacks (Walsh, 2009). Animal companions are also
linked to increased functioning and quality of life in individuals with a broad range of
mental health disorders including depression, schizophrenia, anxiety and Attention
Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Although the exact mechanism by which
this occurs is unknown, Kruger and Serpell (2006) cite a theory raised by E.O. Wilson in
1984, where he coined the term “biophilia hypothesis” to refer to the theory that “humans
possess a genetically based propensity to attend to, and be attracted by, other living
organisms” (p. 26). This theory is formed on the evolutionary view that human survival
depended on cues and knowledge of their environment and the living things it contains
(Kruger & Serpell, 2006).
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The abundance of scientific studies and wealth of personal testimonials by pet
owners led the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to form an investigative group of
experts to explore these claims more than twenty years ago (Anderson, 2008). This
workshop explored relationships between people, pets, and health and sought to provide
scientific descriptions within these relationships (Tedeschi, Fitchett & Molidor, 2005).
Preliminary findings could not find conclusive evidence to support the health benefits of
pet ownership however, and the researchers could only deem these claims as persuasive,
but unsubstantiated. The NIH has since retracted this investigation, stating that their
report is outdated and possibly inaccurate (Anderson, 2008).
Today, the NIH is re-examining AAT with four active studies underway. The first
study is looking at AAT for hospitalized heart failure patients, a second investigating
AAT and recreation therapy in relieving distress in cancer patients undergoing pain
treatment, a third researching the possible effects of Oxytocin during human and animal
interaction, and a final study in the early stages looking into the relationship between pet
therapy and “well-being” in geriatric rehabilitation (ClinicalTrials, 2011).
In addition to the resurgence of interest by the NIH, other recent studies continue
to find numerous health benefits associated with animal companionship. A 2009
international review of scientific literature on the subject from 1960 to 2007 by Salvatore
Giaquinto and Fabio Valentini of the IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana Rehabilitation Center in
Rome found consistent evidence linking dog ownership to a healthier lifestyle, mainly
through the exercise test subjects received through walking their dogs. Giaquinto and
Valentini’s (2009) research also uncovered numerous studies linking pets and stress
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alleviation in the elderly, and they concluded that further research into the animal-human
bond would be beneficial to enhance the scientific acceptance of such studies.
Other studies have taken a more direct, clinical approach to linking animal
interaction with specific health benefits. One South African study took blood samples
from participates to analyze their physiological states following interactions with their
own dog and with an unfamiliar one. Their results found a positive correlation between
their physiological statuses when any dog is present (Jalongo, Astorino & Bomboy,
2004). A similar study conducted by J.S. Odendall in 2000 also analyzed blood samples
in humans and dogs before and after contact and found “increased levels of biochemicals
associated with social bonding, decreased blood pressure, and decreased levels of
biochemicals associated with stress in both species following their interactions” (as cited
in Thigpen, Ellis & Smith, 2005). Odendall’s (2000) study also saw greater positive
changes when the human was interacting with their own animal instead of an unfamiliar
one. Based on the blood analysis from both human and canine, he concluded that
arranging interactions that influence positive emotions can help treat mental illness in
humans but also have positive benefits on the animal as well (Thigpen, Ellis & Smith,
2005).
Social benefits to AAI have also been scientifically documented in studies.
Researchers Sam and Elizabeth Corson (as cited in Brodie & Biley, 1999) investigated
whether socially withdrawn patients would interact with animals and if so, would the
interactions improve their communication abilities. Out of the 50 patients studied, only
three refused the animal. The remaining 47 showed measurable improvement in the
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development of independence, self-esteem, self-confidence and increased interaction with
peers and staff (Brodie & Biley, 1999).
Research into therapeutic animal use in schools and institutions has also found
correlations between reduction in anxiety, increased social interaction and higher test
scores. The Reading Education Assistance Dogs (R.E.A.D) program conducted the Utah-
based Intermountain Therapy Animals (ITA) group found that children participating in
the program improved their reading abilities by as much as four grade levels (Jalongo,
Astorino & Bomboy, 2004). A separate study by the Carolina Canines for Service project
found similar results. According to Jalongo, Astorino and Bomboy (2004), test subjects
read to a therapy dog weekly for 20 minutes each session during the school year and
subsequently improved their reading skills by two grade levels. Another study
Incorporating AAT into traditional treatments among hospitalized psychiatric patients
saw a significant reduction in State-Trait Anxiety Inventory scores among patients with
psychotic disorders following reoccurring sessions with a trained therapy dog (Barker &
Dawson, 1998).
When utilized among children with disabilities requiring special education
interventions, AAT/AAI can serve as a non-traditional, therapeutic approach to behavior
management and enhancing positive emotions. For some children with Autism Spectrum
Disorders (ASD), AAT/AAI has been shown to be helpful in bridging the social and
communication gap often associated with ASD. According to Grandin, Fine and Bowers
(2010), some children and adults with ASD do well with AAT/AAI because they are
sensory-based thinkers, using sight, smell and sound to process information. They believe
that since animals do not think in words but relate to their environment through senses, a
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bond can be created between the animal and a child with ASD based on their similarity of
communication. This sensory-based thinking can also serve as a limitation to AAT/AAI
use, however. Grandin, Fine and Bowers (2010) also caution that oversensitivity to
senses can differentiate between the successful use of an animal for ASD and why some
children and adults cannot tolerate an animal present. This extreme sensitivity, called
“sensory overload,” may cause an individual with ASD to react negativity to the smell or
sound of a particular animal. Therefore, it is important for AAT/AAI therapists to
consider these limitations when considering the practice for their ASD clients.
Evidence against Animal-Assisted Intervention Practices
Despite the studies and accompanying literature supporting the therapeutic
benefits of animals, the topic has created controversy and skepticism. Kruger and Serpell
(2006) cite several studies where similar calming effects could be recreated through any
stimulus to an aesthetically pleasing item, living or not, and that culture and individual
experience can effect people’s responses to animals.
An issue often raised among the scientific literature is the lack of studies
conducted on possible negative aspects of AAT/AAI and the limited human populations
targeted. Velde, Cipriani and Fisher (2004) cite a 2002 review conducted by J. Cipriani et
al. which looked at the inclusion criteria used to formulate AAT research in 23 separate
studies. According to the findings, 18 of the 23 studies focused on AAT with older adults
as the targeted population for inclusion. Cipriani et al. (2000) also noted that only four of
these studies were conducted by occupational therapists, which frequently include AAT
as part of their treatment programs. This and similar studies led Velde, Cipriani and
Fisher (2004) to conclude that “little is known qualitatively about the impact of AAT
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from the perspective of the therapist or the participant involved” (p. 45). Other studies
have also been unable to formulate links between animal intervention and human health
benefits. Brodie and Biley (1999) cite five unrelated studies conducted between 1972 and
1984 where results were inconclusive with three of these, finding “no association
between pet ownership and improved psychological health” (Brodie & Biley, 1999, p.
334).
The majority of objections to AAT/AAI are not based on data showing
inconclusive evidence to the practice but rather to practical concerns such as safety,
sanitation and proper animal care along with ethical considerations raised by utilizing
animals for human benefit. One of the greatest concerns is zoonoses, or “a disease that
can be transmitted to people by vertebrate animals” (Webster’s New World College
Dictionary, 2000, p. 1669). According to Brodie, Biley and Shewring (2002), there is
estimated to be 35 medically identified zoonotic diseases currently thought to be
transferable between human and animal in an AAT/AAI setting. The occurrence of
disease transfer is also increased in individuals who are immune compromised,
undergoing steroid treatments or chemotherapy, organ transplant recipients and very
young or elderly individuals. Ironically, this comprises a high percentage of populations
targeted for AAT/AAI programs. Also adding to the zoonoses concern is the lack of
statistics on how many people have actually contracted a disease through animal contact
or even which species was directly involved, as different animal species carry specific
zoonotic diseases. Instances are rare, however. A year-long study conducted by the
Minnesota State Health Department looked at resident and visiting animals to 284
nursing homes and found no instances of zoonoses or allergic reactions (Ormerod, 2005).
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Even the World Health Organization (as cited in Ormerod, 2005, p. 28) dismissed
zoonoses as a concern, stating that the benefits of AAT are great and that well cared for
animals “are a danger to no-one.”
Bites and scratches, or “animal-induced accidents” are another concern often
raised by opponents of AAT/AAI. Although no statistics are currently available
specifically for animal-induced accidents related directly to AAT/AAI, animal handlers
can reduce this risk through carefully screened and trained animals. Brodie, Biley and
Shewring (2002) believe that “after careful selection of the pet-therapy animal and
education of nurses and clients alike, the risks of animal bites are minimal and should not
prevent the implementation of such therapy” (p. 454).
The concept of utilizing animals for the benefit of humans raises the ethical
dilemma of whether animals should be used for the benefit of humans and is this practice
is a form of animal exploitation? Animal welfare proponents argue that the practice of
AAT/AAI limits the freedom of the animals in use for life, the animals are
inappropriately handled, susceptible to injury and they don’t enjoy participating in such
activities. According to Zamir (2006), many species used in such programs are not
actually “pets” at all, but rather modifications of pets used solely for the benefit of
humans. He cites:
Rabbits, hamsters, chinchillas, snakes, birds, all of whom respond to human
beings but, unlike alarm or service dogs, do not appear to derive pleasure from
such interaction and seem incapable of transferring their social needs onto
humans. (Zamir, 2006, p.181)
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Zamir (2006) believes utilizing these “pet modifications” breech the classification of
“pet” and are therefore, a violation of the pet-owner relationship. He further states “if pet-
owner relationships can be morally justified, some of the therapeutic uses of animals
sketched above might be vindicated as well” (p. 183). His basis for this argument stems
from the fact that dogs and horses cannot survive without human captivity in today’s
world and “without a relationship with humans, an overwhelming number of these beings
would not exist” (p. 195). Other species, however, do not need humans for their care and
survival, and are therefore exploited for human benefit under the title of “therapy.”
Therapists, clinicians and others who utilize AAT/AAI take such animal-welfare
concerns seriously, and take measures to ensure the care, safety and welfare of their
animals in addition to the individuals they engage the animals with. Therapist and author
Aubrey H. Fine (2010) compiled five basic ethical principals of AAT that are often
incorporated into AAT/AAI programs as a guideline for therapists. As cited in King
(2002), Fine’s principles are as follows:
1. Therapy animals must be kept free from abuse, discomfort and physical
and/or mental distress.
2. Proper health care for the animal must be provided at all times.
3. All animals will be provided with a quiet place to have time away from
their work activities.
4. Client interactions must be structured to maintain the animal’s ability to
serve as a therapeutic agent.
5. Abuse or stress of a therapy animal is never permitted except when a
temporary allowance of such abuse is necessary to avoid serious injury
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to the human client. (p. 17)
Consideration must also be taken of the special needs of individual species and that the
handler is knowledgeable about the animal he/she is using. In fact, many proponents of
AAT/AAI believe that animals used in therapy are often better cared for than household
pets and their “usefulness to people often serves as a means to improve animal care,
training and treatment” (Tedeschi, Fitchett & Molidor, 2005, p. 73). Additionally, most of
the literature on AAT/AAI techniques stress that all animals are individuals with different
personalities and dispositions, and “this makes for a truly wonderful and complex
diversity in animals, and also may define each animal’s true calling and limitations”
(Tedeschi, Fitchett & Molidor, 2005, p. 73).
Nature-Based Therapy: An Alternative to Animal-Assisted Therapy
With the benefits of AAT/AAI weighed with viable concerns and ethics
surrounding the practice, recent trends have sought a mid-point that can provide similar
therapeutic benefits without the risks of harming animal or human. Nature-based therapy
is one such option. In this adaptation of AAT/AAI, Berger and McLeod (2006) state that
“nature therapy is a postmodern experiential approach based on the integration of
elements from art and drama therapy, Gestalt, narrative, eco-psychology, transpersonal
psychology, adventure therapy, shamanism and body-mind practices” (p. 82). Despite
their criticisms of AAT practice in general, Beck and Katcher (as cited in Thigpen, Ellis
& Smith, 2005) acknowledged in 2003 that nature-based therapy could be viable
alternatives to using live animals in a captive setting. According to Thigpen, Ellis and
Smith (2005), Beck and Katcher stated that “the benefits of being in a setting that
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involves plants and interacting with animals in ways other than as pets need to be
compared to the traditional methods of AAT” (¶ 17).
An advantage of this type of therapy is that no captive animals, if any at all, are
used. Instead, the therapist uses nature itself such as in a serene outdoor setting or
planned wildlife observation. Although nature-based therapy is relatively new in formal
therapeutic practice, preliminary studies suggest it may provide similar results to
AAT/AAI in decreasing stress, developing self-esteem and social skills in addition to
allowing for personal exploration and expression (Berger, 2006). The practice is
especially useful when there are barriers preventing live animal use such as human
allergies to animals, autistic oversensitivity, past aggression towards animals and
phobias. When seen as an option to traditional AAT/AAI techniques, nature-based
therapy can be a useful tool to assist individuals who may not otherwise be able to
participate, and benefit from, the therapeutic effects of a live animal.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 22
REFERENCES
American Pet Products Association. (2010). 2009-2010 APPA National Pet Owners
Survey.http://www.americanpetproducts.org.
