Dossier module IV - minedupedia.mined.gob.sv
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INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 5
READING 1
Process-Based CLT Approaches – Content-Based Instruction and Task-Based
Instruction ..................................................................................................................................... 6
READING 2
Strengths and weaknesses in Content Based instruction (CBI) in EFL settings at
beginning language development stages ..............................................................................15
READING 3
Teaching and Learning to Write: Using a Task-Based Approach in an EFL Class ..............24
READING 4
Alternative Assessment in EFL Classrooms: Why and How to Implement It! ....................35
READING 5
Project Work: A Means to Promote Language and Content ...............................................47
READING 6
Assessing general language proficiency .................................................................................58
The Common European Framework in its political and educational context ....................62
Common Reference Levels .......................................................................................................66
General Preface to the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines 2012 .................................................72
NCSSFL-ACTFL Global Can-Do Benchmarks ..........................................................................73
REFERENCES ...............................................................................................................................75
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Welcome to Module 4: “Content-Based Learning and Task-Based Learning”! This
module is the 4th part of our Specialists in English Language Teaching. This training
will allow you to master four key competences related to Language Learning:
Didactics, Communication, Training and Self-Training as well as the Use of New
Information Technologies and Assessment Strategies via cross referential techniques
and methodologies.
The contents in the module tie the theory studied in module 3, as we explore English
teaching approaches that are variations of the Communicative Approach. Module 4
incorporates areas such as the development of linguistic competences, understanding
of modern language learning approaches and methodologies, session planning using
the Task based framework and the Content-based approach, as well as, alternative
assessment procedures. Areas such as ICT integration and Action Research will also
be developed alongside the aforementioned components. Therefore, it is strongly
encouraged that specialists commit to apply their newfound knowledge and skills into
their daily practice and provide much needed insights to the real applications of the
theory to a Salvadoran context.
This dossier will aid participants during their training and provide essential
information in different areas. The first reading comprises the main characteristics and
most relevant information regarding two process-based CLT approaches: Content-
based instruction (CBI) and Task-based instruction (TBI). The second reading provides
insight on the challenge that teaching writing represents and presents examples of
tasks and strategies for increasing students’ competence in writing skills. Readings
three and four present detailed information on the value of alternative assessment
and the features of two of its most comprehensive forms: portfolios and projects.
Finally, the fifth reading presents an overview of the language proficiency levels
according to the CEFR and the ACTFL, whose criteria must be considered for
assessment purposes.
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Process-Based CLT Approaches – Content-
Based Instruction and Task-Based Instruction
In this reading, we will examine two current methodologies that can be described as extensions of
the CLT movement but which take different routes to achieve the goal of communicative language
teaching – to develop learners’ communicative competence. We refer to them as process-based
methodologies since they share as a common starting point a focus on creating classroom
processes that are believed to best facilitate language learning. These methodologies are content-
based instruction (CBI) and task-based instruction (TBI).
Content-Based Instruction
We noted above that contemporary views of language learning argue that communication is seen
as resulting from processes such as:
• Interaction between the learner and users of the language
• Collaborative creation of meaning
• Creating meaningful and purposeful interaction through language
• Negotiation of meaning as the learner and his or her interlocutor arrive at understanding
• Learning through attending to the feedback learners get when they use the language
• Paying attention to the language one hears (the input) and trying to incorporate new forms
into one’s developing communicative competence
• Trying out and experimenting with different ways of saying things
But how can these processes best be created in the classroom? Advocates of CBI believe that the
best way to do so is by using content as the driving force of classroom activities and to link all the
different dimensions of communicative competence, including grammatical competence, to
content. Krahnke (1987, 65) defines CBI as “the teaching of content or information in the language
being learned with little or no direct or explicit effort to teaching the language itself separately
from the content being taught.”
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Task 1
How important is content in a language lesson? What kinds of
content do you think are of greatest interest to your learners?
Content refers to the information or subject matter that we learn or communicate through language
rather than the language used to convey it. Of course, any language lesson involves content, whether
it be a grammar lesson, a reading lesson, or any other kind of lesson. Content of some sort has to
be the vehicle which holds the lesson or the exercise together, but in traditional approaches to
language teaching, content is selected after other decisions have been made. In other words
grammar, texts, skills, functions, etc., are the starting point in planning the lesson or the course book
and after these decisions have been made, content is selected. For example, a lesson may be planned
around the present perfect tense. Once this decision has been made, decisions about the context or
content for practicing the form will be decided. Content- based teaching starts from a different
starting point. Decisions about content are made first, and other kinds of decisions concerning
grammar, skills, functions, etc., are made later.
Content-based instruction is based on the following assumptions about language learning:
• People learn a language more successfully when they use the language as a means of
acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself.
• CBI better reflects learners’ needs for learning a second language.
• Content provides a coherent framework that can be used to link and develop all of the
language skills.
Content-based instruction can be used as the framework for a unit of work, as the guiding principle
for an entire course, as a course that prepares students for mainstreaming, as the rationale for the
use of English as a medium for teaching some school subjects in an EFL setting, and as the
framework for commercial EFL/ESL materials.
As the framework for a unit of work: Content-based instruction need not be the framework for
an entire curriculum but can be used in conjunction with any type of curriculum. For example, in a
business communication course a teacher may prepare a unit of work on the theme of sales and
marketing. The teacher, in conjunction with a sales and marketing specialist, first identifies key
topics and issues in the area of sales and marketing to provide the framework for the course. A
variety of lessons are then developed focusing on reading, oral presentation skills, group
discussion, grammar, and report writing, all of which are developed out of the themes and topics
which form the basis of the course.
As the guiding principle for an entire course: Many university students in an EFL context are
required to take one or two semesters of English in their first year at a university. Typically, a
mainstream, multiskilled course book is chosen as the basis for such a course and the course covers
the topics that occur in the book. Any topics that occur are simply incidental to practicing the four
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skills, etc., of the course book. Such courses, however, are sometimes organized around content. At
one European university, for example, the first-year English course consists of a sequence of modules
spread over the academic year. The topics covered are:
1. drugs 8. microchip technology
2. religious persuasion 9. ecology
3. advertising 10. alternative energy
4. AIDS 11. nuclear energy
5. immigration 12. Dracula in novels and films
6. Native Americans 13. professional ethics
7. modern architecture
The topics are chosen so that they provide a framework around which language skills, vocabulary,
and grammar can be developed in parallel.
As a course that prepares students for mainstreaming: Many courses for immigrant children in
English-speaking countries are organized around a CBI framework. For example, non-English-
background children in schools in Australia and New Zealand are usually offered an intensive
language course to prepare them to follow the regular school curriculum with other children. Such
a course might be organized around a CBI approach. An example of this approach is described by
Wu (1996) in a program prepared for ESL students in an Australian high school. Topics from a
range of mainstream subjects were chosen as the basis for the course and to provide a transition
to mainstream classes. Topics were chosen primarily to cater to the widest variety of students’
needs and interests. Linguistic appropriateness was another factor taken into account. Topics that
fulfilled these criteria include multiculturalism, the nuclear age, sports, the Green movement, street
kids, and teenage smoking.
As the rationale for the use of English as a medium for teaching some school subjects: A
logical extension of the CBI philosophy is to teach some school subjects entirely in English. For
example, in Malaysia, where the medium of instruction is Bahasa Malaysia (i.e., Malay), a decision
was recently taken to use English as the medium of instruction for math and science in primary
school and also for some courses at the university level. When the entire school curriculum is
taught through a foreign language, this is sometimes known as immersion education, an approach
that has been used for many years in part of English-speaking Canada. Parents from English-
speaking families in some parts of Canada can thus opt to send their children to schools where
French is the medium of instruction. This approach seeks to produce children who are bilingual in
French and English, since they acquire English both at home and in the community.
As the framework for commercial EFL/ESL materials: The series Cambridge English for Schools
(Littlejohn and Hicks 1996) is the first EFL series in which content from across the curriculum provides
the framework for the course. My own conversation course Springboard (Richards 1998) is also a
content-based course with themes and topics serving as the framework. The topical syllabus was
chosen through surveys of the interests of Asian college students.
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Task 2
What problems does CBI pose for teachers? What are some
advantages and limitations of this approach in your opinion?
Issues in implementing a CBI approach
Content-based instruction raises a number of issues. A central issue is the extent to which focusing
on content provides a sufficient basis for the development of the language skills. It has been
pointed out, for example, that when English is used as the basis for teaching school subjects,
learners often bypass grammatical accuracy since their primary concern is mastery of content
rather than development of accurate language use. This has been a common complaint in places
like Hong Kong, where English has traditionally been the main medium for teaching school
subjects in many schools. Another issue concerns whether language teachers have the necessary
subject-matter expertise to teach specialized content areas such as marketing, medicine, ecology,
etc., and the inevitable “dumbing down” of content in such cases. Lastly, a key issue is that of
assessment. Will learners be assessed according to content knowledge, language use, or both?
Task-Based Instruction
Task-based instruction, or TBI (also known as task-based teaching), is another methodology that
can be regarded as developing from a focus on classroom processes. In the case of TBI, the claim
is that language learning will result from creating the right kinds of interactional processes in the
classroom, and the best way to create these is to use specially designed instructional tasks. Rather
than employ a conventional syllabus, particularly a grammar-based one, advocates of TBI argue
that grammar and other dimensions of communicative competence can be developed as a by-
product of engaging learners in interactive tasks. Of course, most teachers make use of different
kinds of tasks as part of their regular teaching. Task-based instruction, however, makes strong
claims for the use of tasks and sees them as the primary unit to be used, both in planning teaching
(i.e., in developing a syllabus) and also in classroom teaching. But what exactly is a task? And what
is not a task?
The notion of task is a somewhat fuzzy one, though various attempts have been made to define
it. Some of the key characteristics of a task are the following:
• It is something that learners do or carry out using their existing language resources.
• It has an outcome which is not simply linked to learning language, though language
acquisition may occur as the learner carries out the task.
• It involves a focus on meaning.
• In the case of tasks involving two or more learners, it calls upon the learners’ use of
communication strategies and interactional skills.
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Task 3
Do you make use of classroom activities that can be described
as tasks in the sense described above? What do you think are
the characteristics of a good task?
Many of the activities proposed in the early days of CLT can be described as tasks according to
the definition above, i.e., information-gap and information-sharing activities that we find in many
course books and ELT materials. From the point of view of TBI, two kinds of tasks can usefully be
distinguished:
Pedagogical tasks are specially designed classroom tasks that are intended to require the use of
specific interactional strategies and may also require the use of specific types of language (skills,
grammar, vocabulary). A task in which two learners have to try to find the number of differences
between two similar pictures is an example of a pedagogical task. The task itself is not something
one would normally encounter in the real world. However, the interactional processes it requires
provides useful input to language development.
Real-world tasks are tasks that reflect real-world uses of language and which might be considered
a rehearsal for real-world tasks. A role play in which students practice a job interview would be a
task of this kind.
Willis (1996) proposes six types of tasks as the basis for TBI:
1. Listing tasks: For example, students might have to make up a list of things they would
pack if they were going on a beach vacation.
2. Sorting and ordering: Students work in pairs and make up a list of the most important
characteristics of an ideal vacation.
3. Comparing: Students compare ads for two different supermarkets.
4. Problem-solving: Students read a letter to an advice columnist and suggest a solution to
the writer’s problems.
5. Sharing personal experience: Students discuss their reactions to an ethical or moral
dilemma.
6. Creative tasks: Students prepare plans for redecorating a house.
Task 4
Can you give other examples of each of the six types of tasks
above?
There are many other taxonomies of tasks based on particular features of tasks, such as whether
they are one way, two way, simple, or complex. Many classroom activities do not share the
characteristics of tasks as illustrated above and are therefore not tasks and are not recommended
teaching activities in TBI. These include drills, cloze activities, controlled writing activities, etc., and
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many of the traditional techniques that are familiar to many teachers. Despite the extensive recent
literature on tasks, however, there are virtually no published teacher resources containing tasks
that meet the criteria proposed in TBI.
How does TBI in practice differ from more traditional teaching approaches? Recall our earlier
discussion above of the principles of a P-P-P lesson or teaching format:
Presentation: The new grammar structure is presented, often by means of a conversation or
short text. The teacher explains the new structure and checks students’
comprehension of it.
Practice: Students practice using the new structure in a controlled context, through drills
or substitution exercises.
Production: Students practice using the new structure in different contexts often using their
own content or information, in order to develop fluency with the new pattern.
Advocates of TBI reject this model on the basis that (a) it doesn’t work; and (b) it doesn’t reflect
current understanding of second language acquisition. They claim that students do not develop
fluency or progress in their grammatical development through a P-P-P methodology. They also
argue that second language learning research has shown that language learning results from
meaningful interaction using the language and not from controlled practice. With TBI the focus
shifts to using tasks to create interaction and then building language awareness and language
development around task performance. How does this work in practice?
Willis proposes the following sequence of activities:
Pretask Activities
Introduction to Topic and Task
• T helps Ss’ to understand the theme and objectives of the task, for example, brainstorming
ideas with the class, using pictures, mime, or personal experience to introduce the topic.
• Ss’ may do a pre-task, for example, topic-based, odd-word-out games. Teacher may
highlight useful words and phrases, but would not pre-teach new structures.
• Ss’ can be given preparation time to think about how to do the task.
• Ss’ can hear a recording of a parallel task being done (so long as this does not give away
the solution to the problem).
• If the task is based on a text, Ss’ read a part of it.
Task Cycle
Task
• The task is done by Ss’ (in pairs or groups) and gives Ss’ a chance to use whatever language
they already have to express themselves and say whatever they want to say. This may be
in response to reading a text or hearing a recording.
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• Teacher walks around and monitors, encouraging in a supportive way everyone’s attempt
at communication in the target language.
• Teacher helps Ss’ to formulate what they want to say, but will not intervene to correct errors
of form.
• The emphasis is on spontaneous, exploratory talk and confidence building, within the
privacy of the small group.
• Success in achieving the goals of the tasks helps Ss’ motivation.
Planning
• Planning prepares for the next stage where Ss’ are asked to report briefly to the whole class
how they did the task and what the outcome was.
• Ss’ draft and rehearse what they want to say or write.
• T goes around to advise students on language, suggesting phrases and helping Ss’ to
polish and correct their language.
• If the reports are in writing, Teacher can encourage peer-editing and use of dictionaries.
• The emphasis is on clarity, organization, and accuracy, as appropriate for a public
presentation.
• Individual students often take this chance to ask questions about specific language items.
Report
• Teacher asks some pairs to report briefly to the whole class so everyone can compare
findings, or begin a survey. (N.B: There must be a purpose for others to listen). Sometimes
only one or two groups report in full; others comment and add extra points. The class may
take notes.
• Teacher chairs, comments on the content of their reports, rephrases perhaps, but gives no
overt public correction.
Language Focus
Analysis
• Teacher sets some language-focused tasks, based on the texts students read or on the
transcripts of the recordings they hear. Examples include the following:
• Find words and phrases related to the topic or text.
• Read the transcript, find words ending in “s” and say what the “s” means.
• Find all the words in the simple past form. Say which refer to past time and which
do not.
• Underline and classify the questions in the transcript.
• Teacher starts Ss’ off, then students continue, often in pairs.
• Teacher goes around to help. Ss’ can ask individual questions.
• In plenary, Teacher then reviews the analysis, possibly writing relevant language up on the
board in list form; Ss’ may make notes.
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Practice
• Teacher conducts practice activities as needed, based on the language analysis already on
the board, or using examples from the text or transcript.
• Practice activities can include:
• Choral repetition of the phrases identified and classified
• Memory challenge games based on partially erased examples or using lists
already on blackboard for progressive deletion
• Sentence completion (set by one team for another)
• Matching the past-tense verbs (jumbled) with the subject or objects they had in
the text
• Dictionary reference with words from text or transcript
Task 5
How practical do you think Willis’s proposal is? What issues does
it raise for teachers?
Task-based instruction can, in theory, be applied in a number of different ways in language
teaching:
As the sole framework for course planning and delivery: This appears to be the strategy
proposed by Willis. Such an approach was used in a program described by Prabhu (1987) in which
a grammar-based curriculum was replaced by a task- based one in a state school system, albeit
only for a short period.
As one component of a course: A task strand can also serve as one component of a course, where
it would seek to develop general communication skills. This is the approach described by Beglar
and Hunt (2002) in their study of a 12-week course for second-year Japanese university students.
The task strand was based on a survey. Students designed a survey form, then collected data,
analyzed it, and presented the results. In this case “task” is being used in ways others would use
the term “project.” At the same time, students were also involved in class- room work related to a
direct approach to teaching speaking skills, receiving explicit instruction in some of the specific
strategies and microskills required for conversation.
As a technique: Teachers who find the procedures outlined by Willis unrealistic and
unmanageable over a long period could still use task work from time to time as one technique
from their teaching repertoire.
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Issues in Implementing a Task-Based Approach
Many issues arise in implementing a task-based approach. To begin with, there is little evidence
that it works any more effectively than the P-P-P approach it seeks to replace. Criteria for selecting
and sequencing tasks are also problematic, as is the problem of language accuracy. Task work may
well serve to develop fluency at the expense of accuracy, as with some of the other activities
suggested within a CLT framework. Content issues are also of secondary importance in TBI, making
it of little relevance to those concerned with CBI or mainstreaming. The fact that TBI addresses
classroom processes rather than learning outcomes is also an issue. In courses that have specific
instructional outcomes to attain (e.g., examination targets) and where specific language needs
have to be addressed rather than the general communication skills targeted in task work, TBI may
seem too vague as a methodology to be widely adopted.
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Strengths and weaknesses in Content Based
instruction (CBI) in EFL settings at beginning
language development stages
RESEARCH PROBLEM
Description
Content Based Instruction (CBI) as one of the most revolutionary methods in the language
teaching/ learning process, takes language and puts it into context considering that language
learning is more likely to be successful when facing conditions that are similar to the ones that are
experienced when learning the mother tongue. It also claims that language must not be seen as a
set of elements which are studied in isolation and through the use of unreal sentence s and
situations, it must be done in continuous action, this way students can witness lively the way it
works so the y will have a better understanding instead of memorization.
Regarding this idea, it becomes complicated to face authentic material at beginners' stages due
to the evident lack of vocabulary at that stage and if we consider an EFL setting, the lack of
authentic material arises as one of the main limitations for a content based class. Fortunately new
technologies allow teachers and students to have unlimited access to this authentic information;
unfortunately not everyone has that opportunity.
In order to face authentic material, it is imperative to have a look at the way English is taught
nowadays, for example, textbooks offer a way in which language is divided into pieces and taught
considering the level of difficulty of the structure in an isolated way so, students show acceptable
performance comprehending but, not producing. Books also give predesigned material that does
not consider students preferences, likes and dislikes so, their motivation may not be as high as
expected because not all students enjoy the same things and it can be reflected in the obtained
results.
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Research question
Is it possible to have an adequate content based class at English beginners' courses?
Objectives
To highlight the main strengths and weaknesses which are found in CBI. To find out possible
strategies in order to overcome CBI weaknesses.
Purpose of the study
Originally Content Based Instruction first appeared in the mid-1980s with the publication of
Bernard Mohan's work, Language and Content. Mohan describes his work as an exploration into
the ways in which the "learning of language and subject matter can be accomplished" (Mohan
1986). Immersion programs applied this principle as a way of adapting foreign students to scholar
systems so they can attend regular academic classes in L2 this way students leaned target language
and the required content.
What is intended in this paper is to analyze the possibilities of using a content based class in EFL
settings at beginners' stage so students can have the opportunity of using the target language in
a more realistic way inside the classroom in order to have a more practical language learning
process beyond textbooks from the very beginning of students’ contact with L2.
Significance of the study
Content Based Instruction as a significant approach in language teaching does not work the same
for all settings. especially if we talk about an English course in EFL settings where content is not as
important as it could be. Regarding this context, English is normally taught through the use of
textbooks but the real use of English is missing due to the lack of more realistic material and
students end by learning in one specific context but when facing original performance they show
an evident deficiency of L2.
At beginners' stages of learning, the use of a content based class would be complicated because
of the evident absence of vocabulary and grammatical features thus; not only the comprehension
of the taught feature, but also language learning would be delayed and that is why it is important
to have a broad revision of Content Based Instruction (CBI) and how it could be adapted to the
setting and its needs.
Considering what qualifies as content in content based classes, it is very common for it to be some
kind of subject matter related to the students' academic curriculum. The second or foreign
language can be consequently used as the medium of instruction. Nevertheless, this is not the
only option available for, and regarding a setting such an English course, some authors suggest,
that content "… needs not be academic; it can include any topic, theme, or nonlanguage issue of
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interest or importance to the learners" (Genesee, 1994). This statement shows the flexibility of a
content based class and the possibility of teaching at beginners' stages developing students ' skills.
RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Results
As it can be seen in its origins and in immersion programs where it has been commonly applied,
CBI has had as main setting that one where English is spoken as mother tongue but, how can it be
applied at early stages of the language learning process? Is it really necessary to wait until learners
master the language itself to set CBI as the approach to be taken into account? What happens in
EFL settings?
Nowadays books might be one of the main tools regarding language learning in universities,
academies or school courses, but when students are asked to open a book they might not
understand it at first (considering that all input found there is written in L2) so it would be shocking
at first and, if they are addressed in English. the way students face their first contact with the target
language would be upsetting and this might be nothing but lack of motivation. When learners
face their first language classes they are normally afraid because they do not know how to stand
before it especially beginners, because a beginner does not have enough knowledge and getting
a flood of information as first contact with L2 might cause panic.
In order to have an ad equate CBI environment students should be exposed to the target language
as soon as possible but in EFL settings it should be done at a different rate, taking into account
the level of the students, their necessities and also not making false assumptions based on a
common reaction to something unknown. When considering CBI as the way of teaching language
it is not necessary to become an expert in a content area, especially in EFL settings where language
teachers are prepared to teach languages rather that content and also people are more focused
in language learning instead of leami.ng any kind of content.
One way to avoid this situation is to remember what Genesee (1994) states: 'the content needs
not be academic; it can include any topic, theme, or non-language issue of interest or importance
to the learners" this way, learners might understand that the use of content in order to teach
languages is a successful strategy in which language is appreciated in real context through the use
of authentic material.
CBI Strengths and Weaknesses
There might be many points of view regarding strengths in CBI. and it is well known that depending
on the context where it is applied, these features might vary, because as it always happens inside
the very classroom, contexts are as different as we are.
Among its main strengths it is important to mention:
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1. The real use of language. Language stopped being just a group of distant grammatical units
and became a whole with a purpose in this case, content teaching. Learners started to know and
understand L2 in action, within real life situations and through the use of authentic material which
allow learners not only to learn a language but also content. This situation led students to achieve
goals through the use of their own comprehension abilities by facing authentic situations taken
from a wide variety of authentic sources, giving language authenticity.
2. CBI can make learning a language more interesting and motivating. Students can use the
language to fulfill a real purpose, which can make students both more independent and confident.
When learners see that everything they do has an achievable purpose they have more possibilities
of assimilating content because they might understand in a dear way what they are doing instead
of solving isolated exercises which enclose students inside learning by repetition but sometimes
far from comprehension.
3. CBI is very popular among EAP (English for Academic Purposes) teachers as it helps students to
develop valuable study skills such as note taking summarizing and extracting key information from
texts. When students face authentic material they will have to interpret instead of translate as they
usually do, so real language comprehension skills will be required. If learners face isolated exercises
in which there is no context. they might find several problems to understand a text because a text
would be longer and more complete than a single completed sentence. It is hard to get to a full
comprehension from the very beginning because of the learners level but, content can be adapted
and, starting from the least complicated exercise might help students to start developing their
potential from early stages instead of waiting far higher levels to make students face authentic
English.
4. Taking information from different sources, re-evaluating and restructuring that information can
help students to develop very valuable thinking skills that can then be transferred to other subjects.
Considering that content does not mean academic content, the language classes output must be
carefully chosen, and never has to remain the same, even the most simple exercise in an adequate
way shows how useful language learning might be, and not only inside the classroom. Language
learning does not mean only learning an L2 for travelling, approving a test or fulfill a request, it
also opens the door to a wide range of information that can be applied not only in the academic
context but also in real life situations. Students can develop a much wider knowledge of the world
through CBI which can feed back into improving and supporting their general educational needs.
5. The inclusion of group work within the framework given can also help students to develop their
collaborative skills, which can have great social value. Language learning is a process in which
involves all participants inside the classroom as a unit which goes in the same direction, allowing
the creation of adequate environment for learning. Language learning is not a process in which a
participant learns a language once and then keeps it to himself / herself, language exists for
communicating. CBI allows teacher to use a considerable amount of activities in order to enhance
group work peer evaluation, and different ways of allowing exchanges among learners and
teacher.
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Overcoming weaknesses
Along with these strengths, some weaknesses are also found, and as it was established before,
there are also many points of view considering these weaknesses, as well as strategies to overcome
them leaving out the context because weaknesses do not exist to stop but to overcome and to go
on. The following part shows some of the main weaknesses that can be found in CBI and some
personal ideas regarding their strengthening.
1. CBI might not be explicitly focused on language learning so; some students may feel confused
or may even feel that they aren't improving their language skills. This situation is very common in
EFL settings because it is not very common the use of content and every time students face that
kind of material they increase their anxiety levels and if they are not able to solve a task well, they
might be likely to lose motivation and interest because of the false assumption of failure regarding
language learning. In an EFL setting like ours we are used to measure language learning by taking
into account how much grammar is learned rather than the use of that grammar inside a more
realistic environment. Including some form of language focused, exercises to help draw attention
to linguistic features within the materials and consolidate any difficult vocabulary or grammar
points. If we work using authentic material, it does not mean that everything must be reading and
writing pointlessly, this material is the way to lead students inside the features we want to teach,
all exercises to be done or to explain must be taken from there, otherwise they will not be related
at all to the material and it will weaken the exercise.
2. The overuse of the students’ native language during the lesson might be a problem, because
the lesson isn't explicitly focused on language practice students find it much easier and quicker to
use their mother tongue. It is important to know that people in the classroom do not have the
same abilities understanding L2 that directly, and if this is forgotten, some learners might lose
interest in the class because at the moment of getting lost they will have to stop working and they
will not be able to understand neither the lesson nor the content. Also learners tend to be afraid
of asking the teacher when they do not understand increasing this way that fear situation which
might be seen in the learners' production skills.