Agnes, M. (Ed.). (2000). Webster's New World College Dictionary 4th ed. Foster City,
California: IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
Anderson, D. C. (2004). The human-companion animal bond [Electronic version].
Animals are the Issue: Library Resources on Animal Issues, 7-23.
Anderson, P. E. (2008). The Powerful Bond between People and Pets: Our Boundless
Connections to Companion Animals. Westport, Connecticut. Praeger Publishers.
Barker, S.B. & Dawson, K.S. (1998). The effects of animal-assisted therapy on anxiety
ratings of hospitalized psychiatric patients [Electronic version]. Psychiatric
Services, 49(6), 797-801.
Berger, R. (2006). Using contact with nature, creativity and rituals as a therapeutic
medium with children with learning difficulties: a case study. Emotional and
Behavioural Difficulties, 11(2), 135-146.
Berger, R. & McLeod, J. (2006). Incorporating nature into therapy: a framework for
practice. Journal of Systemic Therapies, 25(2), 80-94.
Brodie, S.J. & Biley, F.C. (1999). An exploration of the potential benefits of pet-
facilitated therapy [Electronic version]. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 8, 329-337.
Brodie, S.J., Biley, F.C. & Shewring, M. (2002). An exploration of the potential risks
associated with using pet therapy in healthcare settings. Journal of Clinical
Nursing, 11, 444-456.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 23
Delta Society. (2009a). What are animal-assisted activities/therapy.
http://www.DeltaSociety.org/AnimalAssistedActivitiesTherapy
Delta Society. (2009b). History and founders: Delta Society…the early years.
http://www.DeltaSociety.org
Fine, A.H. (2010). Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations
and Guidelines for Practice, 3rd
ed. New York: Elsevier.
Florence Nightingale Museum (2010). Collection highlights. http://www.florence-
nightingale.co.uk
Giaquinto S. & Valentini, F. (2009). Is there scientific basis for pet therapy? [Electronic
version]. Disability and Rehabilitation. 31(7). 595-598.
Grandin, T., Fine, A.H. & Bowers, C.M. (2010). The use of therapy animals with
individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Handbook on Animal-Assisted
Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for Practice, 3rd
ed. New York:
Elsevier.
Hooker, S.D., Freeman, L. & Stewart, P. (2002). Pet therapy research: a historical review
[Electronic version]. Holistic Nursing Practice, 17(1), 17-23.
Jalongo, M.R., Astorino, T. & Bomboy, N. (2004). Canine visitors: the influence of
therapy dogs on young children’s learning and well-being in classrooms and
hospitals [Electronic Version]. Early Childhood Education Journal. 32(1), 9-16.
King, L.M. (2007). Animal-Assisted Therapy: A Guide for Professional Counselors,
School Counselors, Social Workers, and Educators. Bloomington, Indiana:
AuthorHouse.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 24
Kruger, K. A. & Serpell, J.A. (2006). Animal-assisted interventions in mental health:
definitions and theoretical foundations. Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy:
Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for Practice, 3rd
ed. New York: Elsevier.
Ormerod, E. (2005). Animal companions: planning and implementing a programme
[Electronic version]. Working with Older People, 9(4), 27-30.
Tedeschi, P., Fitchett, J. & Molidor, C.E. (2005). The incorporation of animal-assisted
interventions in social work education [Electronic version]. Journal of Family
Social Work, 9(4), 59-77.
Thigpen, S.E., Ellis, S.K. & Smith, R.G. (2005). Special education in juvenile residential
facilities: can animals help? Essays in Education, 14. Retrieved from http://
www.usca.edu/essays/
U.S. National Institutes of Health. (2011, June). List results of animal-assisted therapy
studies. Retrieved from http://ClinicalTrials.gov
Velde, B.P., Cipriani, J. & Fisher, G. (2005). Resident and therapist views of animal-
assisted therapy: implications for occupational therapy practice [Electronic
version]. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 52, 43-50.
Walsh, F. (2009). Human-animal bonds I: the relational significance of companion
animals. Family Process, 48(4), 462-480.
White, T. D., Suwa, G. & Asfaw, B. (1994, September 22). Australopithecus ramidus, a
new species of early hominid from Aramis, Ethiopia. Nature, 371, 306-312.
Zamir, T. (2006). The moral basis of animal-assisted therapy. Society & Animals, 14(2),
179-199.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 25
Chapter III
Overview
With the evidence suggesting that AAT/AAI can be a useful tool to help children
with special needs decrease stress and anxiety, increase self-esteem and social interaction
and overall enhance their classroom experience, I believe utilizing such methods can be
beneficial within the scope of a special education classroom. However, teachers
interested in implementing such a program are faced with numerous obstacles such as
safety considerations for their students and the animals, meeting the husbandry needs of
the animals, policies and regulations that affect the use of animals in classroom settings,
and finally, how to develop programs that will effectively meet the needs of their
students.
With these barriers in mind, I combined my experiences as a biologist, educator
and human services clinician to create a handbook to guide and inspire the utilization of
AAT/AAI and nature therapy techniques in special education classrooms.
Rationale
Creating a comprehensive handbook for utilizing animal and nature-based therapy
into special education classrooms can be an important tool for educators who may be
unfamiliar with animal husbandry, safety considerations and regulations. Such a guide
may serve as a motivational factor when teachers are looking for other methods or tools
they can use to assist children who may have been perceived as “difficult” or “hard-to-
reach.” It is my hope that through my research and by compiling this guide, teachers will
feel more confident to try these techniques in their own classrooms and enhance the
learning experience for their students.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 26
Many resources are already available that provide lesson plans on how to
incorporate animals into learning, but I also hope that my experiences in biology,
education and human services will add a different perspective into AAT and provide a
more complete reference on how animals can be safely and humanely integrated into the
educational experience of special needs children. For this reason, I feel this study and
handbook can be beneficial for students, educators, parents, therapists and counselors and
therefore, worth the effort.
Target Population
The context of this handbook is targeted towards teachers, particularly those
working with special needs students in the younger grade levels. However, many of the
techniques outlined in this guide can be implemented by school counselors, parents,
therapists, clinicians, camp counselors, and zoo education professionals. With the
exception of certain advanced techniques that are geared for trained therapy dogs, cats
and their handlers only, the majority of these exercises can be utilized in any classroom
setting as long as the precautions, regulations and any added “special” considerations
noted in each section are followed.
Chapter Descriptions
Chapter 1: In this introductory chapter, the reader is provided with considerations
for animal and human welfare, health concerns and state regulations that may influence
bringing live animals into the classroom. The chapter concludes with a guideline to using
the handbook.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 27
Chapter 2: Readers are introduced to invertebrates such as insects, millipedes and
hermit crabs and provided with basic husbandry information. The chapter concludes with
sample activities readers can bring into their classrooms.
Chapter 3: This chapter outlines descriptions and basic care techniques for bettas,
goldfish and freshwater tropical fish species followed by sample lesson plans.
Chapter 4: In this chapter, readers are introduced to reptile species that may be
appropriate for classrooms along with safety considerations, basic husbandry techniques
and sample activities.
Chapter 5: Readers are provided with an overview of “Pocket Pet” species such as
hamsters, gerbils, rats and mice along with care instructions and sample activities.
Chapter 6: This chapter shapes the framework for animal-assisted therapy training
and certification with dogs and cats. Resources are provided for such training and sample
activity plans are provided.
Appendix: The appendix contains a list of helpful websites on animal-assisted and
recreational therapy, a list of recommended readings and finally, the list of resources used
in the research of this handbook.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 28
Animal-Assisted Therapy,
Interventions and Nature-
Based Activities for Special
Education Classrooms
A Handbook for Teachers and Students
Created by: Laurie L. Camp
Animal-Assisted Therapy 29
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 – Animal Therapists: Their Roles and Your Responsibility
Introduction
What Animal Therapists Are
What Animal Therapists Are Not
Special Considerations for Animals
Ethics and Regulations
Educators and Virginia’s Wildlife Laws
The Creatures of Comfort Commandments
Special Considerations for Humans
Zoonoses
Allergies
How to Use this Guide
Nature-Based Options
“Paws Up” Rating Guide
“From the Front Lines” and Other Symbols
Chapter 2 – Invertebrate Ambassadors
Bugs and Insects
Hermit Crabs
Activities
Chapter 3 - Aquatic Therapists
Fish
Activities
Chapter 4 – Tails and Scales
Reptiles
Activities
Chapter 5 - Pint-Sized Pals
Pocket Pets (Hamsters, Gerbils Rats, Mice)
Activities
Chapter 6 - Compassionate Companions: Cats and Dogs
Special Considerations, Resources and Training
Activities
Appendix
Helpful Websites
Recommended Reading
List of Resources
Animal-Assisted Therapy 30
CHAPTER 1
Animal Therapists:
Their Roles and Your Responsibility
Helen Keller and her beloved pit-bull.
www.epilepsy.com
Animal-Assisted Therapy 31
Introduction
“No, she doesn’t want to touch! She has cerebral palsy and doesn’t know what that thing
is!”
I remember this statement clearly from one of my first days working as a public educator
for The Virginia Zoo in Norfolk, Virginia. I was conducting a children’s birthday party and
amongst the chaos of excited four-year-olds, I noticed a woman taking an older girl out of a
utility wheelchair and holding her away from the group in the back of the room. The lady placed
the girl on her lap and watched me gather the rest of the children into a circle. I motioned to the
girl to join us, but the woman holding her shook her head and waved me away. I continued on,
bringing out a variety of animals and allowing each child the opportunity to touch and ask
questions. I presented a millipede, a frog, and then a snake. Each animal brought its own squeals
and excited questions from the children, but each time I came near the lady with the girl on her
lap, she put her hand up and silently waved me away.
“Well, maybe she’s not a millipede, frog or snake fan,” I thought to myself.
The last animal proved to be a crowd favorite – a golden lionhead rabbit named Snickers.
This time, I approached the lady and kneeled down with Snickers before the girl. Her eyes opened
wide, her facial expression lit up and she began reaching towards the rabbit. That’s when the lady
pulled her back, and snapped the comment that changed my career direction as a biologist and
educator:
“No, she doesn’t want to touch! She has cerebral palsy and doesn’t know what that thing
is!”
With that comment, the girl was deprived of her chance to experience something new and
possibly even opening a therapeutic outlet into her world. No, I didn’t care if she grasped that
Snickers was a mammal, a lagomorph, or any other biological jargon that can be found in any
textbook. That didn’t matter. What could make a difference however were the sensory benefits
the girl would gain from feeling the rabbit’s soft fur, his warmth, and the emotional bond gained
from interaction between a non-judgmental animal and a child trapped in a labeling world.
This experience has led me to explore the power of the human-animal bond and the
possible therapeutic effects on special needs children. This concept, often referred to as Animal-
Assisted Therapy (AAT) or Animal-Assisted Intervention (AAI), is not new. Dogs have been
utilized for therapeutic purposes for decades and canine use has captured much of the attention,
both positive and negative, surrounding AAT over the years. However, I believe different animal
species and nature experiences can also provide therapeutic benefits and reach special needs
children not often considered eligible for AAT due to behavioral issues and/or severity of the
disability.
My experiences as both a biologist and educator have led me to explore whether the use
of animals can be useful in correcting disruptive behaviors and influencing positive ones among
special needs children and if so, how teachers can apply animal-assisted therapy in a special
education classroom setting. With this thought in mind, I created this “tool box” for educators in
the form of a handbook on how to incorporate animal-assisted therapy, complete with policies,
safety considerations and educational plans, into classrooms with special needs children.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 32
What Animal Therapists Are
Animal Therapists ARE:
Living beings with feelings, needs and the ability to feel
pain
A life-long commitment relying on you for their care, health,
safety and protection
Counting on you to learn about their individual
requirements, preferences and behaviors
Subject to district, city, state and organizational policies
and regulations
Non-judgmental listeners and observers
Silent communicators and motivators
Grief counselors, depression deterrents, anxiety relievers,
sensory enhancers, trust builders and loneliness fighters
Apt to have mood swings, stress and bad days – just like
the rest of us!
Animal-Assisted Therapy 33
What Animal Therapists Are Not
Animal Therapists are NOT…
Disposable objects for short-term benefit – plan on being
responsible for their care for life!
Always predictable…expect the unexpected and be
prepared for anything!
Always welcomed or appropriate for every person or
setting.
Human! Don’t “give” them human traits or behaviors.
Always able to tell you when they are ill, uncomfortable,
hurt, stressed, tired or just not in the mood to interact.
A “cure” for every behavior, illness or disorder.
Miracle workers – but they can come close!
Animal-Assisted Therapy 34
Special Considerations for Animals
Ethics and Regulations:
Animals are living, breathing organisms which require species-
specific care, handling and knowledge to maintain their safety
and welfare in addition to the safety and welfare of the humans
they interact with. All animal species are subject to district,
city, state and other regulations regarding acquisition, use,
breeding and care in private and public settings. Some species
may require special permits and/or documentation of origin.
DO YOUR HOMEWORK!
Before considering using animals in a classroom, animal-
assisted therapy program or animal-interaction activity, please
check your school or organization’s individual policies in
addition to consulting local and state laws to ensure proper
and legal use of animals in your program!