Try sharing a rationale with students and explain the benefits of using the target language rather
than their mother tongue. The way to familiarize learners with language learning in a gentle way
is by inviting them to participate· solving activities, asking questions and sharing their ideas not
by forcing them. Students should have access to all information required in order to help them to
understand what is being taught, this information must be helpful and adapted to their level and
characteristics so they can feel more confident with L2 information. L2 must be a tool to join not
to divide.
3. It can be hard to find information sources and texts that lower levels can understand. Also the
sharing of information in the target language may cause great difficulties. Inside the classroom
not all students have the same level, the same abilities and the same necessities and of course
they will not be able to perform in the same way. Regarding sources of information the situation
is very similar, it is not so simple to get a " beginners text", or " intermediate text” in order to teach.
20
Students find it difficult to go on when the y try to read a text in L2 and do not understand it so;
they might end up by losing interest.
A possible way around this at lower levels is either to use texts in the students' native language
and then get them to use the target language for the sharing of information or to have texts in
the target language but allow the students to present the end product in their native language.
These options should reduce the level of challenge and might increase the level on self-confidence.
In this part it is important to take into account material selection, because this is the starting point
when facing CBI. It must be remembered that students can participate in this selection, but
teachers. must analyze this material in order to prepare it in an adequate way. At early stages of
learning not all students are going to be as confident as others, they must be given the opportunity
of sometimes performing in mother tongue but, it is good to be careful of not allowing this
situation being longer than required.
4. Some students may copy directly from the source texts they use to get their information and
fulfill the goal. This is a common feature because it is very simple to associate one word in the
question with one from the texts as it might happen in other subjects so, they simply copy the
information that is required expecting to have answered well. When students face problems
understanding they tend to associate elements this way some questions can be answered and
some tasks can be solved but the learner did not learn at all in fact, is gaining confusion.
Task design is vital. Teachers should not take a reading and prepare just specific questions as the
goal to be achieved. At early stages this may work in order to give learners some self-confidence
but, little by little learners must face more challenging tasks that demand students evaluate the
information in some way, to draw conclusions or actually to put it to some practical use. Having
information sources that have conflicting information can also be helpful as students have to
decide which information they agree with or most believe. All this information must lead to
language and content learning and the way of checking this is by the application of students’
abilities to produce language considering what they understand and think.
Discussion
CBI has shown from its very beginnings the way how real life and language learning can meet
inside the classroom. In the early days of language teaching, the use of authentic material did not
consider this so, although the use of authentic material is a good option, its lack of context
considering the environment where taught, became a barrier because learners learned something
that had a context for some people but not for them. It is important to underline that this material
was first used for translation rather that interpretation so the understanding of it could be
inadequate and far from its real meaning.
Although the real use of language, the main idea of CBI lies on teaching content and the possibility
of teaching great amount of content in L2 at early stages might be difficult. Fortunately academic
content is not the only content that can be taught in CBI so, depending on the level it is possible
21
to teach something which may increase learners’ interest and motivation, there is no perfect
material, it is the way it is used what makes the difference.
Not all material will be useful, but if it is carefully chosen and worked the results might be better.
Evaluation has been seen as a weak point in CBI because language learning does not always mean
content learning and vice versa. In a context where the content is strictly academic it is hard to
know what and how to evaluate because there is the possibility of evaluating content and language
separately but if they were taught together this evaluation should be carried out the same way. If
learners have the opportunity of helping to select material they would be able to understand and
discuss about it in a better way because of their proximity to the topic, situation which lead to
enhance interest and motivation. Authentic material offers a wide variety of possibilities in order
to create different ways of evaluating far from paper and pen evaluation. Problem solving, group
tasks, discussions, presentations, etc. are examples of activities which can be used to perform
assessment in CBI classes.
Evaluation, as it should be performed in any subject, must be progressive and constant. Learners
should be exposed to a considerable amount of language through stimulating content, CBI
supports contextualized learning; learners are taught useful language that is surrounded within
relevant discourse situation which is not seen in traditional language teaching which divided
English into small pieces of grammatical units. That way, students learned English the same way,
by pieces so, their results showed the same fragmentation at the moment of producing language
spontaneously.
There are different ways of applying CBI from early context. Teachers should take into account that
not all learners are able to understand the same at the same rate so, the use of different activities
starting with easy ones and going forward to more complex ones will lead to a better process
which may lead to an adequate language learning. CBI contexts might demand the use of target
language in order to perform inside the classroom but, it does not mean that teachers may use it
to create a distance with the people who evidence difficulties. Mother tongue is a tool as well to
help students to gain some self -confidence when the situation demands it. CBI is not an
unbreakable rule, is way of teaching so, it must be flexible and innovative.
Conclusions
Although CBI can be seen as an advanced level technique, there are some kinds of CBI that show
that contextualizing it to early stages could be possible through being flexible and having a high
level of motivation. Greater flexibility and adaptability in the curriculum can be set up regarding
students' interest. When learners see that the learning process takes them into account,
considering their interests, fee lings, likes, dislikes and also actual facts that surround them, they
will feel closer to it and this change can be clearly reflected in their motivation towards the class
and learner s' results as well.
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With CBI all four skills gain more attention in class unlike previous ideas which emphasized on one
or two skills over the others. Language started to be seen as a whole and not as a set of isolated
parts, this way the understanding of the language itself will be eased so, learners will be able to
fully comprehend and produce in L2. Many learners showed ability to perform well in one skill but
evidencing as well a gasp regarding others and that happened because if language is seen as a
puzzle it will be difficult to be understood.
Performance abilities which were a synonym of advanced levels can be taken into account at early
levels of language learning. When language is divided, exercises divide learning too because if
single sentences are taken from nowhere, the lack of context is evident and this lack might lead
students to misunderstand the task. If students are asked to work from authentic material the way
they face it might be more complete because the material itself has a defined context which help
students to understand an idea.
Complex information is delivered through real life context from the students to understand in a
better way leading to intrinsic motivation. Every time a learner solves a task through the use of the
learned features really puts language into practice and once a goal is achieved the learner could
feel that the language was really useful for something else besides an unreal evaluative activity,
they learned something witnessing how English worked.
Students facing known vocabulary (numbers) have the opportunity of practicing it in L2 in an easier
way, so the teaching act can be focused on the practice as we learned mother tongue step by step,
language learning is not a high speed process and the hard the language is work, the better it will
be learned. Through the endless practice our learners have the possibility of internalizing what is
taught and if we also represent it using their environment objects they will establish a better
relationship with language. Although some exercising seems to be repetitive and non-challenging,
it does not mean that is not a good exercise. Only through practice we are able to master
something so, as teachers we must consider that our students do.
When giving importance to communication, the concept of error also changes. In the past, these
inaccuracies were punished in order to reduce their occurrence (conditioning), and now mistakes
are also punished through grades or concepts. In real communicative environments errors are part
of the everyday conversation as in the mother tongue so, the focus lies on meaning rather than
form. If the students are able to communicate there is an achieved goal, if a mistake appears it is
taken as a normal feature which is inevitable and helpful in order to understand and being
understood.
It is impossible to have a perfect way of teaching languages, every single idea has shown
effectiveness but never in an absolute way and CBI is not the exception. Strengths and weaknesses
are just relative ideas because they are part of a whole idea which exists the way it is and even
when correcting every aspect of it, there will be something missing. As teachers it is important to
recognize that teaching languages is not an already written truth, it will always be a never-ending
process in which all actors must have a part in order to get the goal of learning.
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CBI stands for two main concepts, motivation and interest, learners have got more responsibility
in their own process and the teachers have lost the power which they were given in the past.
Teachers and students have the opportunity of being an active part when selecting material and
topics so, the class changes from a unidirectional one to a real interactive one. Although it looks
like a very demanding concept, the results of allowing students to participate in their own learning
process will definitely increase learners' motivation towards language learning because they are
now learning what they are really interested in, instead of studying a predesigned book that in
many situations does not take into account learners' interests.
24
Teaching and Learning to Write: Using a
Task-Based Approach in an EFL Class ABRAHAM PANAVELIL ABRAHAM
UNIVERSITY OF NIZWA, OMAN
ABSTRACT
Teaching writing is one of the most challenging tasks an EFL teacher has to face, and students find writing a
difficult skill to develop. This reading, however, focuses on Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) as a
successful tool for tackling this problem. It defines TBLT and examines its importance for enhancing the writing
skills of the EFL students, giving examples of tasks that have been successfully tried out in the classroom. The
reading also examines the use of various strategies for increasing EFL learners' involvement in reading-to-
writing activities.
INTRODUCTION
Writing is an important skill that can open up a world of possibilities for any student. Even in these
days of the Internet and other technologies, written communication in English is still an asset for
the aspiring student. But for a majority of our students writing is a skill they find hard to acquire.
The major problems they face in writing are (1) finding an apt word suitable for the topics, (2)
using appropriate tenses based on the situation, (3) using correct spelling and punctuation, (4)
organizing ideas neatly and coherently in paragraphs.
Such difficulties place a heavy burden on students, often causing them to lose interest in
writing. They find it difficult to write a composition based on their own ideas and they are afraid
of making mistakes in grammar, usage, vocabulary etc. However, one way to resolve this problem
is to use a TBLT approach in an EFL class as it creates a free instructional environment in which
students and teacher work together and collaborate in a relaxed atmosphere.
TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING: AN APPROACH
Task-based language teaching is an approach rather than a method which creates a natural
context for using the target language in the classroom. It allows students to explore their ideas
25
and choose their own words, and thus become active learners. It also gives teachers an opportunity
to develop activities in the form of interesting tasks on familiar subjects. The lesson is based on
the completion of a task and the language studied is determined by what happens as the students
proceed with the work. It is an approach that offers students material that they have to actively
engage with in the process of their learning, enabling them to explore their ideas freely and use
their own words without worrying about mistakes in grammar, vocabulary or other mechanical
aspects of writing. When they practice to write continually and complete their tasks, they can build
their vocabulary and improve their handling of grammar, spelling, punctuation, and useful
expressions. The familiarity of the topic and the enjoyment of the task are a solution to students'
writing difficulties.
Different Views
TBLT is an outcome of the communicative approach and plays an important role in developing
communicative language competence. The goal of language teaching is to develop what Hymes
(1972) called "communicative competence" (p. 272) and according to Johnson K. (1984) the
acquisition of communicative ability in a language is an example of skill development (p. 193).
Richards (1986)) says that the two types of materials used for communicative approaches to
language teaching are text-based and task-based (p. 73).
This communicative approach later evolved into a task-based language teaching method. Since
the publication of Jane Willis' A Framework for Task-Based Learning in 1996, the word 'task' has
been popular in ELT circles. Willis defines 'task' as "a goal-oriented activity in which learners use
language to achieve a real outcome" (p. 53). Hence, tasks are activities that require learners to
arrive at an outcome from given information through a process of thought, and which allows
teachers to control and regulate that process. In TBLT, assessment is primarily based on task
outcomes rather than on the correctness of language. According to Foster (1999), TBLT
methodologies "share a common idea, giving learners tasks to transact, rather than items to learn
and provides an environment which best promotes the natural language learning process". (p. 69).
Skehan (2003) defines 'task' as an activity in which meaning is primary (p. 3), while according
to Nunan (2004), 'task' is a "piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending,
producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on
meaning rather than form" (p. 10). Prabhu (1987) saw a task as" an activity which required learners
to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought and which
allowed teachers to control and regulate that process" (p. 24). Prabhu further stated that there are
essentially three types of tasks: filling an information gap, where students use language to share,
give or gain a piece of information; filling a reasoning gap, where students use language to share
opinions; and problem-solving, where language is used to salve a problem (p. 34). Whatever the
focus of a particular task, students are asked to perform it in response to topics that have been
assigned. This means a task can be anything that motivates students to learn the target language.
Hence, in developing writing skills, teachers should select tasks that will motivate learners, engage
their attention and promote their writing skills as efficiently as possible.
Dave and Jane Willis (2007), in their book Doing Task-based Teaching, listed seven kinds of task
that can be used in an EFL class to enhance student writing skills:
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• Listing: Brainstorming and/or fact finding (qualities, priorities, things, features, things to do,
reasons)
• Ordering and Sorting: Sequencing, ranking, classifying (sequencing story pictures, ranking
items according to cost, popularity, negative or positive)
• Matching: Listening and writing, listening and doing, matching phrases/description to
pictures, matching directions to maps
• Comparing: Finding similarities or differences (comparing ways of greetings or local customs,
contrasting two countries)
• Problem-Solving: Real-life situations, case studies, incomplete texts (logic problems, giving
advice, proposing and evaluating solutions, predicting a story ending)
• Projects and Creative Tasks: Doing and reporting a survey, producing a class newspaper,
planning a radio show, designing a brochure, etc.
• Sharing Personal Experiences: Storytelling, anecdotes, memories, opinions, reactions (early
schooldays, unforgettable moments, terrible journeys, etc.) (p. 58).
[A Task-Based Lesson plan prepared by Dave Willis and Jane Willis is given in the Appendix with
some modifications that might be of use to teachers who use TBLT in the EFL writing class]
Advantages
The main advantage of the task-based approach is that it gives students much freedom and natural
context in which they can use the target language in class. Hence, they have a more varied
exposure to language and are exposed to a good range of lexical phrases, collocations and
language forms. However, the focus is essentially on writing per se rather than correctness of
grammar, syntax etc. Students can explore their ideas and choose their own words with the result
that they become active learners. They are free to explore ideas without worrying about mistakes
in using tenses and appropriate words. The last part of the TBLT process can be devoted to
corrections and improvement. TBLT is learner-centered and is a strong communicative approach
where students spend their time fruitfully and creatively.
A FRAMEWORK FOR TBLT: THREE STAGE PROCESS
In a framework for TBLT, Jane Willis (1996) suggests a three stage process - pre-task, task cycle,
and language focus (p. 54) - and this comprises effective steps for improving students' writing
skills. The result is that students tend to become better at formulating their ideas in a coherent
way, using correct syntax/grammar, vocabulary, and so on.
The Pre-Task Phase
The pre-task phase introduces the topic and task for the students and activates topic- related
words and phrases. It is like a warm-up activity. Students get a chance to recall things that they
know and the teacher then tells them what will be expected of them at this stage. The teacher may
highlight new language structures to draw attention to certain phrases or expressions and perhaps
27
present a model of the task by showing a picture, audio or video that demonstrates it, at the same
time trying to elicit appropriate vocabulary or phrasing which students might find useful. For
example, the teacher may talk about the village/city where the students live, what they like and
what they don't like about it, and write their responses on the board, thus providing useful
vocabulary for the main task.
During this time, students are expected to get involved in the task, individually or in pairs,
depending on the type of activity selected. After choosing the task and explaining it, they begin
drafting. And as they begin writing the first draft, the teacher should urge them to let their ideas
flow onto the paper without concern for perfection in form or mechanics. At every stage, it is the
teacher's duty to encourage and motivate the students to use what they are comfortable with in
order to complete the task.
The Task Cycle Planning and Report Stage
This cycle can be divided into three parts: the task itself, its planning, and the report stage. The
following points have to be taken care of at this stage:
1. The task should not be repetitive: e.g. Yesterday I went to Muscat. Yesterday I went to my
college. Yesterday, I met my friend etc.
2. The task has a communicative goal for the students to achieve- for example, making an
important decision about choosing a course, writing a list of items that may be needed for
a picnic or preparing for a football match etc. The teacher should make it clear to the
students that their important goal is complete the main task.
3. The main task allows students to use their own ideas without worrying about the grammar,
spellings and other mechanics of writing. The task must not restrict the language that
students wish to use. Indeed they are free to use any language structures they want in order
to achieve the end goal, which provides them with motivation and purpose and ensures that
students focus their attention on communicating meaning rather than on grammatical
structures.
4. During the task, the teacher's involvement should always be encouraging and supportive.
However, s/he is not supposed to tell students which grammatical structure to use while they
are engaged in their tasks although the teacher may, if necessary, mention useful words or
phrases. Nor should the teacher correct the students' work during the task but quietly
monitor student progress and note down their mistakes for eventual correction.
Planning and Report Stage
At the planning stage, students work with the teacher to improve their writing skills. Here, there is
a heavy emphasis on form-focused instruction as students attempt to improve the overall
correctness of their writing. The teacher at this point plays a very important role in shaping the
written work of the students. At the report stage, students present their findings and here the
teacher's role is to act as a chairperson and to summarize each student's work and make
comments. The report stage is crucial as it gives students added motivation to complete the task.
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Language Focus
This is the final stage and it allows a closer study of some of the specific features naturally occurring
in the language used during the task cycle. By this time, students will have already worked with
the language and processed it for meaning, so they are ready to concentrate more on the language
forms that carry meaning. This stage focuses on two parts: analysis and practice. The analysis
involves the teacher focusing on certain language structures or grammatical issues related to the
tasks that students are addressing. This may be based on some of the errors the teacher has noted
down while monitoring the students' work. Students here can also do practice exercises with
special focus on language issues.
Why is the language focus last instead of first? The most important point about task-based
learning is that students communicate what they want to say using the words and phrases they
wish to use. This approach works on the notion that students are basically intelligent, that is, they
often know what they want to say, and this approach gives them some control and freedom to
express their ideas in the paper. It is the drive to communicate their ideas which becomes an
impetus to learn the language. The teacher is merely a facilitator in the writing process and helps
students in their effort to be good writers. Once the teacher knows that students have developed
an interest in writing, they can provide them with opportunities to write for different audiences
and for different purposes, and to write in other genres, including stories, biographical pieces, and
other types of essays.
Of course, there are numerous ways in which this framework may be adapted to situations and
contexts. The task cycle might be replaced with an activity in which students study a text and
attempt to work out the meaning of a new structure, before presenting their findings to other
students and receiving feedback and comments from the teacher.
TASK- BASED TEACHING AND LEARNING: SOME ISSUES
Since TBLT is very student-centered, and since students are encouraged to use their own language
and vocabulary, it becomes necessary for the teacher to give continuous support during the whole
process. Otherwise, students will not learn new expressions, phrases or words themselves. Even
after the task cycle is completed, the learning process goes on. The valuation part is crucial for the
students to become aware of the tasks that they have completed and their results. If the teacher
does not do the follow- up, half of the effort is wasted. Thompson and Millington (2012) point out
that "large class sizes, inadequate financial support and teacher time constraint at many
institutions can make the introduction of task-based teaching problematic" (p. 159).
Tasks for Developing Writing Skills: Some Examples
1. On the first day of my EFL class in writing, I invite my students to write something about
themselves so that I come to know about their background and especially about their
knowledge of English language and their writing skills. I show them a few examples of student
writing from the previous years as models. I realize that my students are happy to express
themselves freely. Thus, as a teacher, I get an opportunity to listen to their stories and I give
due credit to their accomplishments, letting them know that they learn to write by writing.
29
2. A task based on a personal memory that works well with any age is an "I remember" one
(Peregoy, Suzanne and Boyle, 2013). This also can be given as an introductory task for students
who have just started their course in writing. Here the teacher gives a number of prompts to
elicit answers from the students:
Teacher: I want you to think of five things that have happened to you. Write down each of
the five things, beginning with the phrase / remember. When you have finished,
share your ideas with a partner. [Give students time to share]
Teacher: Now, write down one name associated with each of the five things you selected.
[Waits a few minutes]
Teacher: Can you name our five senses? [Students mention the Five senses: touch, sight,
smell, hearing, and tasting.] Write down the most important sense that goes with
each of your "I remember" reflections. [Waits a few minutes]
Teacher: Now, select the "I remember" you would most like to write about. Share the
memory with your group. [Waits about 15 minutes]
Teacher: Next, write the part of the memory that makes it memorable or important to you
and share it with your group.
Teacher: Now, writing as fast as you can for 10 minutes, see how much of the memory you
can get down on paper. Don't worry about punctuation or spelling; you can think
about that later, if you like what you've written.
Teacher: [Ten minutes later] Share your writing with your group members and ask them to
make suggestions that will make it clearer (p. 260).
We can notice that in this type of task, all the three phases - pre-task, task cycle and language
focus can easily be applied.
Any topic or theme can give rise to different types of tasks (Dave Willis, 2007) which can be
generated with the help of a typology in Table 1. Each type involves a different cognitive process.
The top two types increase in cognitive complexity from left to right, but are generally cognitively
less challenging than the two at the bottom. These may involve more complex cognitive operations
or combinations of simpler task types. For example, let us take the topic "Cats". In this case a
'Listing Task' might be: List three reasons why people think cats make good pets. A 'Comparing
Task' might be to compare cats and dogs as pets. A 'Problem Solving Task' might be: How and by
whom will the cats be taken care of when the family is away or absent? An anecdote telling task
can involve sharing stories or personal experiences about cats.
TURNING TEXT READING INTO A TASK
We can use TBLT far working with texts and turn text reading into a task for the students. Here,
instead of the three stages mentioned above, we can divide the tasks into pre-reading, during-
reading and after-reading activities.
Pre-reading aims to activate schema by helping students relate what they already know to a
reading passage and this helps in building background knowledge. At this stage, students may be
introduced to vocabulary and ideas found in the text. The teacher can ask them to make
predictions about what they are going to read. Such activities encourage students to anticipate a
reading and stimulate their interest and motivation to read (Jacobs, 1999). A video clip/pictures
30
related to the text can be shown to the students before reading the text. A brain storm activity and
matching exercise with new and difficult vocabulary from the text can also be arranged as pre-
tasks. As stated before, a pre-task should always make students feel ready and comfortable before
working with the main task, and when working with texts it is always required to include the main
theme of the text and new vocabulary items from it.
During-reading activities help students integrate their background knowledge into the new
information they receive from the text. While they are reading, they can gather, organize, and
analyze the text and see if their predictions during the pre-reading session were similar or different.
Students can also be encouraged to formulate new questions and predictions (Jacobs, 1999).
Table 1. Types of tasks
LISTING TASK COMPARING TASK
YOUR TOPIC
Example: Cats
PROBLEM SOLVING TASK ANECDOTE TELLING TASK
After-reading activities provide students with an opportunity to articulate their understanding
of the text they have read (Barnett, 1988, Jacobs, 1999). During this stage, students can be given
different writing exercises where they get a lot of practice in using vocabulary and sentence
patterns they find in the reading.
The following is a passage on "Mark Twain's Boyhood Home."
On the west bank of the Mississippi there is a quaint house with a white picket fence, preserved
as a museum dedicated to its former owner- a famous writer. It is said that many characters
and stories from his novels are based on real-life experiences that he had there as a boy. This
house was the childhood home of Samuel Clemens, although most of you may know him by
his pen name: Mark Twain.
Sam Clemens was born in November 1835, as the infamous Halley's Carnet shot through the
skies. His family moved to this house in Hannibal, Missouri when he was 8 years old. The family
was so impoverished that they had to move out of the house for a while, living above a local
drug-store in exchange for his mother's services as a cook. They couldn't afford to move back
until after his father died, in 1847.
Ten years later, at age 22, Sam Clemens started to work on a riverboat. Also a journalist, he
adopted the pen name "Mark Twain" after a river term that means two fathoms (12 feet) in
depth, meaning "safe water" far riverboats to pass through. Under this new name, he published
many famous books including The Adventurous of Huckleberry Finn, an anti-racist story that
is often misinterpreted and criticized for using racial terms and stereotypes.
Pre-Reading
Before handing over the passage to the students, the teacher can involve them in some pre-
reading activities that will create the right attitude for receptivity. During these activities, students
will be asked to make use of their experience of life and their imagination and intelligence which
31
will enable them to guess what may happen in certain situations. The title of the passage, the
illustrations, key words, warmers etc. are some of the tools that may be used by the teacher. In the
case of the above passage, the teacher can write the title on the board, followed by certain
questions which the students may be asked to answer in their notebooks:
1. What do you understand by boyhood?
2. What is the difference between boyhood and childhood?
3. Have you heard about Mark Twain?
4. Have you travelled on a riverboat?
5. What do you understand by the word "racism"?
6. What is the difference between "pen name" and "real name?"
At this juncture, students can be asked to work either in groups or individually. The teacher may
collect the answers and share them with the class. The teacher can also show an illustration of a
house on the banks of a river. The picture of the Mississippi river or a video clipping related to the
Mississippi can also be shown to stir interest in the minds of the students.
During-Reading Activities
Now, as students are ready to read the text, the teacher can distribute copies of it to the students.
The following during-reading activities can be tried out:
1. Listening to a good reading of the text
2. A reading of the text
3. Language exercises
4. Checking against the inferences made about the text in the pre-reading activities
Students often enjoy listening to a text either on a tape or when it is being read aloud by the
teacher in the classroom. It is, of course, very advantageous if the teacher has a good voice and a
dramatic sense while reading the text. This will help students to "feel" the language, its rhythm,
intonation, sounds etc. If the text is long, the teacher can read some of the interesting sections
which will encourage them to read the whole piece.
Now, it is the turn of the students to read, at first silently, and then aloud and individually, in
pairs or in groups. The teacher can ask them to mark some of the difficult words or expressions in
the text and then help them to find out their meanings.
From the reading, students will be happy to note that they have formed some clear ideas about
the text before actually going through it.
Post-Reading Activities
Post-reading activities are meant to create a suitable situation in which the students can express
their reactions to reading the text. These will not only deepen their understanding of the text but
also generate interest in the creative use of the language. Some of the post-reading activities are:
32
Comprehension Questions
These questions are meant to assess how far the students have understood the text. The teacher
may ask the following questions regarding the present text:
• Why do you think Mark Twain wanted to use a pen name rather than his real name?
• Come up with a pen name for yourself. Explain what it means to you and why you chose it?
• Imagine growing up with very little money, just like Mark Twain. How would you handle the
situation?
• Can you guess the meaning of the word "stereotypes" from the context of the text?
An Alternative Approach
As an alternative, the teacher can also split the text into different sections and provide section
numbers. The sections must be divided as per the content of the text. The text with the marked
sections and numbers should be handed over to the students. Another sheet of paper with a
specific format also should be given to the students, like the one below:
You must read the text and fill in the format. Look at the sections in the text and write down
the most important information from each section in the first column.