The following pages contain a guide available from the
Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries designed to
assist educators with the state’s wildlife laws and regulations.
These laws vary by state…Check with your state’s Department
of Game and Inland Fisheries, Department of Natural
Resources or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (www.fws.gov)
for additional information .
Animal-Assisted Therapy 35
Educators and
Virginia’s Wildlife
Laws by Carol A. Heiser, Wildlife Division, The Virginia Department of Game and Inland
Fisheries
At teacher workshops, programs, and other educator trainings around the state we are frequently asked
questions about wildlife laws. “What kinds of animals can I keep in my classroom?” “Is it O.K. to buy native animals for educational purposes?” “What do I do if one of my students brings a bird nest or an
injured animal to school?”
In this article we will try to provide a basic overview of some of the most widely cited wildlife laws to
help answer these questions. However, this article is only a general summary of wildlife laws in
Virginia and does not attempt to address all laws, permits, conditions, or exceptions. If you have
questions about more specific aspects of the law, please call one of the contacts listed at the end of this
article.
Why We Have Wildlife Laws Between 1700 and 1900, Virginia’s landscape changed dramatically. Increasing numbers of settlers
meant a sharp rise in the number of forested acres that were cleared for agriculture, new communities,
and transportation for commerce. During the same period, wide scale and unregulated hunting and
trapping of large game and other fur-bearing mammals for the meat market trade put additional
pressure on wildlife populations. The demand for feathers in ladies’ hats for the millinery trade also
severely impacted wild bird populations. The extensive habitat loss that resulted from clearing large
acreages of the eastern deciduous forest was the primary factor that caused sharp reductions in wildlife
population numbers. With habitat being reduced at such rapid rates, combined with the effects of
unregulated harvesting, many wildlife species could not adapt successfully to survive, and some
species were virtually non-existent by the early l900s. Few people realize, for example, that by 1911
there were no beaver left in Virginia, white-tailed deer were rare in the western part of the state,
Canada geese were infrequently sighted, and the Carolina parakeet, the elk, and the bison had long
since disappeared. Because of this history and a growing realization of the economic value of wildlife,
Virginia officially began its wildlife conservation efforts in 1916 with the passage of a law that
established the Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries.
Today, as then, one of the missions of the DGIF is “to manage Virginia’s wildlife and inland fish to
maintain optimum populations of all species to serve the needs of the Commonwealth.” Since 1916,
many wildlife-related laws have been passed that protect game as well as non-game species. These
laws have substantially helped curb declining population numbers such that many species have
experienced a successful comeback. For example, the deer population in Virginia is now greater than
it was when settlers first came to the continent, and beaver populations have become re-established
throughout the state. The great blue heron has also made a tremendous recovery since the turn of the
century. Wildlife laws also serve to control commercial exploitation and illegal trade. Game laws set
hunting seasons that do not conflict with breeding seasons and bag limits that regulate animal harvest. Other laws require specific permits to collect, possess, propagate, exhibit, or sell native species. In
addition, wildlife laws that restrict importation ensure that non-native species are not introduced from
Animal-Assisted Therapy 36
other states or countries that might otherwise out compete native species, dilute the natural gene pool,
alter the environment, or introduce diseases.
How Wildlife Laws Are Made The complexity of wildlife laws may make you wonder how all those details are actually worked out.
The process involves two decision-making bodies: the General Assembly of Virginia, and the Board
of the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries. A bill that is introduced to the General
Assembly must be passed by both houses of that body before it can be sent to the Governor. Once it
has been passed, the Governor must sign the bill in order for it to become law. Laws of the
Commonwealth established this way are then written into Virginia State Code. The numbers given in
parenthesis at the end of each law quoted in this article refer to a section of regulation or Code. Since
most laws cannot cover all of the details that may be needed to effectively carry them out, additional
regulations are written to cover the specifics.
This “nuts and bolts” part of the process is where the DGIF comes in. The staff and Board of the
DGIF spend months and sometimes years developing the basic regulations that govern the way
wildlife is managed in the Commonwealth. A team of biologists, environmental planners and law
enforcement officers take all aspects of a particular wildlife species into account when they develop
recommendations. These aspects include the biology of the species, such as how they reproduce, as
well as their habitat requirements and their population numbers. Once all of the data and analyses are
complete, recommendations for a particular regulation are then made to the DGIF Board. This Board
consists of 11 members appointed by the Governor, with one representative selected from each
congressional district in the state. The Board meets approximately six times a year to set regulations
and policy for the operation of the Department. Proposed regulations are presented at public meetings
so that anyone who has an interest in them is able to voice their opinion. Once the discussion is
complete, the Board votes on the regulation and sets a date for when it will take effect if it passed.
Laws, regulations and permit conditions are enforced by game wardens in the Law Enforcement
Division of the DGIF. Like a state trooper, a warden can write tickets, take people into custody, and
can issue summons to appear in court if a person breaks either a law or a regulation. Laws and
regulations are written in the best interests of Virginia’s wildlife and for your safety and well-being.
As a citizen, you have the right to participate in this legal process and to comment on laws and
regulations both before and after they are enacted.
The Laws in Brief Being familiar with some basic legal definitions is crucial to a thorough understanding of wildlife
laws. [See definitions below.] The word take, for example, legally means to harass, harm, pursue,
hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, possess or collect, or to attempt to engage in any such conduct
(4 VAC 15-20-140). The word person means any individual, firm, corporation, association, or partnership (4 VAC 15-20-140). Possession is the exercise of control of any wild animal, wild bird,
fish or fur-bearing animal, or any part of the carcass thereof (29.1-100). Such definitions are very
specific so as to minimize inaccurate or deliberately misleading interpretations of the law. In this way,
the original intent of the law is less likely to be distorted or misconstrued.
Know This Law! Perhaps the most important regulation to be aware of is fairly short and sweet: Under authority of 29.1-103 and 29.1-521 of the Code of Virginia it shall be unlawful to take, possess, import, cause to
be imported, export, cause to be exported, buy, sell, offer for sale, or liberate within the
Commonwealth any wild animal unless otherwise specifically permitted by law or regulation (4 VAC
15-30-10). In other words, unless a particular wildlife activity, purpose, or use is specifically
authorized by law, you can assume it’s illegal. It is up to you to find out whether or not the activity is
authorized!
Animal-Assisted Therapy 37
Collecting Live Aquatic Invertebrates, Amphibians,
Reptiles, and Non-game Fish Virginia law specifies how many and what type of wild animals you can legally collect and/or have in
your possession at any given time. The following personal possession limits do not require a permit
but instead are purposefully designed to discourage wildlife collecting so that existing levels of
wildlife populations will not be jeopardized.
According to 4 VAC 15-360-10:
It shall be lawful to capture and possess live for private use and not for sale (excluding threatened and endangered species provided for in 4 VAC 15-20-130)
• no more than five individuals of any single native or naturalized (as defined in 4 VAC 15-20-50)
species of amphibian and reptile and • 20 individuals of any single native or naturalized (as defined in 4 VAC 15-20-50) species of aquatic
invertebrate and nongame fish....
• …The following species may be taken in unlimited numbers from inland waters statewide: carp,
bowfin, longnose gar, mullet, bullhead catfish, suckers, gizzard shad, blueback herring, white perch,
yellow perch, alewife, stoneroller (hornyhead), fathead minnow, golden shiner and goldfish.... • …‘fish bait’ shall be defined as native or naturalized species of minnows and chubs (Cyprinidae),
salamanders, crayfish, and hellgrammites. The possession limit for taking fish bait shall be 50 individuals in aggregate, unless said person has purchased ‘fish bait’and has a receipt specifying the
number of individuals purchased by species....
• …The daily limit for bullfrogs and snapping turtles shall be 15....
The above quotations are only excerpts of a lengthy regulation. In addition to the above, this
regulation details what methods are allowed for collecting the animals and what areas of the state are
restricted from taking mollusks or salamanders. Albino reptiles and albino amphibians or those
domestic animals as defined in 4 VAC 15-20-50 (4 VAC 15-30-30) can be possessed live in any
number without a permit.
What This Means to the Educator... Note that the above possession limits are given for private use, and they address the collection of live
animals only (hunting is a completely different issue). The regulation is interpreted by game officials
to mean wildlife that you collect live and bring home to keep, either for a short period of time or
indefinitely. If you are an educator and choose to bring the live animal(s) into your school or
classroom for educational purposes, as an individual you can only have the limit specified by law.
So, for example, a teacher may collect five live tadpoles for “private use” and choose to keep them in
his/her possession in a classroom setting. However, each student in the class cannot bring in five
tadpoles and leave them with the teacher as a “classroom collection,” because the teacher would then
be holding or “possessing” more than the five legally allowed to him/her for private use.
To carry this example further, each child in the class could only have five tadpoles apiece if the
animals would stay in the children’s possession and would be taken back home at the end of the day
(i.e. for their “private use”). A prudent educator who understands that the intent of this law is to
protect wildlife populations by controlling widespread collection will teach students to leave wildlife
in its natural setting. Instilling an ethic of respect that encourages patient observation of wildlife in the
environment and discourages collecting animals as neat “pets” is one of the challenges educators face
in the 21st century.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 38
Collecting Live Invertebrates, Mammals, and Birds Invertebrates The regulations governing our smaller critters such as insects are much more lenient: Earthworms may
be taken at any time for private or commercial use (4 VAC 15-20-180). Also, except as otherwise
provided for in 3.1-1020 through 3.1- 1030 and 29.1-418 of the Code of Virginia and in 4 VAC 15-
20-130, 4 VAC 15-30-10 et seq. and 4 VAC 15-360-10 invertebrates, other than those listed as
endangered or threatened, may be taken for private use (4 VAC 15-20-180).
Mammals In general, you cannot capture or collect live mammals or birds in Virginia for any purpose except
under limited situations with a special permit. This includes the errant raccoon or squirrel in your
attic! Please review the language of 4 VAC 15-30-10 listed under the “Know This Law” section. Also
remember that it is unlawful to take, possess, transport or sell all other wildlife species not classified
as game, furbearer or nuisance, or otherwise specifically permitted by law or regulation (4 VAC 15-
20-160).
Birds, Feathers, and Nests There is no provision in the Code of Virginia to live collect and/or possess wild birds except under an
appropriate permit or license or as directly specified by law. Migratory game birds (doves, ducks,
brant, geese, swan, coot, gallinules, sora and other rails, snipe and woodcock) as defined in § 29.1-100
of the Code of Virginia and non-migratory game birds (grouse, pheasant, bobwhite quail, and turkey)
as defined in §29.1-100 of the Code of Virginia can only be taken with a valid Virginia hunting
license in accordance with wildlife regulations. Also, hunting any waterfowl requires a federal
Migratory Waterfowl Stamp (“Duck Stamp”) in addition to the hunting license. Most other birds for
which Federal hunting regulations have not been set and which are not officially listed by state law as
a migratory game bird, a non-migratory game bird, a nuisance species, or a threatened or endangered
species are federally regulated and protected under the provisions of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.
The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service is the federal agency which administers the provisions of this Act.
The Act also prohibits collecting any bird feathers or nests unless specifically allowed under the terms
of a salvage permit, a falconry permit or a raptor propagation permit.
What This Means to the Educator... Since birds and mammals are carefully regulated, it is important to explain these laws to your
students. If, for example, a student brings in a baby bird or mammal to school, there are a few things
you can tell the student. First, the majority of young animals that we think are orphaned really are not:
the parent animal is usually close by or well aware of the young’s location, although it is not often
apparent to us. Second, let them know that even though they may be “just trying to help,” the laws
were made for all people to follow and to protect wildlife from improper collection. Third, as soon as
you take in a wild animal, you have interfered with its ability to survive on its own. The longer a wild
animal is kept in captivity, the more difficult it will be for that animal to readjust back in its natural
setting if it is released. If a student does bring in an injured bird or animal, instruct the student to take
that animal to a licensed wildlife rehabilitator or veterinarian who has the proper training and
facilities to treat and care for it.
A Note About Releasing Animals Once an animal has been kept in captivity for any length of time, its chances of surviving when
released into the wild are very nominal. This is because the time that it takes for the animal to adjust
successfully to its new environment is longer than the time it takes to be preyed upon by a predator,
succumb to disease, or die of starvation or thirst. Also, because of the nature of captivity (close
quarters, for example, or inadequate hygiene), captive animals are more likely to contract diseases that their wild counterparts may not have been exposed to. Hence, when the captive animal is released, it
may introduce disease to the wild population that could impact the latter’s numbers. There is also a
genetic issue when one considers captive-bred animals. Animals which have been crossed and re-
Animal-Assisted Therapy 39
crossed with different gene pools and have been bred for new characteristics no longer represent the
gene pool of the wild population that they originally came from. There is therefore a concern for the
potential negative environmental impacts of a release. Similarly, picking up a wild animal like a box
turtle in one part of the state while on vacation and releasing it in your backyard in another part of the
state introduces new genes to the turtle population that evolved in your area. Although the effect of
this example may seem insignificant, it is the cumulative effect of our actions over the centuries that
have such a great impact on our wildlife populations, often with irreversible results. Because of all
these reasons, it is unlawful to liberate within the Commonwealth any wild animal unless otherwise
specifically permitted by law or regulation (4 VAC 15-30-10). Also, although exotic animals not
classified as predatory, threatened/endangered, or undesirable may be possessed and sold, they shall
not be liberated within the Commonwealth (4 VAC 15-30-40F). In addition, any birds or animals
otherwise classed as predatory or undesirable, may not be imported into the Commonwealth or liberated therein, except under a special permit (4 VAC 15-30-20).