Write down your experience, opinion, knowledge about the information you find in the text
in the second section.
Students may be asked to work together or individually when they read and fill in the format.
When they have all finished with the text and the format, they may be allowed to discuss their
choices. The motivating factor is that students are free to put into the format the information that
they find correct and that they must make a case for their choice while talking about the text in
class. They are also given time to work with difficult vocabulary items and expressions. Here they
have an opportunity to consult each other and also the teacher about the text's words and phrases
that they find difficult to understand.
The teacher can move around in the class and monitor how students are doing the task. This
gives the teacher an opportunity to understand specific problems faced by the students in their
use of language and in the writing process. And also the teacher, at this juncture, has the full
attention of the students, who will be motivated to learn the language well and in turn write well.
Dealing with Fiction or Short Stories
Here also, the pre-reading, during-reading and after-reading activities can be incorporated. If the
story has a straightforward plot, it is easy for the teacher to clip up the text and turn the text
reading process itself into a common task for a group of students. So, the teacher should select
the story prudently and see that it suits the purpose.
But, while doing the main task, the format may be slightly different.
33
First, the teacher should divide the text into small sections (it may be cut up into 3-4 sections)
- logical in relation to the plot of the story. Then, he/she can divide the story into different sections
and mark each section with letters or numbers. The class should be divided into groups that match
the number of sections. The teacher then keeps the different sections separate on the table and
asks each student in a group to pick up one of the pieces. When all the students in a group have
read their own piece of text, they must tell the rest of the group what the text is about. After this,
each group must try to write the story in the right sequence. The format may be as follows:
Short story Adjectives/descriptive language
• Main Character
• Minor Characters
• Setting 1
• Setting 2
• Setting 3
• Problems/Themes
Reconstructing the Story
As a variation, students can also be asked to recall and retell the story that they have dealt with.
This task helps students clarify their understanding of the story and gives them more practice in
using the language. For this task:
• It is better to have a short story as students can recall stories better.
• Select key words from the reading that students can use while reconstructing the story.
Alternatively, the teacher can write the words on the board or on a piece of chart paper.
Procedure
• The teacher may first read the story and ask the students to spend a few minutes in silent
reading, focusing on the main idea of the story and the key words.
• See that the students understand the meaning of the key words.
• Ask students to put aside the story and take turns with another student in the class to tell
each other the story in their own words. Encourage the students to make use of the key
words.
• Ask students to write down what they remember from the reading, using key words from
the story.
• The teacher may collect the written work of the students for comments and improvement.
CONCLUSION
There are innumerable ways and methods to improve the writing skills of our EFL students. TBLT
is just one approach that can help. This approach is based on the assumption that students may
study more efficiently when their minds are focused on the task, rather than on the language that
34
they are using. Students begin with the task and, when they have finished it, the teacher draws
attention to the language used, making corrections and adjustments. With the introduction of
different tasks, the class environment becomes more alive, with the result that student involvement
and participation becomes observable. However, the implementation of TBLT needs a good deal
of preparation on the part of the teacher, especially in designing tasks that are interesting and
suitable. Teachers can also design tasks based on different texts that the students can read and
then write on. The important point is that teachers must select the tasks prudently and implement
them properly. They must create situations in which students can think independently and also
suggest tasks that kindle their interest and sharpen their intuitive faculty and sensibilities. In turn,
students will develop an interest in writing and will be able to enhance their writing skills.
REFERENCES
Barnett, M. (1988). Teaching reading in a foreign language. ERIC, ED 305829.
Dave, W., & Willis, J. (2007). Doing Task-based Teaching. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Foster, P. (1999). Key Concepts in ELT: Task-based learning and pedagogy. ELT Journal, 1(53), 69-
70. doi:10.1093/elt/53.1.69
Hymnes, D. L. (1971). On communicative competence. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press.
Jacobs, V. (1999, August). What secondary teachers can do to teach reading? Harvard Education
Letter: Research Online.
Johnson, K. (1982). Communicative syllabus design and methodology. Oxford, UK: OUP.
Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
doi:10.1O17 /CBO9780511667336
Peregoy, F. S., & Owen, F. B. (2013). Reading, writing and learning in ESL: A resource book for
teaching K-12 English learners. New York: Pearson.
Prabhu, N. S. (1987). Second language pedagogy.
Oxford, UK: OUP.
Richard, J. C. (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Skehan, P. (2003). Task-based instruction. Language Teaching, 36(1), 1-14. doi:10.1017/
S026144480200188X
Thompson, C., & Neil, J. M. (2012). Task-based learning for communication and grammar use.
Language Education in Asia, 2(3), 159-167. doi:10.5746/LEiA/12/V3/12/A04/Thompson_
Millington
Willis, J. (1996). A framework for Task-based learning. London: Longman.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Active Learning: A process whereby students are engaged in active learning.
After Reading: Active reading strategies implemented after reading a text.
Anecdote Telling Tasks: Tasks using anecdotes, narrative or stories.
Communicative Competence: The ability to communicate well in a language.
Comparing Tasks: Finding similarities and differences in two or more tasks.
35
Alternative Assessment in EFL Classrooms:
Why and How to Implement It! MARWAN SAEED SAIF MOQBEL IBB UNIVERSITY – YEMEN
I. Introduction
Assessment is an essential component of the teaching and learning process. Its importance emerges
from the fact that assessment can improve teaching and can affect students’ learning negatively or
positively. Its importance also emerges from the purposes it can serve: helping educators to set up
standards, assessing students’ progress and motivating their performance, providing diagnostic
feedback, etc. (Herman, Aschbacher, & Winters, 1992, p. 2).
In EFL classrooms, assessment should be diagnostic, helping teachers to monitor students’
progress and learning and to identify the difficulties that their students encounter or have. It should
provide the necessary information and feedback to adapt and redirect instruction to ensure that
students can meet outcomes (North Carolina State Department, 1999, p. 14). It should also involve
identifying what students know and what they can do in the language (i.e., their real ability to use the
language), which the forms of traditional assessment fail to provide (Richards & Renandya, 2002, p.
336). In addition, assessment should focus on students’ performance rather than on their ability to
manipulate the English language in discrete items taken out of context. Moreover, it should provide a
total picture of the students’ ability in the English language rather than the isolated snap shot provided
by the tests (North Carolina State Department, 1999, p. 11).
In recent years, the shift from teacher-centered to communicative student- centered EFL
teaching approaches and methods has called for shifting from traditional assessment methods to
alternative assessment methods which are more student-centered (Grabin, 2007, p. 2). Another
factor behind the shift towards alternative assessment might be the limitations of traditional
assessment which have led to a growing dissatisfaction with traditional assessment methods and
which has made teachers, educators, and researchers start thinking about a more effective and
friendly means of assessment, namely alternative assessment. It was hoped that such a shift towards
alternative assessment would result in improvement in assessment, which, in turn, could result in
improvement in learning (Black & William, 1998, p. 7).
36
Reviewing the literature, the researcher found that traditional assessment has several
limitations. In EFL classrooms, traditional assessment often fails to meet the interest of teachers in
identifying what their students can do in the language (Richards & Renandya, 2002, p. 336). It usually
measures students’ ability to recognize or recall (Grabin, 2007, p. 11) but not their ability to use
English holistically in real-life situations. It often masks what students really know or can do in English
(Huerta-Macías, 2002, p. 338) and its results are often not true indicators of students’ performance,
ability, or progress (Gottlieb, 2006, p. 100). In addition, most of its techniques, such as multiple-
choice items and Yes/No items cannot represent real-life language (Brown & Hudson, 1998, p. 659)
and may facilitate cheating (Hughes, 2003, p. 78). They also focus mainly on the discrete skills or
elements of language (Stoynoff, 2012, p. 527) rather than the overall language proficiency.
Moreover, traditional assessment is restricted to the end of a course or a semester (Hughes,
2003, p. 5; North Carolina State Department, 1999, p. 14) and there is no feedback provided to students
in this type of assessment as Bailey (1998) stated. This means that assessment is seen as an end in itself
rather than as an integral part to instruction. Besides, traditional assessment gives rise to stress and
anxiety in students (Huerta-Macías, 2002, p. 338), which can affect their performance and
achievement negatively.
II. Alternative Assessment
Alternative assessment refers to strategies that are utilized to ask students to show what they can do
(Grabin, 2007, p. 11). According to Huerta-Macías (2002), alternative assessment refers to situations
in which “students are evaluated on what they integrate and produce rather than on what they are able
to recall and reproduce” (p. 339). In EFL contexts, alternative assessment directly evaluates students’
English skills and shows their ability to use it (Opp-Beckman & Klinghammer, 2006, p. 105). Although
alternatives to traditional assessment are referred to by different terms, such as alternative
assessment, authentic assessment, performance-based assessment, and direct assessment; most
alternatives share some common characteristics. They ask students to perform, produce, or do
something; use tasks that represent meaningful instructional activities; invoke real-world
applications; and focus on processes as well as products of learning (Herman et al., 1992, p. 6).
According to Opp-Beckman and Klinghammer (2006), alternative assessment has some
characteristics, including being based on course objectives, evaluating actual student performance,
involving students in the evaluation process, and having a set of criteria that describe the desired
achievement and that students should be aware of (p. 107). In fact, setting criteria in alternative
assessment is essential to guide judgments and to help students to complete the activities on which they
are to be judged as Hamayan (1995) stated.
1. Reasons for using alternative assessment methods in EFL classrooms
Although there are some issues, including reliability and validity, raised against alternative
assessment, the use of alternative assessment in EFL classrooms is increasing. This may be due to
the benefits and advantages that this type of assessment has for students and teachers as well.
Reviewing the literature, the researcher came out with some reasons that may stand behind that.
Actually, traditional assessment failed to provide teachers with what students can do in the English
language. Because of this, alternative assessment methods have been proposed. As the alternative
37
assessment methods replicate real-world communication contexts and situations outside the
classroom, they measure students’ ability to use English holistically in real-life situations. Besides,
alternative assessment is a diagnostic tool that is carried out continuously over a period of time
rather than restricted to the end of a course or a year. In this, it can offer a comprehensive and
accurate picture of students’ overall competence in English. In addition, alternative assessment is
student-centered. This helps students to be more involved in their learning and gives them a sense
of control for their own learning (Richards & Renandya, 2002, pp. 335- 336).
Moreover, alternative assessment methods, such as self-assessment and peer assessment
train students to assess their performance and monitor their own learning progress, which enables
them to take some responsibility of their own learning as Opp-Beckman and Klinghammer (2006)
stated. In contrast with traditional assessment, which shows students' knowledge about the language
rather than what students can do in the language, different types of alternative assessment such as
presentations show students ability to use English for an actual purpose. With alternative assessment,
students can demonstrate what they have actually learnt and how well they can use what they have
learnt (Opp- Beckman & Klinghammer, 2006, p. 105). Further, alternative assessment offers a wide
range of assessment possibilities to address students’ different learning styles. For example, some
students might choose to demonstrate their understanding by writing about something while
others might prefer to perform or to display visually. In contrast with traditional assessment, which
focuses mainly on products by evaluating results and outcomes of learning, alternative assessment
focuses on processes as well as products (North Carolina State Department, 1999, pp. 26-27).
According to Huerta-Macías (2002), alternative assessment provides information on the strengths
and weaknesses of each individual student (p. 339). This can direct teachers and students to the areas
that need improvement.
2. Principles of effective alternative assessment
Apart from the common principles of validity, reliability, etc. which are fundamental cornerstones of
traditional assessment, Grabin (2007) referred to eight other principles which can contribute to the
effectiveness of alternative assessment. The first principle is related to the purpose of assessment.
Alternative assessment should aim at improving learning. Therefore, teachers should provide
students with opportunities to practice tasks and activities of various areas of performance, which can
help them to acquire a variety of important skills and to improve their learning. The second three
principles are related to the nature of alternative assessment tasks and activities and the instructions
given. Alternative assessment should be based on authentic and real-world tasks and activities in
terms of getting students to deal with meaningful situations similar to those of the real life. This can
enable students to apply what they learn to real-life situations. In order to help students to achieve
assessment tasks and activities successfully, teachers should provide students with clear instructions,
criteria, and guidelines. Besides, alternative assessment should be feasible. This requires teachers to
consider students’ knowledge, level, ability, and the available time and resources when creating tasks
and activities. Assessment methods should be practical and its cost should be acceptable as well.
Two other principles are related to the nature of assessment. Alternative assessment should
be a continuous process. This requires teachers to assess students and monitor their progress and
learning over time rather than at the end of courses or semesters. Alternative assessment should
also be connected with the curriculum, the learning outcomes, and daily instruction and the
38
assessment methods should be related to what teachers are teaching in the classroom. The last two
principles are related to students. As alternative assessment was a result of the shift from teacher-
centered to student-centered teaching approaches and methods, it is student-centered. Thus,
alternative assessment methods should work to facilitate and evaluate students' learning and
assessment tasks and activities should be built around topics and issues of interest to students.
Further, alternative assessment should be fair. Fairness in assessment involves considering
students’ individual differences in terms of familiarity, level, interest, and motivation. It also involves
having all students equal access to resources. Taking these principles into account, EFL teachers can
make assessment more effective and successful, achieving the real purpose of assessment in EFL
classrooms, i.e., measuring students’ skills and knowledge and what they can do with English.
3. Common forms of alternative assessment
Alternative assessment is not limited to one single method, strategy, or form. In EFL context, the
term alternative assessment is used to refer to a variety of different forms of assessment
procedures (Opp-Beckman & Klinghammer, 2006, p. 105) that share some common characteristics
as stated earlier and that most of them aim at obtaining a holistic integrated representation of a
student's language (Hamayan, 1995, p. 218). This article sheds light on the most common forms,
namely performance assessment, self-assessment, and peer assessment.
3.1. Performance assessment
Performance assessment is an assessment in which the teacher observes and makes a judgment
about a student’s ability to create a product or perform a task (North Carolina State Department,
1999, p. 265). It requires two things, namely a task to perform or a product to create and some
criteria for rating performances and products (Opp-Beckman & Klinghammer, 2006, p. 107).
According to Gottlieb (2006), the criteria of assessment should be well-articulated and shared with
students through rubrics or scoring guides. Gottlieb thought that the criteria can allow teachers
and students to monitor and profile students’ language learning (p. 86). Besides, performance
assessment should be connected to the desired learning outcomes and directed towards achieving
them (Herman et al., 1992, p. 24). What is special about performance assessment is that it is integral
to the classroom instruction and the learning process. It is authentic and can provide students with
opportunity to express their learning in direct ways that reflect real-life situations (Gottlieb, 2006,
p. 111).
Performance assessment has several forms, such as performance-based tasks, portfolios,
journals, diaries, projects (Grabin, 2007, p. 56). In this article, the focus will be on the two main
forms, namely performance-based tasks and portfolios. Performance-based tasks are “tasks that
require students to employ the knowledge and skills they have acquired by creating a product or
delivering a performance” (Grabin, 2007, p. 56). Using performance-based tasks to assess EFL
students, teachers should consider some principles. According to Grabin (2007), tasks or activities
given to students should be authentic and directed with specific objectives. Grabin also
emphasized the importance of specifying some criteria (whether in the form of a rubric, a rating
scale, or a checklist) to guide students in the development of their products or performances. In
addition, when assigning tasks to students, teachers should consider students’ interest and
39
individual differences to ensure fair assessment, selecting tasks that are appropriate to students’
level and age as Yildirim and Orsdemir (2013) stated. Yildirim and Orsdemir argued that in
performance-based tasks, teachers should consider not only the product but also the process itself
and that tasks should develop not only grammatical and vocabulary knowledge of a language but
also its skills (p. 565).
The process of creating and implementing a performance-based assessment task in EFL
classrooms has to pass some steps as North Carolina State Department (1999) indicated. In the
light of these steps, the following example shows how to carry out a performance-based
assessment task for English speaking skill in elementary EFL classroom. The teacher, first, specifies
what language skill to evaluate (speaking skill) and decides what to assess (i.e., the assessment
objectives which include assessing a student's ability to introduce him/herself in English to the
class; stating name, age, family, where one lives, subjects, and hobbies; and closing). Then, the
teacher chooses the task (providing oral self-introduction) to get students show the target skill.
Here, the teacher should think about the administration of the task, i.e., whether the task is done
individually or in small groups, the time required for doing the task, and how to collect responses.
To be specific about what to observe, the teacher defines the assessment criteria, namely
pronunciation, fluency, information, vocabulary, and grammar. In the light of the criteria, the
teacher constructs a rubric (i.e., the assessment instrument) which indicates what constitutes
excellent, good, or poor performance for each criterion. For example, regarding the criterion
pronunciation, if a student consistently pronounces words correctly, his performance is considered
excellent; if a student generally pronounces words correctly and makes some inconsistencies in
pronunciation that do not impede understanding of the words, his performance is considered
good; but if a student frequently pronounces words incorrectly and his pronunciation impedes
understanding of the words, his performance is considered poor. The teacher should share the
rubric with students to make them aware of the assessment criteria. While the students do the task
(i.e., they introduce themselves), the teacher listens to them to assess their performance in the
light of the rubric, giving them feedback on their performance.
Using performance-based tasks to assess EFL students is beneficial and advantageous.
Performance-based assessment tasks require students to be engaged in tasks that mirror real-life
situations, which create opportunities for them to produce authentic language (Grabin, 2007, p.
141). This means that performance-based assessment tasks can indicate clearly what students
know and can do in English. Besides, they involve sharing rubrics with students and communicating
standards of assessment to them, which may increase students’ confidence due to their familiarity
with the standards of assessment. In addition, it makes students more engaged in learning (Griffith
& Lim, 2012, p. 3).
The second main form of performance assessment is portfolios. A portfolio is a practical
way for assessing a student work throughout the entire year or semester (Lotfi, 2012, p. 95). It is
“a collection of student work over a period of time” (Opp-Beckman & Klinghammer, 2006, p. 106).
According to Paulson, Paulson, and Meyer (1991), a portfolio is “a purposeful collection of student
work that exhibits the student's efforts, progress, and achievements in one or more areas” (p. 60).
This purposeful collection can usually give the teacher a clear idea about students’ achievements,
skills, efforts, abilities, and contributions to a particular class (Brown & Hudson, 1998, p. 664) over
a period of time and in one or more learning areas.
40
To use portfolios for assessment three things should be considered: the purpose of
assessment should be defined, the criteria for determining what to put into the portfolio should
be explained, and the criteria for assessing students’ work should be identified (Herman et al.,
1992, p. 72). The criteria can even be discussed with students (Zhang, 2009, p. 100) to make them
more aware of them and more involved in the process of assessment. To ensure an effective use
of portfolios, portfolios should be built from class assignments and matched with the curriculum
and its objectives as Zhang (2009) stated.
In portfolios, students can include whatever they believe to be important for their learning
process. They can include information, samples work, and evaluations that serve as indicators for
their performance. They can also include samples of written work (written stories, essays, etc.),
tapes of oral work (role-playing, presentations, sketches, etc.), and checklists of tasks and
performance (Lotfi, 2012, p. 95). Moreover, students can include criteria of selection and reflections
(learning logs, journals, etc.) on their works (Paulson et al., 1991, p. 60).
Portfolios can be in a paper form or in an electronic one. In the electronic portfolios,
students use web 2.0 tools, such as wikis and blogs to upload their works on the four skills of
English or their reflections on their performance. Three main types of portfolios can be considered
for classroom use: assessment portfolios, showcase portfolios, and collections portfolios. Based on
Fiktorius (2013), Lotfi (2012) and Zhang (2009), an assessment portfolio consists of items that a
student chooses to include according to certain assessment criteria. The items included in this type
of portfolio are scored or evaluated. While a showcase portfolio contains students’ best pieces of
work for each objective, a collection portfolio, which is also called a working folder, is a collection
of all the pieces of a student’s work during a certain period of time.
According to Rao (2006), there is no single way for developing or implementing portfolios.
Rao proposed three portfolio categories which represent a scheme for developing portfolios,
namely collections, reflections, and assessment; stating that each category represents a distinctive
stage of the portfolio development and has its own criteria that reflect its function. Regarding
collections, decision about what to put in the portfolio is usually determined by the purpose of the
portfolio (Burnaz, 2011, p. 15). According to Rao (2006), it is better to confine collections to one area,
such as oral language development, reading competence, listening comprehension, etc. Reflections
- which can take the form of a journal or diary, learning logs, self-assessment checklists, etc. - can be
on strategies of learning, students’ reactions (Rao, 2006, p. 116), problem areas and difficulties, what
has been learnt and what has still to be learnt, and plans for improvement (Burnaz, 2011, p. 39). The
third category, i.e. assessment, is usually determined by the purpose of the portfolio which should be
defined clearly. If the purpose is to demonstrate growth or progress, the teacher can make
judgments about the evidence of progress and provide those judgments as feedback to students or
make note of them for her/his own records. Similarly, students can use the portfolio to self-assess and
monitor their progress (Mueller, 2014). If the portfolio is to be used for assessment purposes, the
teacher should determine when and how it should be evaluated (Mueller, 2014) and set up clear
assessment criteria (Rao, 2006, p. 118; Zhang, 2009, p. 100). The reliability and validity of the contents
should also be established and maintained. In addition, data collection should be systematic and in
alignment with curriculum goals and objectives. Moreover, each piece of evidence should be coupled
with specified criteria in the form of a rubric or a descriptive scale (Rao, 2006, pp. 117-118).
The following example, which is adapted from Charvade, Jahandar, and Khodabandehlou
(2012), shows how to use portfolio assessment in intermediate or upper-intermediate EFL
41
classrooms to improve and monitor students’ reading ability. After presenting the idea of portfolio
assessment and its purpose and components to students, the teacher identifies the purpose of the
portfolio assessment (which is monitoring students’ progress in reading ability over one semester)
and defines the portfolios assessment objectives. The list of objectives, which should be given to
students, represents the reading skills and sub-skills that the portfolio should provide evidence
that the students have mastered. For example, one of the objectives of the portfolio is I can scan
a text for specific information. Regarding the portfolio collections, the teacher asks each student to
complete 10 reading passages of various genres, giving them some guidelines for selection. For
each passage, the teacher tells students to use a self-assessment checklist (See Table 1) to refer to
the reading strategies that they use to comprehend and understand the passage and a reading
log (See Table 2) to monitor their progress, to reflect on their strengths and weaknesses or
challenges in reading, and to set their plans for improving their reading skill.
As the portfolio is used for assessment purposes, the teacher should set some criteria for
evaluating the portfolios and should make sure that the students understand them. The
assessment criteria may include variety (the passages are of various genres), completeness
(students collected the ten passages and complete a self-assessment checklist and a reading log
for each passage), growth (the work represents student’s growth and progress in reading ability),
organization (the contents are organized systematically), following directions (students followed
the teacher’s directions for selecting the portfolio pieces), and neatness (student work is neat)
(North Carolina State Department, 1999, pp. 196-197). The teacher should keep on monitoring
students’ progress from time to time (e.g. at the end of every month). He may even need to hold
conferences to discuss students’ progress. At the end of the semester, the teacher collects
students’ portfolios and evaluates them in the light of the stated criteria.
Table 1. Student’s Self-assessment Checklist
Please, tick each item to indicate the reading strategy you used to understand the passage:
No The Reading Strategy Yes No
1 I use my background knowledge.
2 I use context as well as parts of words to work out the meaning of
unknown words.
3 I scan the text for specific information.
4 I skim the text to get its main idea.
5 I identify links between sentences.
6 I identify parts of speech in sentences.
Table 2. Student’s Reading Log
Date:
My progress in reading comprehension
I am good at
I need to work on
I can improve my reading ability by
Excellent – good – acceptable
42
Using portfolios in EFL classrooms to assess students is useful and effective. According to
Lotfi (2012), portfolio assessment promotes students’ autonomy and creates opportunities for
them to take responsibility of their own learning, to make choices and decisions about their
learning, and to plan their learning activities. It can also offer authentic information about students’
progress, helping them monitor and reflect on their own learning progress (Lotfi, 2012). In
addition, portfolio assessment enables students to be involved in their learning and assessment,
promoting their motivation, and helping them to see their weaknesses, strengths, and
development in different skills and areas (Burnaz, 2011, pp. 15-16). What is special about portfolios
is that they can be used in classes of any age or proficiency level (Opp-Beckman & Klinghammer,
2006, p. 106) and applicable to all language skills and systems (Charvade et al., 2012, p. 137).
3.2. Peer assessment
Peer assessment is an arrangement for students to “evaluate each other’s work, using pre-set
guidelines” (Opp-Beckman & Klinghammer, 2006, p. 104). According to Miller (2002), the basic
idea behind peer assessment is to provide opportunities for students to evaluate themselves and
their work more critically (p. 10). To ensure effective peer assessment, students should use clearly
defined guidelines to assess each other’s work (Azarnoosh, 2013, p. 3). Thus, teachers usually find
it useful to provide students with checklists, rating scales, or rubrics when implementing peer
assessment. Besides, students should be trained on how to give and use feedback and have a clear
idea about peer assessment.
The process of creating and implementing peer assessment in EFL classroom has to pass
some stages. Peng (2009) proposed an implementation process scheme for peer assessment. The
scheme involves three main phases: Pre-implementation phase, implementation phase, and post-
implementation phase. Each phase has its own purpose and procedures. Based on the said scheme,
the following example, which is adapted from Peng (2009), shows how to create and implement
peer assessment for oral presentation of intermediate or upper-intermediate EFL students. In the
pre-implementation phase, the teacher, defining the task and its purpose, asks students, in groups
of five, to choose their own topics for presentation. The teacher should give students enough time
for preparation. After discussing and setting with students the assessment criteria, the teacher
prepares the assessment tool (See Table 4). For better understanding of the requirements, the
teacher can provide students with a rubric (See Table 3) which should be prepared in the light of
the criteria of assessment and the level of students. The teacher should provide students with
copies of the assessment tool and the rubric, giving them some time to work on.
In the implementation phase, the teacher, first demonstrates how to conduct the peer
assessment method to strengthen students’ confidence and lower their anxiety. Then, he can ask
the students to give their presentations. While a group of students is giving their presentation,
both the teacher and the rest of the class assess the performance of the individual members of
the group by completing the peer assessment form in the light of the rubric. The teacher should
also monitor the peer assessment process and the quality of peer feedback. After carrying out the
peer assessment, the teacher collects peer assessment forms and reviews them, giving students
constructive feedback on their performance.