What This Means to the Educator... Since we know from the above law that you cannot legally release any animal into the wild, it should
be clear that any animal you buy or legally collect live must remain in captivity for the rest of its
life. Therefore, you should not acquire any animal unless you are prepared to care for it the rest of its
life or to make future arrangements for its care. If, for example, you have been legally holding a native
wild animal in your possession for several months and you decide you no longer wish to keep it, you
might give the animal away to another permitted or licensed person or institution who will take care of
it, with the understanding that they will not release it. A local veterinarian or the Permits Section of
the Department of Game and Inland Fisheries may also suggest other options (see last page for more
information).
Buying and/or Selling Wildlife Buying and/or selling wildlife in Virginia is also strictly regulated. In general, it is unlawful to buy or
sell any wild bird or wild animal or the carcass or any part thereof; except as specifically permitted
by law (29.1-521). Here are some other regulations and guidelines regarding buying and selling:
Game fish are only sold under certain conditions, namely for the purpose of stocking private
waters (such as a pond or lake), for stocking public waters (but only with approval from the
DGIF), and for human consumption (4 VAC 15-320-40). This regulation is not intended to
allow the sale of game fish for display in an aquarium. A school teacher or other individual
may possess and display game fish in an aquarium provided that they hold a valid fishing
license and provided that the fish were legally obtained by an individual possessing a valid
fishing license.
Minnows and chubs can be purchased for any purpose, as well as crayfish and hellgrammites,
provided they are purchased from a dealer who is authorized by the Virginia Department of
Game and Inland Fisheries to collect, hold, and sell them (4 VAC 15-360-20; 4 VAC 15-
360-30).
The Game Department is now issuing permits to licensed pet stores and captive breeders for
them to sell three species of captive-bred snakes (4 VAC 15-360-50): eastern kingsnake, mole
kingsnake, and corn snake. No other snakes native to Virginia can be bought or sold in
Virginia, and there are size limits as to what can be sold.
No threatened or endangered species may be bought or sold for any purposes at any time,
whether dead or alive, including their parts.
Because the Lacey Act restricts the interstate transport of birds and other animals, federal
laws prohibit moving fish and wildlife into the state if they were illegally taken elsewhere. Therefore, if you make a wildlife purchase from an out-of-state supplier, the species must
have been legally collected, propagated, and/or sold according to the laws of that state.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 40
The bullfrog, green frog, southern leopard frog, and green tree frog can only be bought for
educational or research purposes if they are purchased from a permitted captive breeder in
Virginia or from a properly permitted business out-of-state (4 VAC 15-360-50).
When taken in accordance with the provisions of law or regulation, muskrat, opossum,
rabbits, raccoon and squirrels may be bought and sold during the open hunting season only,
but the hides, furs or pelts of fur-bearing animals legally taken and possessed, and the carcass of any fur-bearing animal may be sold at any time.... (29.1- 536 )
Nuisance Species The following 12 animals are officially considered nuisance species in Virginia and may be taken
(harvested) at any time without a collector’s permit (4 VAC 15-20-160):
House mouse
Norway rat
Black rat
Coyote
Sika deer
Feral hog
Nutria
Woodchuck
European starling
English (house) sparrow
Pigeon (rock dove)
Mute swan
Historically, many of these animals were associated with significant economic concerns or health
problems, and over time became viewed as “nuisances.” It is also lawful to take striped skunks
(Mephitis mephitis) at any time (4 VAC 15-220-10), although this species is not technically part of the
nuisance list. For further information on this topic of what, when and how nuisance animals may be
taken, please contact the Permits and Lifetime License Section.
Threatened and Endangered Species Currently, there are a little over 100 wildlife species that are officially listed as threatened or
endangered in Virginia, and over 900 worldwide ranging from millipedes to whales. Some of these
species are considered “federal endangered,” while others are “state endangered.” Over 50 additional
species are now being considered as federal candidates for the list. While the list is too long to include
here, it is available on request and should be consulted before conducting any wildlife collecting
activities. (See the section “Official Listings Available.”) Under the provisions of the law, it shall be unlawful to take, transport, process, sell or offer for sale within the Commonwealth any threatened or
endangered species of fish or wildlife (4 VAC 15-20-130).
Exotics There are additional requirements regarding exotic or non-native species which are animals that do not
occur naturally in Virginia. Biologists view non-native species with caution because these animals can
cause irreparable harm to a habitat and/or an entire population of native species. Some examples of
prior introductions that easily come to mind are the English house sparrow, the European starling, the
gypsy moth, and more recently, the zebra mussel. Educators should be particularly aware when
ordering lab specimens from mail order catalogs that availability from a catalog does not necessarily mean that you can lawfully possess that animal in Virginia. For example, the marine toad, African
Animal-Assisted Therapy 41
clawed frog and piranha may be popular catalog items, but they are included as predatory and
undesirable in VAC 15-30-40.
When a non-native or exotic species is introduced to a new environment, it competes with native
species that were previously well-adapted to the way things were. The non-native population therefore
creates additional pressure on the native wildlife population by introducing new diseases and by
competing for suitable nest sites, food, and other habitat requirements. In addition, the non-native
species may now be living in a new ecosystem where its natural predators do not occur to keep its
population in check. The net result is often that native species have difficulty adapting and competing,
and their numbers subsequently decrease. Importation laws and multi-state policies protect against
such introductions of non-native species. A special permit is required to import, possess, or sell a
whole range of exotic species that are classed as predatory or undesirable within the meaning and intent of Title 29.1-542 of the Code of Virginia, in that their introduction into the Commonwealth will
be detrimental to the native fish and wildlife resources of Virginia (4 VAC 15-30-40).
Using This Information in the Classroom There are several Project WILD activities you can use to help teach about the legislative process.
Project WILD is a supplementary wildlife curriculum for teachers of students in grades K-12. The
curriculum guide is only available by attending a free six-hour workshop sponsored by the
Department of Game and Inland Fisheries (call the WILD Coordinator for more details at 804/367-
0188).
“Wild Bill’s Fate” gives students an opportunity to compare the different viewpoints that people have
about pending wildlife legislation. “Know Your Legislation: What’s in it for Wildlife?” carries the
process further by guiding students in selecting a piece of current wildlife legislation that they’re
interested in and getting in touch with elected officials to express their views.
Another approach is to try the “Cabin Conflict” activity in which students set up their classroom as a
courtroom and role-play various points of view of a land-use issue that affects wildlife. “To Zone or
Not to Zone” is a similar activity that illustrates the complexities of land-use planning and decisions
that must consider differing viewpoints. Students might even be encouraged to write their own
proposal or bill about a wildlife issue and submit it to their General Assembly representative. Or, have
a local elected official visit your school and talk with the students about a local issue.
Although the above activities are geared towards upper grade level students, lower grade level
students might also explore their opinions on a simple issue that concerns their local community, as in
the activity “Changing Attitudes.” Students might interview parents and friends and record their
different thoughts and views in a journal-writing activity. They could follow this up with some
research in local newspapers and the library to find out more about both sides of the issue, then write
what their conclusion is about the matter.
Types of Permits Although the regulations are rigid and all-encompassing, teachers and other educators do have a few
avenues open to them if they are serious about wildlife conservation but still want to bring wildlife
into their schools for educational purposes. The following permits are those that the Virginia
Department of Game and Inland Fisheries may issue. Applications, instructions, and reporting forms
may be downloaded from www.dgif.virginia.gov .
Scientific Collection Permit: for research or educational purposes. This permit allows you to
collect live animals from the wild and possess them for scientific or educational purposes.
You will need an additional federal permit from the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service in order
Animal-Assisted Therapy 42
to perform research on birds. You will be required to report each year what was collected,
where it was collected, etc., or the permit will not be renewed.
Salvage Permit: for research or educational purposes. This permit allows you to collect dead
animals or parts and parts for scientific or educational purposes. You will need an additional
federal permit from the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service in order to collect dead birds, bird parts,
feathers, or nests. You will be required to report each year what was collected, where it was
collected, etc., or the permit will not be renewed.
Exhibitor’s Permit: for educational or scientific use to hold and display wildlife. This
applies to game fish, birds, mammals, as well as non-game fish, amphibians, reptiles, and
aquatic invertebrates. Nature centers and parks which do not charge a fee typically fall under
this category, as might a school system which is planning several exhibits in an
environmental education facility. There are fees associated with these permits. Please call the
number at the end of this article and ask for the Permits Section.
Official Listings Available The Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries has a web-based, computerized system of
databases, the Virginia Fish and Wildlife Information System (VAFWIS) that provides users with
information about wildlife in the Commonwealth. This may be accessed through the Department web
page at www.dgif.virginia.gov by choosing “Wildlife,” then “Wildlife Information and Mapping
Services,” and finally “Virginia Fish and Wildlife Information Services.” Complete listings of all
native and naturalized species, threatened and endangered species, and species of special concern are
also available from the “Wildlife” page by selecting “Virginia’s Wildlife.”
For More Information Main Agency phone number (804) 367-1000.
Exhibitor’s permit: Permits Section (804) 367-9588.
Scientific collection, salvage, or threatened and endangered species permits, and issues
regarding nongame wildlife: Wildlife Diversity Division, (804) 367- 6913.
Game mammals: Wildlife Division (804) 367-0904
Game fish: Fisheries Division (804) 367-0509
Violations, licenses, and the law: Law Enforcement Division (804) 367-0171.
Federal laws and permits: Northeast Region of the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (413) 253-
8643.
Wildlife Crime Line: 1-800-237-5712 or e-mail WildCrime@dgif.virginia.gov.
To view the complete wildlife laws in the Code of Virginia, go to the web site of the Virginia
General Assembly at www.legis.state.va.us and click on “Code of Virginia.” Then click on
“Table of Contents” and scroll down to “Title 29.1—Game, Inland Fisheries and Boating.”
If you decide to purchase an animal that is native to Virginia for educational
or research purposes, be sure to check that the seller is authorized to do so and has the proper permits.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 43
Things to Remember Do…
Keep records of any animal purchase or any animal specimen donated to your
school.
Teach our students not to collect wild animals or other wildlife-related specimens
such as feathers, nests, bones, etc. Encourage them to observe wildlife in its
natural setting and keep a journal of what they see.
Call the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries for more specific
information about wildlife laws that are not covered in this article.
Don’t… Collect or buy any animal that occurs naturally in Virginia without knowing the
law! Call your county Game Warden.
Buy wild animals from other states unless they have been legally collected or
propagated according to the laws of that state.
Release any captive animals to the wild. This is neither healthy for the individual
animals released, nor for the environment they’re released to.
If you decide to purchase an animal that is native to Virginia for educational or research purposes, be sure
to check that the seller is authorized to do so and has the proper permits.
Definitions: (from §29.1-100 of the
Code of Virginia and 4 VAC 15-20-50) Wild Animal—any member of the animal kingdom, except domestic animals, including without
limitation any native, naturalized, or non-native (exotic) mammal, fish, bird, amphibian, reptile,
mollusk, crustacean, arthropod or other invertebrate, and includes any hybrid thereof; except as
otherwise specified in regulations of the board, or part, product, egg, or offspring thereof; or the
dead body or parts of them. (4 VAC 15-20-50)
Naturalized Animal—those species and subspecies of animals not originally native to Virginia
which have established wild, self-sustaining populations, as included in the department’s 1991
official listing of “Native and Naturalized Fauna of Virginia.” (4 VAC 15-20-50)
Game Animal—Game means wild animals and wild birds that are commonly hunted for sport or
food. Game animal means deer, bear, rabbit, fox, squirrel, bobcat and raccoon. (§29.1-100 of the
Code of Virginia)
Native Animal—those species and subspecies of animals naturally occurring in Virginia, as
included in the department’s 1991 official listing of “Native and Naturalized Fauna of Virginia.”
(4 VAC 15-20-50)
Domestic Animal—This term is commonly accepted to mean animals which humans have tamed
in captivity or bred for particular genetic traits. Although all domestic animals at one time had
their origin in wild species, they no longer share those distinguishing “wild” traits. The following
animals are defined as domestic animals (4 VAC 15-20-50):
*Domestic - dog (including wolf hybrids); cat (including hybrids with wild felines); horse
(including hybrids with Equus asinus); ass/burro/donkey; cattle; sheep; goat; swine
(including pot-bellied pig).
*Domesticated races of - hamsters; mink; red fox (where their coat color can be
distinguished from wild red fox); guinea pigs; gerbils; chinchillas; rats; mice; European
rabbit; chickens; turkeys; ducks and geese distinguishable morphologically from wild
birds; pigeons (and feral pigeons); guinea fowl; peafowl.