43
Table 3. Oral Presentation Rubric
Criteria 1 (Poor) 2 (Average) 3 (Good) 4 (Excellent)
Organization There is no sequence
of information that
audience cannot
follow presentation.
Presenter jumps
around that audience
has difficulty to
follow presentation.
Presenter presents
information in quite
logical sequence that
audience can follow.
Presenter presents
information in logical
and interesting
sequence that
audience can follow.
Fluency There is lack of
fluency with bad
intonation, constant
hesitation, and
pauses.
Fluency is inadequate
with intonation
problems and
frequent hesitation
and pauses.
There are some
pauses and hesitation
but complete
thoughts and
relatively accurate
intonation.
Speech is continuous
with very few pauses,
natural intonation,
and little or no
hesitation.
Pronunciation Most words are
pronounced
incorrectly.
Some words are
pronounced
incorrectly.
Most words are
pronounced
correctly.
All words are
pronounced
correctly.
Non-verbal
communication
Presenter never
makes eye contact
with the audience.
No movement or
descriptive gestures.
Presenter sometimes
makes eye contact
with the audience.
Very few movements
or descriptive
gestures.
Presenter usually
makes eye contact
with the audience. He
makes movements or
gestures that
enhance articulation.
Presenter always
makes eye contact
with the audience.
Movements seem
fluid and help the
audience visualize.
Verbal
communication
Presenter does not
speak clearly. It is
difficult for the
audience to
understand.
Presenter sometimes
speaks clearly and at
a good pace. Most of
the time, audience
find it difficult to
understand.
Most of the time,
presenter speaks
clearly and at a good
pace. It is easy for the
audience to
understand.
Presenter speaks very
clearly and at a good
pace. It is very easy
for the audience to
understand.
Confidence Presenter is not
confident at all. He
reads from notes.
Presenter is quite
confident. He
sometimes reads
from notes.
Presenter is almost
confident. He rarely
returns to notes.
Presenter is very
confident. He never
looks at notes.
* The rubric is developed in the light of some rubrics from different sources, namely NCTE/IRA
(2004), STUDYLIB (2015), TextLab (2015), and Toth (2015).
Table 4. Oral Presentation Form
Presenter’s Name: Date:
Please, use (√) to rate the oral presentation of your fellow student:
Criteria Poor Average Good Excellent
Organization
Fluency
Pronunciation
Non-verbal communication
Verbal communication
Confidence
Integrating peer assessment into EFL classrooms can result in a lot of benefits for EFL students.
Peer assessment can promote students’ autonomy and independence, increase their motivation,
enhance their personal responsibility, and improve their self-confidence as Peng (2009) indicated.
44
It can also improve interaction among students, help them to develop collaborative skills and
create opportunities for them to learn from each other, to talk in English, and to get more feedback
on their performance or products (Peng, 2009). Besides, peer assessment can play an important
role in making students more aware of the course objectives. According to Gottlieb (2006), peer
assessment promotes students’ involvement in their own learning and helps them to monitor their
own progress (p. 94). Gottlieb added that peer assessment is an effective means for having
students to practice language with each other (p. 145). Similarly, Azarnoosh (2013) stated that peer
assessment gives students opportunities for interaction which is important in the development of
a language.
3.3. Self-assessment
Self-assessment is a process in which students actively evaluate themselves, which may help them
to develop self-awareness and better understanding of learning outcomes (Miller, 2002, p. 8). It
does not mean that students assess themselves in the form of grades (Moheidat &
Baniabdelrahman, 2011, p. 51). It is just a reflection made by students on their performance, ability,
or progress. In EFL contexts, self-assessment can refer to procedures by which the students
themselves evaluate their English language skills and knowledge (Bailey, 1998, p. 227). To ensure
successful self-assessment, it is essential to establish clear criteria for students to use when they
assess their own performance or product.
Like peer assessment, the process of creating and implementing self- assessment in
classroom has to pass three main phases which represent a scheme for implementing self-
assessment in EFL classrooms: Pre-implementation phase, implementation phase, and post-
implementation phase. Each phase has its own purpose and procedures. In the light of this scheme,
the following example shows how to use self-assessment in EFL writing pre-intermediate
classroom. The teacher, after teaching some aspects of writing, namely punctuation marks and
sentence structures wanted to assess students' ability to apply the points and tips taught using
self-assessment method. In the pre-implementation phase of self-assessment, the teacher,
defining the task and its purpose, asks students to write a paragraph and apply the points and tips
taught. He provides students with an assessment tool (See Table 5) to use it to assess their pieces
of writing. Here, the teacher should encourage impartial self- evaluation of the performance or
product as Meihami and Varmaghani (2013) stated.
In the implementation phase, the teacher provides students with a piece of writing
containing the aspects taught, demonstrating how to assess it in the light of the self-assessment
checklist. Then, he asks students to write a piece of writing and apply the points and tips taught.
Students do the task and then assess their pieces of writing using the self-assessment checklist.
The teacher should monitor and help students (if they do the task in the classroom). In the post-
implementation, there should be a systematic follow-up in the form of either a written feedback
from the teacher on students’ work, a journal reflection, a conference, or any other technique as
Meihami and Varmaghani (2013) stated.
Therefore, after conducting self-assessment, the teacher collects the self-assessment
checklists and pieces of writing and gives students feedback on their work.
45
Table 5. Self-assessment Checklist for the Piece of Writing
Please, tick each item to reflect on your piece of writing:
No Items Yes No
1 Are commas used where necessary?
2 Is there a full stop at the end of every sentence?
3 Are all sentences and names capitalized?
4 Do all the sentences contain at least one subject and one verb and express a
complete thought?
5 Does your piece of writing contain a variety of sentence types (i.e., simple,
compound, and complex)?
* The self-assessment checklist is adapted mainly from Honsa (2013).
Many advantages can be gained from implementing self-assessment in EFL classrooms. Self-
assessment can help students to improve their English language skills: writing (Meihami &
Varmaghani, 2013), reading (Moheidat & Baniabdelrahman, 2011), and listening and speaking
(Shahrakipour, 2014). It also encourages active participation of students in their learning and
evaluation (Shahrakipour, 2014, p. 1), which can increase students’ motivation and promote their
autonomy, independence, and life-long learning skills (Honsa, 2013, p. 50; Shahrakipour, 2014, p.
1). In addition, it gives students more control over their learning and increases their responsibility
towards it (Gottlieb, 2006, p. 141; Honsa, 2013, p. 49; Shahrakipour, 2014, p. 1), making them more
involved in their own learning (Gottlieb, 2006, p. 94) and more aware of the assessment criteria
and directing them to identify their weaknesses and strengths (Honsa, 2013, p. 50; Shahrakipour,
2014, p. 1) and to monitor their improvement in areas of weaknesses. What is special about self-
assessment is that it may lead to more confidence as Shahrakipour (2014) indicated.
III. Conclusion
Assessment can be an integral part of instruction through the use of alternative assessment
methods. The current article tried to provide a simple and practical guide for EFL teachers to use
alternative assessment in EFL classrooms. It presented examples of various proficiency levels and
of different language skills with a view to indicating that alternative assessment is appropriate for
students of any proficiency level and that alternative assessment in not restricted to one particular
language skill; it is rather applicable to all language skills and systems. The article also highlighted
the advantages and benefits of alternative assessment and how integrating it into instruction can
be beneficial and advantageous for EFL students and teachers.
Yet, the literature indicated that alternative assessment has some disadvantages and
obstacles, including the need for training teachers and students on this type of assessment, the
large amount of time and effort it takes to create and administer assessment tasks and activities,
the size of classes which may not always help to implement it, students' resistance to participate
in self- and peer assessment due to their belief that they have not the right to assess themselves
or their peers or due to their belief that assessment is the job of teachers only. Besides, there are
some other issues, such as objectivity, accuracy, and consistency that are raised against alternative
assessment.
However, it is not fair to deal with alternative assessment only in the light of these terms.
Apart from grading purposes, which the researcher does not recommend using some of alternative
46
assessment methods for, alternative assessment has major functions and advantages in EFL
classroom. Further, teachers can maximize objectivity, accuracy, and consistency of this type of
assessment through more practice, training, setting clear assessment criteria, providing feedback
for students on their work, and considering students' level, interest, and ability when creating tasks
and activities.
As an advocate of using alternative assessment in EFL classroom, the researcher has started
to use some of its methods, namely peer assessment and self-assessment, in his EFL classroom. It
is true that the researcher did that on a small scale and not for grading purposes, yet he found it
useful for his students. Thus, the researcher recommends EFL teachers to think seriously about
using alternative assessment in their EFL classrooms and report its effect on their students and
their learning. The researcher believes that once an EFL teacher becomes willing to use alternative
assessment in his/her classroom and familiar with the procedures and requirements of
implementing it, has the necessary skills and knowledge to use alternative assessment, and trains
his students on its methods; he/she will find it interesting and useful. Starting to use alternative
assessment in EFL classroom, teachers should be cautious about using its methods for grading
purposes, especially self-assessment, peer assessment, and portfolios as this may not accurately
reflect students' ability or knowledge in English and may fix students’ attention on getting good
marks only, which is not the purpose of these alternative methods.
47
Project Work: A Means to
Promote Language and Content FREDRICKA L. STOLLER
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, increasing numbers of language educators have turned to content-based
instruction and project work to promote meaningful student engagement with language and
content learning. Through content-based instruction, learners develop language skills while
becoming more knowledgeable citizens of the world. By integrating project work into content-
based classrooms, educators create vibrant learning environments that require active student
involvement, stimulate higher-level thinking skills, and give students responsibility for their own
learning. When incorporating project work into content-based classrooms, instructors distance
themselves from teacher-dominated instruction and move toward creating a student community
of inquiry involving authentic communication, cooperative learning, collaboration, and problem
solving.
In this article, I shall provide a rationale for content-based instruction and demonstrate how
project work can be integrated into content-based classrooms. I will then outline the primary
characteristics of project work, introduce project work in its various configurations, and present
practical guidelines for sequencing and developing a project. It is my hope that language teachers
and teacher educators will be able to adapt the ideas presented here to enhance their classroom
instruction.
A RATIONALE FOR CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION
Content-based instruction (CBI) has been used in a variety of language learning contexts, though
its popularity and wider applicability have increased dramatically since the early 1990s. Numerous
practical features of CBI make it an appealing approach to language instruction: In a content-
based approach, the activities of the language class are specific to the subject matter being taught,
and are geared to stimulate students to think and learn through the use of the target language.
Such an approach lends itself quite naturally to the integrated teaching of the four traditional
language skills. For example, it employs authentic reading materials which require students not
only to understand information but to interpret and evaluate it as well. It provides a forum in which
students can respond orally to reading and lecture materials. It recognizes that academic writing
48
follows from listening and reading, and thus requires students to synthesize facts and ideas from
multiple sources as preparation for writing. In this approach, students are exposed to study skills
and learn a variety of language skills which prepare them for the range of academic tasks they will
encounter. (Brinton, Snow, & Wesche, 1989, p. 2)
This quotation reflects a consistent set of descriptions by CBI practitioners who have come to
appreciate the many ways that CBI offers ideal conditions for language learning. Research in
second language acquisition offers additional support for CBI; yet some of the most persuasive
evidence stems from research in educational and cognitive psychology, even though it is
somewhat removed from language learning contexts. Four findings from research in educational
and cognitive psychology that emphasize the benefits of content-based instruction are worth
noting:
1. Thematically organized materials, typical of content-based classrooms, are easier to
remember and learn (Singer, 1990).
2. The presentation of coherent and meaningful information, characteristic of well organized
content-based curricula, leads to deeper processing and better learning (Anderson, 1990).
3. There is a relationship between student motivation and student interest – common
outcomes of content-based classes – and a student’s ability to process challenging
materials, recall information, and elaborate (Alexander, Kulikowich, & Jetton, 1994).
4. Expertise in a topic develops when learners reinvest their knowledge in a sequence of
progressively more complex tasks (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993), feasible in content-based
classrooms and usually absent from more traditional language classrooms because of the
narrow focus on language rules or limited time on superficially developed and disparate
topics (e.g., a curriculum based on a short reading passage on the skyscrapers of New York,
followed by a passage on the history of bubble gum, later followed by an essay on the
volcanos of the American Northwest).
These empirical research findings, when combined with the practical advantages of integrating
content and language learning, provide persuasive arguments in favor of content-based
instruction. Language educators who adopt a content-based orientation will find that CBI also
allows for the incorporation of explicit language instruction (covering, for example, grammar,
conversational gambits, functions, notions, and skills), thereby satisfying students’ language and
content learning needs in context (see Grabe & Stoller, 1997 for a more developed rationale for
CBI).
PROJECT WORK AS A NATURAL EXTENSION OF CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION
Content-based instruction allows for the natural integration of sound language-teaching practices
such as alternative means of assessment, apprenticeship learning, cooperative learning,
integrated-skills instruction, project work, scaffolding, strategy training, and the use of graphic
organizers. Although each of these teaching practices is worthy of extended discussion, this article
will focus solely on project work and its role in content-based instructional formats.