*Also, llama, alpaca, and camels are designated domestic under this law.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 44
Exotic Animal—The term non-native (exotic) animal means those species and subspecies of
animals not naturally occurring in Virginia, excluding domestic and naturalized species. (4 VAC
15-20-50)
Game Fish—means trout (including all Salmonidae), all of the sunfish family (including
largemouth bass, smallmouth bass and spotted bass, rock bass, bream, bluegill and crappie),
walleye or pike perch, white bass, chain pickerel or jackfish, muskellunge, and northern pike,
wherever such fish are found in the waters of this Commonwealth and rockfish or striped bass
where found above tidewaters or in streams which are blocked from access from tidewaters by
dams (§ 29.1-100) except those species that may be listed as Threatened or Endangered.
Fur-Bearing Animals—includes beaver, bobcat, fox, mink, muskrat, opossum, otter, raccoon,
skunk, and weasel
By law, no more than five individuals of any species of amphibian or reptile, such as this five-lined skink,
may be taken from the wild for one’s “private use.”
Originally published April, 1998 with the assistance of Fred Leckie, Jeff Uerz, Becky Wajda, Bob
Ellis, and Dave Dowling. Revised March, 2004 with the assistance of Kathy Graham.
Last revised January 2005.
Produced by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries
P.O. Box 11104
4010 West Broad Street
Richmond, VA 23230-1104
804/367-1000/VTDD
www.dgif.virginia.gov
Animal-Assisted Therapy 45
Modified from The Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for
Practice by Aubrey H. Fine (2010).
1. Thou shall match the animal to the individual’s needs.
2. Thou shall integrate the animal interaction to the therapeutic goals
of the individual.
3. Thou will understand the dynamics of therapist, individual and animal.
4. Thou will explore the role of family animals and other family
members.
5. Thou shall be sensitive to potential aggression from the individual
towards the animal.
6. Thou will consider alternative animal experiences as appropriate
such as puppets, books, toys, stuffed animals, etc…
7. Thou shall be aware of cultural attitudes and family history towards
animals.
8. Thou shall carefully consider if animal therapy is appropriate for
each situation and individual.
9. Thou shall make animal and human welfare the top priority at all
times!
Animal-Assisted Therapy 46
Special Considerations for Humans
Zoonotic Diseases
Zoonoses: Diseases that can be transmitted
from animals to humans.
Zoonoses, although rare, must be considered a
possibility whenever people and animals come in
contact with each other, especially in confined areas where
many people may touch an animal at one time.
To reduce the risk of zoonotic diseases: Learn about which animal species are potential
carriers.
Recognize transmission modes and symptoms.
Have your animal checked thoroughly by a certified
veterinarian.
Follow proper care and handling of your animal.
Practice sanitization techniques such as the use of
anti-bacterial agents and hand-washing before and
after all animal handling.
Seek medical treatment for ALL bites and scratches,
even those that may seem superficial.
www.tal.ifas.ufl.edu
Animal-Assisted Therapy 47
Common Zoonotic Diseases of Pet/Companion Animals
Animal Diseases Transmission Prevention Reptiles: turtles, snakes,
and lizards
Amphibians:
salamanders, frogs,
toads
Salmonella,
Campylobacter,
Mycobacterium
Contact with fecal
matter on animal or in
habitat.
Use of anti-bacterial hand
agents, limit contact with
feces, proper diet of non-
wild food, frequent
maintenance of habitat.
*Avoid all direct contact
with amphibians due to
their permeable skin! Use
moistened gloves to
handle amphibians.
Birds: parrots,
parakeets, canaries,
finches, chickens and
waterfowl
Salmonella, Parrot Fever
(psittacosis), Ornithosis
Inhalation or digestion
of feces or nasal
secretions from infected
birds, mites and/or lice.
Obtain birds from
reputable breeders;
maintain birds in a stress-
free environment, careful
observation and
immediate treatment if
disease is suspected.
Fish: Tropical and/or
cold freshwater
Leptospirosis (Weil’s
disease), Tyzzer’s disease,
Mycobacterium marinum
Very rare: possibly
transmitted by tank
cleaning.
Maintain optimum tank
conditions, conduct
partial water changes
frequently, use gloves
when cleaning extremely
dirty tanks.
Small Mammals: rats,
mice, gerbils, hamsters,
guinea pigs, rabbits
Salmonella, Ringworm,
Trichophyton,
Dermatophytosis
Varied, usually through
direct contact via bites
or scratches.
Maintain proper habitat
sanitation, be observant to
stress caused by frequent
handling, clean and
disinfect all scratches and
bites.
Cats and Kittens Ringworm,
Toxoplasmosis,
Tapeworm, Guiardia
Direct physical contact
and improper feeding
practices.
Sanitize hands following
contact with litter, feces
or unclean animal.
Maintain vaccinations and
veterinary check-ups.
Clean, disinfect and seek
medical attention for bites
and scratches.
Dogs and Puppies Roundworms, Ringworm,
Sporotrichosis fungus
Direct physical contact
and improper feeding
practices.
Sanitize hands following
contact with litter, feces
or unclean animal.
Maintain vaccinations and
veterinary check-ups.
Clean, disinfect and seek
medical attention for bites
and scratches. Modified from: (Brodie, Biley & Shewring, 2002) and (Bailey, retrieved June, 2011)
Animal-Assisted Therapy 48
Allergies
Before deciding on a therapy animal for your classroom or
organization, be aware that many individuals have allergic
reactions to some animal species or the habitat conditions
required for their survival. While many allergies are mild,
ranging from skin irritation to sneezing, some can be life-
threatening and require immediate emergency attention.
DO YOUR HOMEWORK!
Check with parents, guardians or caregivers about
possible allergies.
Request signed permission slips or release of
information forms before beginning any animal
interactions.
Monitor for potential allergy signs during all
interactions and be prepared to stop activities and
contact emergency services if necessary.
REMEMBER: Allergies can occur at any time, even
if the participant has never had a previous reaction!
Author’s personal photo
Animal-Assisted Therapy 49
How to Use this Handbook
The information in this handbook is designed as an
introductory guide to basic animal-assisted interventions for
teachers of children with special needs, school counselors,
therapists and clinicians. For this reason, most of the
therapeutic activities and animal husbandry techniques are
kept at a basic level intended to teach about the animals
themselves and their potential for therapeutic benefit.
The animal care information in this handbook only highlights
the basic requirements for the animals’ welfare and IS NOT
intended to be a comprehensive guide to the complete care of
any animal included in this handbook. It is intended to provide
the reader with information to help them understand the
commitment required for the health of the animal. Before
deciding to adopt any animal for companion, education or
therapeutic use, do your research!
When possible, alternative suggestions to live animal use will
be included in addition to a list of resources for more complete
care of companion animals.
Nature-Based Therapy
Nature-based therapy involves using the natural environment
as the basis for therapeutic activities instead of utilizing captive
animals for such purposes. When possible, nature-based
activities will be included as optional adaptations to activities
in this handbook.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 50
“Paws Up” Rating System
A “Paws Up” rating system is given separately for each activity
and animal as follows:
Activity Level Animal Care Level
Beginner Beginner
Intermediate Intermediate
Advanced Advanced
Animals listed in the “Advanced Animal Care Level” category
will not include care instructions. Instead, readers are asked to
consult with a veterinarian, professional animal-assisted
therapy organization or other resources due to the higher level
of care, commitment and training required by these animals.
Sample activity plans will still be given to provide the reader
with ideas for therapeutic interventions possible with advanced
training.
Jaeger, a Labrador/golden retriever mix, is
a certified therapy dog through Canine
Companions for Independence. He works
with adults and children with disabilities
through The Up Center in Norfolk,
Virginia.
The Up Center file photo
Animal-Assisted Therapy 51
“From the Front Lines” Personal Tidbits…
Sometimes, experience is the best teacher!
Author’s personal photo
Look for “the expert” for personal tips and techniques the
author of this guide has discovered while doing similar
activities or working with selected animals… direct from the
front lines!
Other Symbols…
More Information: look for this symbol for
interesting information or facts regarding the
activity or animal.
DO YOUR HOMEWORK! Look for this
symbol when additional research may be
required.
Look here for
“Tails” From
the Front Lines
Animal-Assisted Therapy 52
CHAPTER 2
Invertebrate Ambassadors
www.antfarmsforkids.com
Animal-Assisted Therapy 53
Invertebrate Ambassadors
“EEWWWW!” usually comes to mind anytime the words
bugs, creepy-crawlies or insects are mentioned. Sometimes
however, the small things can have a huge impact on an
individual’s self-esteem, self-protection and a sense of
belonging.
Once children get used to the
“wave-like” motion of an African
Giant Black Millipede’s legs, they
often overcome their fear of the
creepy-crawlies and let their
curiosity show!
Author’s personal photo
Invertebrates such as butterflies, worms, ants, millipedes and
hermit crabs can be excellent and simple introductory animals
for animal-therapy interactions provided care is taken to
introduce the animal cautiously. Keep in mind that some
people have a natural, in-born fear of such creatures. Other
individuals may have the opposite reaction and prefer
invertebrates over traditional “cute” mammals!
Cool Invert Facts: Invertebrates, or Inverts, don’t have
backbones! Most are worm-like or have exoskeletons that help support
and protect their bodies. A few familiar inverts include worms, crabs,
oysters, insects, spiders, octopi, snails and slugs (whew!!)
Animal-Assisted Therapy 54
DO YOUR HOMEWORK!
Research invertebrates you are interested in keeping – some
are restricted by law in certain areas and may be illegal to
posses in your area despite being available in pet stores and
through online breeders!
Some Basics on Invertebrate Care
Care and feeding will vary greatly depending on the type of
invertebrate you are interesting in keeping. Here are some
basics for the most commonly kept invertebrates: ants,
butterflies, millipedes and hermit crabs.
(Beginner)
Ants: One of the easiest insects to keep and utilize for
therapeutic activities are ants. Ant “farm” kits are readily
available from education stores and websites and contain
everything you will need to provide your ants with a happy,
healthy existence. Just follow the instructions and enjoy!
al photo
Author’s personal photo
An ant farm saved the day when I once was a substitute teacher
for second graders. It just happened to be Valentine’s Day and
the children were loaded with candy and ready to go home. Just
as chaos set in, a small boy came up to me and asked if he could
show me his ants. Puzzled, I said “sure” and wondered what I
had gotten myself into. The boy went into his backpack and
produced an ant farm. Almost immediately, the other children
stopped running around and looked to see what I was going to
do. I simply took the ant farm, walked to the carpeted area, sat
down and told the children to join me in the circle. Surprisingly,
they did! I showed them the ants and explained how they were
working together as a team. This led to questions, stories and
undivided attention from the children! The day was saved, the
children learned about teamwork and science, and I survived the
day…barely!
Animal-Assisted Therapy 55
(Beginner)
Butterflies: Similar to ants, butterflies can be purchased in
kits that demonstrate the life stages from caterpillar to
butterfly. These kits also contain everything you will need to
raise and care for the caterpillars through butterfly stage,
with instructions on their release (should wildlife laws
permit – check your regional regulations).
*Nature-based option: instead of rearing captive
butterflies, opt for planting a butterfly garden and
let nature do the rest!
Children are drawn to butterflies and can feel
“accepted” when one decides their finger is the
perfect resting spot! Such activity helps
children learn about patience, acceptance, and
protection.
Author’s personal photo
(Intermediate)
Millipedes: If you are interested in an invert that can be
kept for long periods of time in an artificial habitat,
millipedes can be an excellent option. Children are
especially fascinated with millipedes and watching the wave-
like motion of their legs when crawling. For this reason,
millipedes can be a therapeutic option for learning about
overcoming obstacles, adapting to new situations and self-
esteem. Check with your local regulations to see if these
interesting invertebrates can be legally kept in your area.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 56
www.eduwebs.org
Habitat Requirements:
- Aquarium (10 gal) with screen lid
- Under-tank heating pad
- Tank thermometer and hydrometer
- Spray bottle for misting
- Reptile/Aquarium water conditioner to remove chlorine from tap water
- Rotting wood/mulch/moss bedding
Millipedes can be housed in a glass 10 gallon aquarium
or small animal terrarium. Most millipedes available
for purchase are tropical to sub-tropical varieties that
prefer temperatures from 75-85ºF, so a reptile heating
pad may be used under the tank for added heat. Light
bulbs should be avoided as millipedes like the dark!
Place rotting wood and moist natural “bedding” in the
tank for them to crawl through and dig. Maintain
moisture in tank by misting daily as needed with
conditioned tap water. KEEP TANK MOIST AT ALL
TIMES – hydrometer should not drop below 60%
humidity!
Change bedding weekly and scoop up excess fecal
matter as detected (feces look like round seeds).
Diet: Soft fruits and vegetables such as cucumbers
and potatoes (slightly rotten is preferred!) Feed
millipede(s) small amounts and do not allow food to
Animal-Assisted Therapy 57
become over-moldy, especially in the tank’s humid
conditions.
Behavior: Millipedes will coil up when threatened
and will occasionally molt (shed) their outer
exoskeleton. Make sure enough moisture is present
to assist with molting.
DO YOUR HOMEWORK!
Millipedes are not venomous, but can
secrete a toxic fluid from pores on their
body. Most people are not affected by
this liquid; however others may have a
reaction similar to a bee sting. Use gloves when
handling millipedes and sanitize/wash hands
immediately following contact.
(Intermediate) Hermit Crabs: Land hermit crabs are interesting and
unique animals for observation and relaxation.
Although mostly active at night, these crustaceans can
be a wonderful on-going therapeutic option for
individuals overcoming shyness and in learning how to
care for others. They also have a great advantage
among other animals considered for therapy as they
are not known to carry any zoonotic diseases or trigger
allergic reactions. They are however, susceptible to
mites, although these can be easily controlled through
treatments available at most pet supply stores.
www.hermit-crab-care.com/
Animal-Assisted Therapy 58
Habitat Requirements:
- 10 gallon aquarium or medium animal habitat kit with lid
- Sand substrate (Calcium sand preferred, but play sand is acceptable)
- Shallow water and food bowls
- Natural sea-sponge
- Assorted empty shells
- Small scoop for waste
- Spray bottle for misting
- Tank hydrometer
- Reptile/Aquarium water conditioner to remove chlorine from tap water
Hermit crabs can be easily maintained in a 10 gallon
aquarium with sand substrate, and prefer the
company of other crabs. Two shallow dishes should
be kept in the tank: one containing food and the
other with pre-conditioned water and a sea sponge
(to maintain moisture and give the crabs something
to hold onto while drinking). Other decorations may
be added to encourage the crabs’ natural tendency
to climb and explore their surroundings.
Scoop out waste material daily and mist the tank
with pre-conditioned tap water to maintain
moisture.
Diet: Hermit crab food is available at most pet
supply retailers. They also enjoy small “treats” of
meat and fruit when cut into small pieces. Some
will also take carrots, potatoes and lettuce.
Behavior: Hermit crabs stay in their shells most
of the day and are active at night (nocturnal).
They do not often pinch with their claws, but may
attempt to if not handled frequently. Until they
are used to handling, pick them up by their shell
and place gently on your flat palm. They will
likely come out of their shell and explore.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 59
I’m ok, I just need privacy: Hermit crabs molt
(shed their outer shell) to grow. Some owners will find an
empty shell in the tank and assume their crab has died! Don’t
panic! Check around carefully for the naked crab and if found,
place it into its own private “recovery room” (any small
container with sand, food and water will work). It is very
vulnerable when naked, and other tank mates may harass the
crab to its death. Once its shell has hardened, it can go back
into the tank with its buddies!
Sample Therapy Activities with Invertebrates
Many of these activities can be used with any of the above
listed invertebrates. Consider the individual’s needs you are
working with in determining what activity is appropriate.
Remember: These activities are only sample ideas intended to
guide you in preparing animal-assisted interventions. Allow for
your own creativity, knowledge and above all…enjoy the
experience!
(Beginner activity level)
Little Me in a Big World (Modified from a lesson plan outlined on http://insected.arizona.edu)
Objective: To encourage self-esteem building, team work
and develop problem solving strategies.
Targeted Population: Children ages 5+
Animal: Ants or other insects
Animal-Assisted Therapy 60
Activity (30-45 minutes): Observe an established ant farm
or colony found outdoors. Have the child talk about what
the ants are doing and why. Explain how ants work as a
team to meet the needs of their colony, and how they rely
on each other for this goal. Are there any obstacles
preventing the ants from reaching their goal? Ask the
child to think of obstacles that may prevent the ants from
getting food, etc…back to their teammates. Then ask the
child to predict how they could overcome these obstacles
to meet their goals. You may want to write down these
observations and predictions or have the child do so.
Once the child has made predictions and/or observed the
ants overcoming such obstacles, ask them to think of
obstacles they may face either at home, in school, with
friends, etc… Brainstorm with them strategies on how
they may overcome obstacles in their life. How are they
like the ants? How are they different?
(Beginner activity level)
Think Safe! Be Safe! (Modified from a lesson plan outlined on http://insected.arizona.edu)
Objective: To develop self-protection and security skills.
Targeted Population: Children of all ages
Animal: Insects, millipede, hermit crabs
Activity (15-30 minutes): Introduce the child to an insect,
millipede or hermit crab and proper handling procedures.
Once the child is comfortable holding or observing the animal,
ask them what the animal is doing. Is it hiding from them (i.e.
rolling up, hiding in shell, etc…), is it curious about them, or
does it seem comfortable with them? If the animal is hiding,
Animal-Assisted Therapy 61
ask the child why. What could the animal be afraid of? If the
animal is comfortable or curious, also ask the child why. Talk
with the child about protection and what the animal may do
when it feels threatened. Ask the child what things they may be
afraid of and why. Brainstorm strategies that they could use to
protect themselves when they are afraid.
Variation 1: Have the child act out various defenses the
animals may exhibit such as running away, rolling up into
a ball, or hiding in its shell. Then have them play act
situations in the past where they have been afraid and
how they reacted.
Variation 2: Walk around with the child or help them to
draw items or areas around their home, school or
community where there could be safety hazards. Discuss
strategies with them on overcoming these hazards and
protecting themselves.
*Nature-Based Options: Both activities listed above can be
done using nature-based therapeutic strategies. Instead of
utilizing a housed animal, bring
the child outside and allow them
to look for ants or other insects in
nature, and then proceed with the
activity plan as described!
Author’s personal photo
Animal-Assisted Therapy 62
CHAPTER 3
Aquatic Therapists
The Up Center file photo
Animal-Assisted Therapy 63
Fish: Bettas, Goldfish and Tropicals
Ask any fish owner why they keep fish and they’ll likely tell
you it is because they are relaxing. Watching fish swim lazily
around their tank and listening to the sound of the filter’s air
bubbles can provide anyone with an instant break from stress.
They are also non-threatening to many people and only carry a
minimal risk of zoonotic disease, making them an excellent
option for therapists.
Fish can be easily maintained on-site and left alone for several
days when provided with the right equipment. They do have
special needs, however; and it is highly recommended that
anyone considering fish keeping do research on the best species
and set up for your needs. This guide will outline some basic
care required to maintain bettas (Siamese fighting fish),
goldfish and tropical freshwater species.
Author’s personal photo
Animal-Assisted Therapy 64
DO YOUR HOMEWORK! Deciding on which
type of fish to keep depends on many variables such as cost,
space available, personal expertise and time. In general, a
larger aquarium (50 gallons +) is more expensive and difficult
to establish, but long-term maintenance is easier and fish
health is better. However, recent additions to aquarium
technology have made smaller “Nano” tanks (2-5 gallons) just
as efficient and easy to care for as larger aquariums. Do
research into reputable aquarium supply dealers in your area!
(Beginner)
Bettas: Bettas (also called Siamese fighting fish) are commonly
sold in pet stores in very small bowls and occasionally
recommended for so-called “Betta Vases.” Although these
tropical fish do prefer smaller spaces, they do not do well in
extremely small bowls or vases and are best considered for
small, two-five gallon aquariums with filtration and heater
capacity. They can, however, be placed in small bowls or vases
for several hours with their regular aquarium water, making
them portable for transportation to classrooms, offices, etc...
They are also loners, and a male betta will attack and kill other
males when placed together (thus the name, Siamese fighting
fish).
www.freshwater-tropical-fish-care.com
Animal-Assisted Therapy 65
Habitat Requirements:
- Two to Five gallon aquarium (complete kits are available – check with your pet retailer)
- Tank lid with light bulb
- Power filter (optional, but can be beneficial as long as water flow is not too powerful)
- Small, Nano-tank heater (optimal temperature ~75ºF)
- Gravel and plant decorations
- Tap water conditioner
- Freshwater aquarium salt
- Small fish net
- Betta food
Bettas are comfortable in smaller aquariums (2-5 gallons) with
plant decorations and freshwater aquarium salt added to the
water for improved gill function (follow dosing instructions on
bottle).
Remember: set up your aquarium where you intend on
keeping it. Even small tanks will be extremely heavy once filled
with water and gravel!
DO YOUR HOMEWORK! When cleaning or
setting up any aquarium, NEVER use soap or
detergents. These chemicals are extremely toxic
to fish. Additionally, make sure your hands are
free from soaps and chemicals as well – rinse
hands thoroughly with fresh tap water before
putting them into any aquarium water.
If using an aquarium kit, follow instructions for set-up. For a
standard aquarium, rinse gravel and decorations with fresh
water to remove dust then add to tank. Fill with warm (70-
80ºF) tap water and add water conditioner to de-chlorinate as
directed on bottle. Set up power filter (if used) as instructed
and add the heater (do not add heater to a dry tank – make
sure aquarium is full and ready to run before plugging in
heater to avoid risk of shock).
Animal-Assisted Therapy 66
Once the betta aquarium is set-up, turn on the filter and heater
and allow tank to run for several days before adding fish. This
allows the water to cycle and create natural biological filtration
beneficial to the fish’s survival. Once the aquarium is cycled,
add the betta by floating the pet-store bag in the water for
several minutes, and then add a teaspoon of aquarium water
into the bag every three to five minutes to allow the fish to
acclimate to the new water conditions. After 15 minutes, use
the net to scoop out the betta and gently place him into the
tank. Never add water from the pet-store bag into your
aquarium! This could introduce diseases and/or unhealthy
water conditions into the newly cycled tank.
General Maintenance: Smaller aquariums should be
changed every week by placing betta into a small
container filled with old tank water, then discard
remaining water and rinse tank, gravel, decorations.
Follow set-up instructions ensuring to condition tap
water and add aquarium salt as directed. Larger
aquariums will require the use of a siphon to
“vacuum” the gravel and conduct a 15% water
change weekly.
Diet: Bettas eat commercially prepared flake or
small pellet foods specifically designed for the
species. Feed twice daily only what the fish can
consume in two minutes, and then net out remaining
food.
No Thanks, I Just Ate! Overfeeding is the cause of most
fish deaths! Some species, like goldfish, are not able to tell when they
have eaten too much and may experience fatal digestive issues as a
result. Other fish species will stop eating, but decaying food causes a
build up of nitrates in the water which will eventually poison
the inhabitants of the aquarium. So…it’s best to feed smaller
amounts more often then large amounts once daily!
Animal-Assisted Therapy 67
Behavior: Although loners of their species, bettas
can be very social towards their humans, often
coming to the surface when approached. Male bettas
will also build “bubble nests” on the surface of the
water that will appear as soapy foam. This nest is
designed to attract a female for mating, and will not
affect the quality of the water.
(Beginner)
Goldfish: Goldfish are another popular fish species that are
fairly easy to care for, following most of the same habitat and
care requirements as the betta (see betta care for more
information). Goldfish, however, can be kept in small schools
(groups) and the interactions among each other can provide
additional therapeutic benefits. If intending to house several
fish together, a larger tank will be necessary.
DO YOUR HOMEWORK! When housing
more than one fish, a general “rule of thumb” is
to provide one gallon of water for each inch of
fish. Therefore, consider the adult size of the
species you intend to keep, and do the math!
For example: you would like five fish at their
maximum adult length of three inches. To keep
them healthy and avoid overcrowding, they will
need at least a 15-20 gallon aquarium.
The most important difference in maintaining goldfish as
opposed to a betta or other freshwater tropical fish is that
goldfish are a coldwater species. Therefore, a heater is not
required and goldfish are comfortable in room-temperature to
slightly cooler water.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 68
Follow the same basic habitat, maintenance and diet
requirements as listed for bettas.
(Intermediate to Advanced)
Tropical Fish: The category of tropical freshwater fish is
extremely broad, ranging from relatively simple-to-care-for
guppies to complicated cichlids such as angelfish and discus.
Despite these variations, tropical aquariums can be rewarding
additions to therapy programs and offer a wide variety of
activities from basic relaxation techniques to improving range
of motion through adaptive feeding. Beginner species such as
guppies, swordtails, platys and some tetras can be maintained
in similar aquarium set-ups as outline in the betta section. The
use of a power filter and heater is required, however! Larger
species and aquaria require further research and preparation.
Freshwater tropical fish such as this
Firemouth Cichlid are beautiful and
entertaining additions to an aquatic
animal-assisted therapy program.
Advanced care is required for their
upkeep, however.
Author’s personal photo
DO YOUR HOMEWORK! Readers
considering a tropical freshwater fish aquarium
are advised to contact a reputable aquarium
supply store or local aquarium organization for
more information on selecting, purchasing and
maintaining the best set-up for your needs!
Animal-Assisted Therapy 69
Sample Therapy Activities with Fish
Many of these activities can be used with Bettas, Goldfish or
tropical fish communities.
Remember: These activities are only sample ideas intended to
guide you in preparing animal-assisted interventions. Allow for
your own creativity, knowledge and above all…enjoy the
experience!
(Beginner activity level)
A “Betta” Break
Objective: To facilitate relaxation, reduce depression and
lower blood-pressure caused by stress.
Targeted Population: All ages
Animal: Betta, housed in a portable small animal
aquarium or bowl with a breathable lid for
transportation.
Activity (ongoing, no time limit): This activity can be
“portable,” allowing the therapist to bring the betta to bedsides
or homes as needed. Simply place the betta on a solid surface
in sight of the individual, and allow them to watch the fish
swim. Discuss with them how the fish makes them feel. Offer to
allow them to feed the fish a small amount of food to facilitate
swimming activity. The betta may be left within site during
other therapy activities and referred to when the individual
feels the need to calm down and de-stress.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 70
(Beginner activity level)
Fishy Feeding Frenzy
Objective: To facilitate relaxation, reduce depression and
lower blood-pressure caused by stress. Can also be used
to encourage responsibility, empathy and socialization.
Targeted Population: All ages
Animal: Fish (goldfish or tropicals – best when fish are in
groups)
Other Equipment: A fish food ring or clip
Lettuce or other “treat” food for fish
Activity (15 minutes): Introduce the individual to the fish and
allow them time to get acclimated. Talk to the individual about
what the fish are doing, how they are interacting with each
other and whether they seem to get along together. Place the
lettuce in the clip and use a suction cup to attach it to the glass.
If using a food ring, allow the ring to float in an easily
observable area and fill with “treat” food (or have individual
do this step and “feed” the fish). Observe the fish as the swarm
around the food and watch their interactions. Discuss how
their behavior changes when the food is added and why. Are
the fish more aggressive or systematically taking turns at the
food? Are they working together to share? Once the fish have
finished eating, did they return to their normal behavior?
Variation 1: This activity can be a good
introduction into therapy sessions and
maintained as an ongoing exercise at each
session. If done repeatedly, take note whether
or not the fish begin “recognizing” when treats
Animal-Assisted Therapy 71
are coming and if they behave differently in
anticipation.
(Beginner activity level)
Underwater Laser Light Show
Objective: To provide sensory stimulation and serve as a
calming agent.
Targeted Population: All ages
Animal: Fish (goldfish or tropicals – best when fish are in
groups)
Other Equipment: Decorative air stones, aquarium laser
lights (available at any aquarium retailer)
Activity (ongoing as needed): This activity is intended to target
the visual and audio senses by adding decorative lights and
bubble displays to established aquariums. Although any of the
above activities can also be combined with this display, some
individuals (particularly those on the Autism spectrum) find
comfort in just observing the lights and bubbles in a calming
underwater setting. Combine your imagination with ready-to-
use decorative supplies available at any aquarium retailer to
create unique sensory experiences!
Author’s personal photo
Animal-Assisted Therapy 72
CHAPTER 4
Tails and Scales
www.geckosforpets.com
Animal-Assisted Therapy 73
Reptiles
They may not be the most popular animals with some people,
but reptiles (snakes, lizards and turtles) can break barriers
where other species cannot. Children are especially fascinated
by reptiles, and seeing them up close is often a unique and
memorable opportunity. Reptiles can also be a great
therapeutic option for developing socialization skills and self-
esteem. However, they do have significant drawbacks that
therapists must consider before deciding on a reptile for such
purposes.
DO YOUR HOMEWORK! Reptiles are
carriers of the salmonella bacteria, making them
a high zoonotic risk. Care must be taken not to
come into direct contact with feces and proper
hand sanitization techniques should be
maintained immediately following contact with
any reptile species!
(Advanced)
Snakes and Lizards: Snakes, turtles and most lizards are
considered advanced animals in care and maintenance
requirements, and not recommended as companion animals
unless the caretaker is educated in their animal’s specific needs
and diet. For this reason, readers interested in incorporating a
snake into therapy plans should consult with their local zoo or
herpetology organization to arrange for a professional snake
“visit.” Educators from zoos and members of reptile clubs
often have such “meet and greet” programs already in place,
and will gladly bring a snake or two for therapeutic purposes.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 74
Children are often open to
interacting with reptiles such as
this Honduran Milk snake.
Most reptiles have specific care
needs and require live food
such as mice and insects, so
they are not recommended for
the novice animal therapist.
Author’s personal photo
(Intermediate to Advanced)
Leopard Geckos: One exception to the advanced maintenance
nature of most lizards is Leopard Geckos. These small desert
lizards are often considered great introductory reptiles due to
their minimal need requirements. Leopard Geckos do require
live foods such as crickets and mealworms, but are otherwise
easy to maintain and generally healthy animals. They are also
one of the “cuter” reptiles and appeal to people who are
otherwise not fond of lizards and snakes. Be aware, however,
that Leopard Geckos can live for nearly 20 years, so anyone
considering one should be prepared to care for them for their
lifetime!
A “Tail” of Two Geckos: The popular Leopard Gecko
and its cousin, the Fat-Tailed Gecko, have a unique fat-filled tail
that the animal can detach from its body when threatened. This tail
will continue to wiggle and distract predators while the gecko runs
to safety! Although the gecko will eventually grow another tail in
its place, the new tail is rounded and not as attractive as their
original. The experience also causes them great stress - think of
how we would feel if we lost an appendage! For this reason, never
handle a gecko by its tail and support its body evenly. You don’t
want to be left with a stubby gecko!
Animal-Assisted Therapy 75
Habitat Requirements: - Ten to Twenty Gallon aquarium with screen cover (B). Commercially designed “desert” reptile
kits are also excellent habitats and often contain everything you will need. (G)
- An under-tank heating pad (H)
- Thermometer and Hydrometer C)
- Small “shed” container with moss (E)
- 75W Infrared heat bulb (A)
- “Clamp lamp” with dimmer (A)
- Floor tiles or reptile turf
- Shallow food/water dish (F)
- Decorations for climbing and hiding (D) (I)
- Calcium powder
- Repti-safe water conditioner
- Cricket keeper for live crickets
- Gut-feeding cubes for crickets
www.drsfosterandsmith.com
Leopard geckos can be kept as individuals, in female-only
groups, or as one female and one male pairs. They are
comfortable in 10-20 gallon aquarium desert set-ups that
include decorations to climb on, an enclosed “humid” shed
box, and shallow food and water dishes. One side of the
aquarium should be designated as the “warm” side where the
under-tank heating pad is placed along with the infrared light
bulb suspended from above. Maintain the temperature on this
side between 80-90ºF at all times. The other side of the
aquarium is the “cool” side with no special equipment
required. This allows the gecko to regulate its body
temperature from warm to cool as it desires. The tank should
be lined with either floor tiles or commercially purchased
reptile turf. Fine sand can also be used, but geckos have been
Animal-Assisted Therapy 76
known to eat larger grains of sand causing fatal internal
blockages.
Geckos routinely shed their skin, and a small container lined
with moist paper towels or terrarium moss will aid in the
molting process. Keep the shed box moist with pre-conditioned
tap water at all times.
General Maintenance: Geckos will designate one area
of their habitat as the bathroom and only use it once or
twice per week. Their waste resembles bird droppings
and can be easily wiped up with a paper towel. Their
shed box should be moistened and the water bowl
should be filled with pre-conditioned tap water daily.
Provide a small amount of calcium powder in their
food dish for them to lick as needed. The entire habitat
should be completely cleaned monthly with
commercially-made reptile safe aquarium cleaner.
Diet: Leopard geckos require live foods such as
crickets and mealworms, but only need to eat every
other day. See your pet retailer for availability of foods
and their feeding recommendations based on the size
and age of your gecko.
Behavior: Leopard geckos generally do not like to be
handled, but they will learn to walk onto your hand.
Tiny lizard harnesses can be purchased at pet retailers
and will help ensure the gecko does not escape when
taken out of their habitat. Leopard geckos are most
active at night and enjoy basking in the heat during the
day.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 77
Leopard geckos are friendly lizards
that have minimal care
requirements. They can also be
taught to wear a harness and climb
onto your hand.
Author’s personal photo
Sample Therapy Activities with Reptiles
Remember: These activities are only sample ideas intended to
guide you in preparing animal-assisted interventions. Allow for
your own creativity, knowledge and above all…enjoy the
experience!
(Intermediate activity level)
The Magic Touch
Objective: To teach appropriate touching and respect for
others and personal space
Targeted Population: Children ages 6+ through adult
Animal: Snake or Lizard
Activity (30 minutes): Introduce the reptile to the
individual and ensure they are both comfortable with
each other. Explain how reptiles have scales, and they
must be handled carefully to avoid hurting them. Point
out the animal’s scales and the direction they are laying.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 78
Explain that touching the animal under the scales or in
the opposite direction then they are laying could cause the
animal discomfort. Discuss why it is important to touch
an animal appropriately. Talk about personal space, and
discuss ways in which animals show you they do not want
to interact. Talk about how people feel when personal
space is invaded, and what alternative behaviors can be
used.
www.zooinversity.org
Animal-Assisted Therapy 79
CHAPTER 5
Pint-Sized Pals
Author’s personal photo
Animal-Assisted Therapy 80
Hamsters, Gerbils, Mice and Rats
They may be small in size, but these furry mammals can have a
big impact on teaching concepts of trust, dependence, and self-
care. Hamsters, gerbils, rats and mice are good options for
therapy animals as they can be portable, easy to work with,
entertaining to watch and seem to enjoy interacting with
people. Although all rodents, there are distinct differences
between hamsters, gerbils, mice and rats that must be
considered before deciding on the best “pocket pal” for your
needs.
(Intermediate)
Hamsters and Gerbils: While it may seem the main difference
between hamsters and gerbils is the absence or presence of a
tail, they do have other differences that must be considered
before deciding which one to keep. Hamsters are loners and do
best when kept as single individuals while gerbils prefer to live
in colonies. Additionally, gerbils tend to be more social towards
humans and are less likely to bite. Both species are notorious
escape artists, however; and care must be taken to secure their
enclosures to prevent escape. Care and diet are similar for
both.
Habitat Requirements: - Commercially made small mammal cage or modified glass aquarium with a tight fitting
screen lid. Cages with tunnels and other structures are also recommended for hamsters
as they are burrowing animals by nature. Gerbils can be housed in a modified aquarium.
- Feeding bowl and hanging water bottle
- In-cage exercise wheel or free-rolling exercise ball
- Small mammal toys
- Small mammal bedding material
- Commercially prepared hamster and gerbil food
Line the bottom of the aquarium or cage with bedding
material. Attach the water bottle as directed and add food
bowl, exercise wheel and other toys as desired. Make sure door
Animal-Assisted Therapy 81
or lid to habitat is secure! Consider weighting the top of the
aquarium or adding a door lock to prevent escapes.
When you gotta go…: One factor influencing your
choice of bedding material will be which small animal you
wish to keep. In general, hamsters will urinate more often
than gerbils, and therefore will need more frequent bedding
changes. Mice and rats are notorious for their strong-smelling
urine, and will use the bathroom often! The difference
however, is that mice are substantially smaller than rats
and do not urinate the same amounts. Rat habitats will need
constant bedding changes as they will urinate frequently and
create a less-then-pleasant smell!
Diet: Fill water bottle with fresh water daily and as
needed. Hamsters and gerbils enjoy most
commercially prepared mixes of seeds and grains.
They also appreciate occasional “treats” of peanuts,
apple and greens. Watch for overfeeding: hamsters
and gerbils will hoard extra food in their bedding if
overfed. This wasted food is likely to rot, creating
unhealthy conditions for your animal.
Behavior: Both hamsters and gerbils are nocturnal
and will sleep most of the day. Provide plenty of
opportunity for exercise such as a running wheel or
exercise ball. Hamsters in particular do not like to
be handled, but can grow accustomed to being pick-
ed up with frequent human interaction.
A golden teddy bear
hamster (left) and a Mongolian gerbil
(right)
www.hamster-palace.com www.petcarevb.com
Animal-Assisted Therapy 82
(Intermediate)
Rats and Mice: Next to reptiles and insects, rats and mice are
next in line in the least popular category. Many people are
squeamish around these rodents due to their reputation as
disease carriers and in their appearance (particularly in their
naked tails). Fortunately, domesticated rats and mice are not
the disease-ridden vermin of their wild relatives. In fact, rats
make excellent pets! They are intelligent, trainable and
affectionate, and even come to recognize their human and
interact accordingly. Mice are also entertaining companions,
though not as easy to train or handle as rats and have shorter
life spans (two to three years). The habitat and care
requirements are similar to those for hamsters and gerbils with
one exception – rats require considerably larger habitats with
plenty of climbing areas and resting hammocks. Rats should
be housed as individuals or in female pairs. Mice prefer single
sex pairs. It is also important to never mix the two species, as
rats are natural attackers of mice.
.
Author’s personal photo
Okay, I have to admit I’m a converted fan of rats! I
became a believer when we acquired a pair of female
rats at The Virginia Zoo for the education department.
Houdini and Pudge came to us from a loving home,
but their owners were moving out of town and could
not take their rats with them. I was hesitant at first,
but after spending only a few minutes with them, I
fell in love! Houdini had trained her human to hold
out their arm and let her climb up their shoulder by
tugging on their sleeve with her mouth. Once she
reached her destination, she would proceed to lick
their ear and neck until she got her head scratched!
The children loved watching her trick and she soon
became a beloved ambassador for her species among
zoo education staff!
Animal-Assisted Therapy 83
Sample Therapy Activities with Pocket Pets
Remember: These activities are only sample ideas intended to
guide you in preparing animal-assisted interventions. Allow for
your own creativity, knowledge and above all…enjoy the
experience!
(Intermediate activity level)
Trust Me, I’m Your Friend!
Objective: To learn trust-building techniques and
empathy towards others.
Targeted Population: Children 8+ through adult
Animal: Gerbil or Rat preferred
Activity (15 minutes per session – best as an ongoing trust-
building exercise): Introduce the animal to the individual and
allow both to become comfortable with each other. Ask how
they think an animal of this size feels when confronted with
someone as big as a human. Ask them what steps they could
take to make the animal learn to trust them? While holding the
animal, let the individual slowly touch its fur. Put the animal
back into its enclosure and allow the individual to offer it a
treat. Repeat this exercise frequently until the individual and
animal are comfortable; instruct them how to hold the animal
properly and allow further interactions to build confidence.
Discuss if the animal’s behavior has changed and if so, what let
to it? Talk about how the individual can use similar skills of
patients and kindness to build similar trusting relationships
with others.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 84
(Intermediate activity level)
The Little Mouse that Could!
Objective: Learning to overcome obstacles and meet
goals.
Targeted Population: All ages
Animal: Hamster, gerbil, mouse or rat
Additional Equipment: Wood or plastic toy building
blocks, various small animal toys, treats for the animal
Activity (30-45 minutes): Offer the individual some toy blocks
and instruct them to use the blocks to create a simple maze
(guide them as necessary). Once finished, introduce the animal
to the individual and allow both to become comfortable with
each other. Instruct the individual to hide a piece of food
somewhere in the maze and predict how long it will take the
animal to find it. Place the animal into the maze and allow it to
find its way to the food. Discuss the results with the individual.
Was the animal able to find the treat? What obstacles did it
encounter? Next, ask the individual to build a bigger maze,
hide a piece of food and include some small mammal toys as
distractions for the animal. Again, predict how long it may
take the animal to find the treat and what obstacles it will find
challenging. Place the animal into the maze and observe. Was
it able to find the food? What obstacles did the animal face and
was it able to overcome them? What goals do they personally
want to achieve? Are there any distractions in their life that
could prevent them from reaching their goals? Discuss
obstacles the individual has in their life and what steps can be
taken to overcome them.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 85
CHAPTER 6
Compassionate Companions: Cats and Dogs
www.azcentral.com
Animal-Assisted Therapy 86
Dogs and Cats: Special Considerations,
Resources and Training
When it comes to animal-assisted therapy programs, cats and
dogs are the primary animals used in such programs today.
Their friendly nature and familiarity to most people make
them ideal for therapy programs in hospitals, schools,
psychiatric institutions and nursing homes. However, both the
animals and their handlers require specialized training to
qualify as certified therapy animals. If you are considering
using a dog or cat in any therapy program, contact the
following resources for certification and training information:
The Delta Society Canine Companions for Independence
www.DeltaSociety.org www.cci.org
875 124th Ave NE #101 Northeast Region
Bellevue, WA 98005 286 Middle Island Road
Phone: (425) 679-5500 Medford, NY 11763
Fax: (425) 679-5539 1-800-572-BARK
DO YOUR HOMEWORK! Dogs and cats
have advanced requirements beyond the scope
of this handbook. Please consult with a
veterinarian, professional animal-assisted
therapy organization or other resources due to the higher level
of care, commitment and training required by these animals.
Jaeger and handler Patricia Coale of The Up
Center in Norfolk, Virginia become acquainted
with students during an animal-assisted therapy
visit at a local grade school.
The Up Center File Photo
Animal-Assisted Therapy 87
Sample Therapy Activities with Dogs and Cats
Remember: These activities are only sample ideas intended to
guide you in preparing animal-assisted interventions. Handlers
of therapy dogs and cats should be trained in proper handling
and command techniques by an AAT certification agency.
(Intermediate activity level)
Getting To Know You Modified from the American Humane Association’s American Humane KIDS Activity
Packet, 2009.
Objective: Teaches kindness and respect for animals and
empathy towards each other. Helps recognize needs and
identify what makes us happy, healthy and safe.
Targeted Population: Children 6+ (solo or in groups)
Animal: Dog or cat
Additional Equipment: Paper and pen or chalk/dry-erase
board
Activity (40 minutes): In this activity, an individual (or small
group) is asked: What makes them happy? What do they need
to be safe? What do they need to be healthy? Write down
answers on a board or piece of paper and discuss what would
happen if these needs are not met? Next, introduce the animal
and allow both animal and individuals to become accustomed
to each other. Once introductions are made, ask the individual
(or group) what makes the animal happy, safe and healthy?
Write these answers down on a board or piece of paper.
Depending on the answers, ask the individual or group to
demonstrate some of the responses on the animal. For example,
Animal-Assisted Therapy 88
if someone responds with “petting,” allow them to pet the
animal. If they say “food,” have them give the animal a treat.
When answers are made that cannot be demonstrated (such as
vet care or neutering), discuss why these are important. Return
the conversation back to human needs and ask if they have any
new answers to add to the list. Talk about emotional needs
both animals and humans have (such as friendship and trust).
Close activity by demonstrating how the animal indicates their
emotional needs to humans (such as barking, rubbing, etc…).
(Advanced activity level)
Play Time! Modified from Dustin’s Paw: Animal-Assisted Therapy Interactive Techniques, 2003.
Objective: To learn trust-building skills and increase
confidence around animals. Can also be modified to focus
on physical, speech and language challenges such as:
range of motion, communication and counting.
Targeted Population: Children 6+
Animal: Dog or cat
Additional Equipment: The animal’s favorite toys or
games
Activity (15-30 minutes): This activity is designed to allow
interaction between animal and individual while facilitating a
“game” of fetch, basketball, chase or string tag (depending on
your animal’s training or favorite activity). Additional goals
can also be incorporated into the chosen activity to facilitate
communication, exercise or other skills as needed. For
example: An individual can work on communication skills by
Animal-Assisted Therapy 89
playing fetch with a dog. As part of the game, the individual
must learn and give the dog the proper command to retrieve
the object (based on learned commands the animal has
mastered in certification training). Once the object has been
successfully returned, the individual must offer praise to the
animal. A “score card” can also be used to incorporate
counting and game-playing skills.
Variation 1 for Cats: Cats often enjoy playing with
specially-made feather poles, and this can be made
into a game with the individual and cat in a similar
manner.
Variation 2 for Dogs: If the dog is trained to play
basketball (a standard skill taught in AAT courses),
facilitate a basketball game between the dog and the
individual. Have the individual keep score and give
the dog proper commands to retrieve and shoot the
ball.
(Advanced activity level)
Stand By Me! Modified from Dustin’s Paw: Animal-Assisted Therapy Interactive Techniques, 2003.
Objective: To reduce habitual patterns of running away
in public areas
Targeted Population: Ages 10+
Animal: Dog
Additional Equipment: Two leashes (one for handler,
another for individual). Ensure the dog is properly
Animal-Assisted Therapy 90
marked as a companion or therapy dog for use in public
areas.
Activity (as needed): This activity serves as a fun way to break
habitual patterns in an individual who routinely runs away
from their parent or group in public settings when distracted.
It does require pre-familiarization between the individual and
dog in addition to proper command and handling procedures
by the handler. For the exercise, simply attach two leashes to
the dog when going into public settings. Allow the individual to
walk the dog with one leash while the handler maintains the
other (for the animal’s safety and control). Explain to the
individual that they are “in charge” of walking the dog.
Allowing them this important responsibility can minimize
distractions and gives the individual a task to focus on while in
public. Therapy dogs often receive additional attention in
public and this may also instill a sense of pride in the
individual walking the dog.
Author’s personal photo
Whew! I’m tired
after all these
exercises. Time for a
cat-nap!
Animal-Assisted Therapy 91
APPENDIX
Author’s Personal Photo
Animal-Assisted Therapy 92
Recommended Sites and Books
Helpful Websites:
www.deltasociety.org – The Delta Society: information on animal-
assisted therapy training, certification and research.
www.cci.org – Canine Companions for Independence:
information on trained assistance dogs and support.
www.tdi-dog.org – Therapy Dogs International, Inc.: information
on qualified handlers and therapy dogs for visits, training and
testing programs.
www.avma.org – American Veterinary Medical Association:
provides resources for animal-assisted therapy standards and
guidelines in addition to current research.
www.aspcaeducation.org – The American Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals: A guide to lesson plans, animal
activities and nature-based learning activities for students and
teachers.
www.recreationtherapy.com - A comprehensive guide to
recreational therapy activities including some animal-assisted
therapy techniques.
www.ourfunnyplanet.com
Animal-Assisted Therapy 93
Recommended Reading:
Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy: Theoretical
Foundations and Guidelines for Practice, 3rd
Edition by Aubrey
H. Fine – a collection of professional research journal articles
on various aspects of animal-assisted therapy.
The Powerful Bond Between People and Pets: Our Boundless
Connections to Companion Animals by P. Elizabeth Anderson –
a exploration of the human-animal bond including why people
are attracted to certain animals and how to deal with the loss
of a pet.
Practical Pet Care Handbook: Exotic Pets by David Alderton –
a comprehensive guide on the care, breeding and breed
selection of exotic pet species such as birds, reptiles,
amphibians, invertebrates and fish.
Practical Pet Care Handbook: Small Pets by David Alderton – a
comprehensive guide on the care, breeding and pet selection of
rabbits, guinea pigs, hamsters, gerbils, rats and mice.
The Everything Tropical Fish Book: Setting up and Maintaining
Freshwater and Saltwater Aquariums by Carlo DeVito &
Gregory Skokal – an easy-to-follow guide to aquariums,
goldfish and betta keeping.
Reptile Keeper’s Guides: Leopard and Fat-Tailed Geckos by
R.D. Bartlett and Patricia Bartlett – everything you need to
know about selection, care, health and breeding of Leopard
and Fat-Tailed Geckos.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 94
List of Resources
Alderton, D. (2003). Practical Pet Care Handbook: Exotic Pets. London. Lorenz
Books.
Alderton, D. (2002). Practical Pet Care Handbook: Small Pets. London. Lorenz
Books.
American Veterinary Medical Society (2011). AVMA Policy: Wellness guidelines
for animals in animal-assisted activity, animal-assisted therapy and
resident animal programs. http://www.avma.org/issues/
policy/animal_assisted_activity.asp
Anderson P.E. (2008). The Powerful Bond between People and Pets: Our Boundless
Connections to Companion Animals. Westport, Connecticut. Praeger Publishers.
American Humane Association (2009). American Humane KIDS: kids interacting with
dogs safely activity packet. Retrieved June 12, 2011, from
http://americanhumane.org
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (2006). Teacher Newsletter:
What is Service Learning? ASPCA Animalessons. http://aspcaeducation.org
Bartlett, R.D. & Bartlett, Patricia (1999). Reptile Keeper’s Guide: Leopard and Fat-
Tailed Geckos. Hauppauge, New York. Barron’s Educational Series, Inc.
DeVito, C. & Skokal, G. (2000). The Everything Tropical Fish Book: Setting up and
Maintaining Freshwater and Saltwater Aquariums. Holbrook, Massachusetts.
Adams Media Corporation.
Fine, A.H. (2010). Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and
Guidelines for Practice, 3rd
ed. New York: Elsevier.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 95
Heiser, C.A. & the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries (2005). Educators
and Virginia’s Wildlife Laws. Retrieved June 12, 2011, from
http://www.dgif.virginia.gov
King, L.M. (2007). Animal-Assisted Therapy: A Guide for Professional Counselors,
School Counselors, Social Workers, and Educators. Bloomington, Indiana:
AuthorHouse.
Rampelberg, D. (2003). Dustin’s Paw: 2003 Animal Assisted Therapy Interactive
Techniques. San Jose, California. Self-Published.
Therapeutic Recreation Directory (2011). Animal-Assisted Therapy Ideas.
http://www.recreationtherapy.com/tx/animalassisted.htm
The Virginia Zoo (2007). Docent and Part-Time Educator Training Guide. Norfolk,
Virginia. Self-published.
University of Arizona: Center for Insect Science Education Outreach (1997). Lesson
Plans. http://insected.arizona.edu
University of Saskatchewan: College of Education (retrieved June, 2011). The Care of
Live Animals in the Classroom. http://usask.ca/education/coursework/mcvittiej/
resources/livingthings/animals.htm
Animal-Assisted Therapy 96
Chapter IV
Statement of Learning
After conducting my research of the available literature and compiling this
handbook, I uncovered that the resources and techniques available on animal-assisted
therapy exceeded my expectations. My research of the literature uncovered a moderate
amount of documentation on the history of animal-assisted therapy and many studies
from the past to present supporting the benefits of the practice. However, the majority of
these resources were, as I expected, focused on canine or equine (horse) therapy
programs and beyond the introductory scope of my intentions for this handbook.
Based on my research, I believe creating a handbook on classroom-friendly
animal interactions and basic animal husbandry techniques fills a gap in the information
currently available to educators and therapists. Additionally, I found this handbook lends
itself to future revisions to include other animal species such as birds and rabbits along
with expanded activity plans for all species documented in the guide. This handbook is a
work in progress, and one that I hope to continue as I progress in the field of education
and science.
I hope that teachers, therapists or anyone interested in the amazing process of
animal-assisted therapy and intervention will enjoy and learn from this handbook, and
uncover for themselves the special bond humans can share with nature and all its
inhabitants.
Animal-Assisted Therapy 97
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