Some language professionals equate project work with in-class group work, cooperative
learning, or more elaborate task-based activities. It is the purpose of this article, however, to
49
illustrate how project work represents much more than group work per se. Project-based learning
should be viewed as a versatile vehicle for fully integrated language and content learning, making
it a viable option for language educators working in a variety of instructional settings, including
general English, English for academic purposes (EAP), English for specific purposes (ESP), and
English for occupational/vocational/professional purposes, in addition to preservice and in-service
teacher training. Project work is viewed by most of its advocates “not as a replacement for other
teaching methods,” but rather as “an approach to learning which complements mainstream
methods and which can be used with almost all levels, ages and abilities of students” (Haines,
1989, p. 1).
In classrooms where a commitment has been made to content learning as well as language
learning (i.e., content-based classrooms), project work is particularly effective because it represents
a natural extension of what is already taking place in class. So, for example, in an EAP class
structured around environmental topics, a project which involves the development of poster
displays suggesting ways in which the students’ school might engage in more environmentally
sound practices would be a natural outcome of the content and language learning activities taking
place in class. In a vocational English course focusing on tourism, the development of a
promotional brochure highlighting points of interest in the students’ hometown would be a
natural outgrowth of the curriculum. In a general English course focusing on cities in English-
speaking countries, students could create public bulletin board displays with pictorial and written
information on targeted cities. In an ESP course on international law, a written report comparing
and contrasting the American legal system and the students’ home-country legal system
represents a meaningful project that allows for the synthesis, analysis, and evaluation of course
content. Project work is equally effective in teacher-training courses. Thus, in a course on materials
development, a student- generated handbook comprising generic exercises for language-skills
practice at different levels of English proficiency represents a useful and practical project that can
be used later as a teacher-reference tool. The hands-on experience that the teachers-in-training
have with project-based learning could, in turn, transfer to their own lesson planning in the future
(J. Mohanraj, personal communication, June 5, 1997). These examples represent only some of the
possibilities available to teachers and students when incorporating project work into content-
based curricula.
THE PRIMARY CHARACTERISTICS OF PROJECT WORK
Project work has been described by a number of language educators, including Carter and Thomas
(1986), Ferragatti and Carminati (1984), Fried-Booth (1982, 1986), Haines (1989), Legutke (1984,
1985), Legutke and Thiel (1983), Papandreou (1994), Sheppard and Stoller (1995), and Ward (1988).
Although each of these educators has approached project work from a different perspective,
project work, in its various configurations, shares the following features:
1. Project work focuses on content learning rather than on specific language targets. Real-
world subject matter and topics of interest to students can become central to projects.
2. Project work is student centered, though the teacher plays a major role in offering support
and guidance throughout the process.
3. Project work is cooperative rather than competitive. Students can work on their own, in
50
small groups, or as a class to complete a project, sharing resources, ideas, and expertise
along the way.
4. Project work leads to the authentic integration of skills and processing of information from
varied sources, mirroring real-life tasks.
5. Project work culminates in an end product (e.g., an oral presentation, a poster session, a
bulletin board display, a report, or a stage performance) that can be shared with others,
giving the project a real purpose. The value of the project, however, lies not just in the final
product but in the process of working toward the end point. Thus, project work has both a
process and product orientation, and provides students with opportunities to focus on
fluency and accuracy at different project-work stages.
6. Project work is potentially motivating, stimulating, empowering, and challenging. It usually
results in building student confidence, self-esteem, and autonomy as well as improving
students’ language skills, content learning, and cognitive abilities.
PROJECT WORK AND ITS VARIOUS CONFIGURATIONS
Though similar in many ways, project work can take on diverse configurations. The most suitable
format for a given context depends on a variety of factors, including curricular objectives, course
expectations, students’ proficiency levels, student interests, time constraints, and availability of
materials. A review of different types of projects will demonstrate the scope, versatility, and
adaptability of project work.
Projects differ in the degree to which the teacher and students decide on the nature and
sequencing of project-related activities, as demonstrated by three types of projects proposed by
Henry (1994): Structured projects are determined, specified, and organized by the teacher in terms
of topic, materials, methodology, and presentation; unstructured projects are defined largely by
students themselves; and semistructured projects are defined and organized in part by the teacher
and in part by students.
Projects can be linked to real-world concerns (e.g., when Italian ESP students designed a leaflet
for foreign travel agencies outside of Europe describing the advantages of the European
Community’s standardization of electrical systems as a step toward European unity, or when
general English students at an international school created a public bulletin board display –with
photos and text based on extensive interviews with EFL faculty– introducing new students to their
EFL teachers). Projects can also be linked to simulated real-world issues (e.g., when EAP students
staged a debate on the pros and cons of censorship as part of a content-based unit on censorship).
Projects can also be tied to student interests, with or without real-world significance (e.g., when
general English students planned an elaborate field trip to an international airport where they
conducted extensive interviews and videotaping of international travelers; see Ferragatti &
Carminati, 1984; Legutke, 1984, 1985; Legutke & Thiel, 1983).
Projects can also differ in data collection techniques and sources of information as
demonstrated by these project types: Research projects necessitate the gathering of information
through library research. Similarly, text projects involve encounters with “texts” (e.g., literature,
reports, news media, video and audio material, or computer-based information) rather than
people. Correspondence projects require communication with individuals (or businesses,
governmental agencies, schools, or chambers of commerce) to solicit information by means of
51
letters, faxes, phone calls, or electronic mail. Survey projects entail creating a survey instrument and
then collecting and analyzing data from “informants.” Encounter projects result in face-to-face
contact with guest speakers or individuals outside the classroom. (See Haines, 1989 and Legutke
& Thomas, 1991 for a more detailed description of these project types.)
Projects may also differ in the ways that information is “reported” as part of a culminating
activity (see Haines, 1989). Production projects involve the creation of bulletin-board displays,
videos, radio programs, poster sessions, written reports, photo essays, letters, handbooks,
brochures, banquet menus, travel itineraries, and so forth. Performance projects can take shape as
staged debates, oral presentations, theatrical performances, food fairs, or fashion shows.
Organizational projects entail the planning and formation of a club, conversation table, or
conversation-partner program.
Whatever the configuration, projects can be carried out intensively over a short period of time
or extended over a few weeks, or a full semester; they can be completed by students individually,
in small groups, or as a class; and they can take place entirely within the confines of the classroom
or can extend beyond the walls of the classroom into the community or with others via different
forms of correspondence.
INCORPORATING PROJECT WORK INTO THE CLASSROOM
Project work, whether it is integrated into a content-based thematic unit or introduced as a special
sequence of activities in a more traditional classroom, requires multiple stages of development to
succeed. Fried-Booth (1986) proposes an easy-to-follow multiple-step process that can guide
teachers in developing and sequencing project work for their classrooms. Similarly, Haines (1989)
presents a straightforward and useful description of project work and the steps needed for
successful implementation. Both the Fried-Booth and Haines volumes include detailed
descriptions of projects that can be adapted for many language classroom settings. They also offer
suggestions for introducing students to the idea of student-centered activity through bridging
strategies (Fried-Booth, 1986) and lead-in activities (Haines, 1989), particularly useful if students
are unfamiliar with project work and its emphasis on student initiative and autonomy.
Sheppard and Stoller (1995) proposed an 8-step sequence of activities for orchestrating project
work in an ESP classroom. That model has been fine-tuned, after testing it in a variety of language
classrooms and teacher-training courses. The new 10-step sequence (see Figure 1) is described
here in detail. The revised model gives easy-to-manage structure to project work and guides
teachers and students in developing meaningful projects that facilitate content learning and
provide opportunities for explicit language instruction at critical moments in the project. These
language “intervention” lessons will help students complete their projects successfully and will be
appreciated by students because of their immediate applicability and relevance. The language
intervention steps (4, 6, and 8) are optional in teacher-education courses, depending on the
language proficiency and needs of the teachers-in-training.
52
Figure 1. Developing a Project in a Language Classroom
DEVELOPING A PROJECT IN A LANGUAGE CLASSROOM
To understand the function of each proposed step, imagine a content-based EAP classroom
focusing on American elections.4 (A parallel discussion could be developed for classrooms – general
English, EAP, ESP, vocational English, and so forth – focusing on American institutions, demography,
energy alternatives, farming safety, fashion design, health, the ideal automobile, insects, Native
Americans, pollution, rain forests, the solar system, etc.). The thematic unit is structured so that the
instructor and students can explore various topics: the branches of the U.S. government, the
election process, political parties with their corresponding ideologies and platforms, and voting
behaviors. Information on these topics is introduced by means of readings from books,
newspapers, and news magazines; graphs and charts; videos; dictocomps; teacher-generated
lectures and note-taking activities; formal and informal class discussions and group work; guest
speakers; and U.S. political party promotional materials. While exploring these topics and
developing some level of expertise about American elections, students improve their listening and
53
note- taking skills, reading proficiency, accuracy and fluency in speaking, writing abilities, study
skills, and critical thinking skills. To frame this discussion, it should be noted that the thematic unit
is embedded in an integrated-skills, content-based course with the following objectives:
1. to encourage students to use language to learn something new about topics of interest
2. to prepare students to learn subject matter through English
3. to expose students to content from a variety of informational sources to help them
improve their academic language and study skills
4. to provide students with contextualized resources for understanding language and
content
5. to simulate the rigors of academic courses in a sheltered environment
6. to promote students’ self-reliance and engagement with learning
After being introduced to the theme unit and its most fundamental vocabulary and concepts, the
instructor introduces a semistructured project that will be woven into class lessons and that will
span the length of the thematic unit. The teacher has already made some decisions about the
project: Students will stage a simulated political debate that addresses contemporary political and
social issues. To stimulate interest and a sense of ownership in the process, the instructor will work
with the students to decide on the issues to be debated, the number and types of political parties
represented in the debate, the format of the debate, and a means for judging the debate. To move
from the initial conception of the project to the actual debate, the instructor and students follow
ten steps.
STEP 1: STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTOR AGREE ON A THEME FOR THE PROJECT
To set the stage, the instructor gives students an opportunity to shape the project and develop
some sense of shared perspective and commitment. Even if the teacher has decided to pursue a
structured project, for which he or she will make most decisions, students can be encouraged to fine-
tune the project theme. While shaping the project together, students often find it useful to make
reference to previous readings, videos, discussions, and classroom activities.
During the initial stage of the American elections project, students brainstormed issues that
might be featured in an American political debate. Through discussion and negotiation, they
identified the following issues for consideration: taxes, crime, welfare, gun control, abortion, family
leave, foreign policy, affirmative action, election reform, immigration, censorship, the environment,
and environmental legislation. By pooling resources, information, ideas, and relevant experiences,
students narrowed the scope of the debate by choosing select issues from within the larger set of
brainstormed issues that were of special interest to the class and that were “researchable,” meaning
that resources were available or accessible for student research.
STEP 2: STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTOR DETERMINE THE FINAL OUTCOME
Whereas the first stage of project work involves establishing a starting point, the second step
entails defining an end point, or the final outcome. Students and the instructor consider the nature
of the project, its objectives, and the most appropriate means to culminate the project. They can
54
choose from a variety of options, including a written report, letter, poster or bulletin-board display,
debate, oral presentation, information packet, handbook, scrapbook, brochure, newspaper, or
video.
In the case of the American elections project, the teacher had already decided that the final
outcome would be a public debate between two fictitious political parties. In this second stage of the
project, students took part in defining the nature and format of the debate and designating the
intended audience. With the help of the instructor, it was decided that the class would divide itself
into five topical teams, each one responsible for debating one of the issues previously identified;
topical teams would generate debatable propositions on their designated issue and then divide
into two subgroups so that each side of the issue could be represented in the debate. Students
would also be grouped into two political parties, which they would name themselves, with one side
of each issue represented in the political party; the issues and corresponding perspectives would
form the party platform. The 40-minute debate was structured as follows:
Opening remarks
Representative from first party 1 minute
Representative from second party 1 minute
Issue 1
Party representative who supports proposition 2 minutes
Party representative who opposes proposition 2 minutes
Issue 1 rebuttals
Another party representative who supports proposition 1 minute
Another party representative who opposes proposition 1 minute
Issues 2–5
(Same pattern as Issue 1) 24 minutes
Questions and answers from audience to other party representatives 6 minutes
Closing remarks
Speaker from second party 1 minute
Speaker from first party 1 minute
The class decided to invite English-speaking friends and graduate students enrolled in a TESL/TEFL
program to serve as their audience and judges. It was decided that the audience would vote on
which team presented the most persuasive arguments during the debate.
STEP 3: STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTOR STRUCTURE THE PROJECT
After students have determined the starting and end points of the project, they need to structure
the “body” of the project. Questions that students should consider are as follows: What information
is needed to complete the project? How can that information be obtained (e.g., a library search,
interviews, letters, faxes, E-mail, the World Wide Web, field trips, viewing of videos)? How will the
information, once gathered, be compiled and analyzed? What role does each student play in the
evolution of the project (i.e., who does what?)? What time line will students follow to get from the
starting point to the end point? The answers to many of these questions depend on the location of
the language program and the types of information that are within easy reach (perhaps collected
55
beforehand by the instructor) and those that must be solicited by “snail” mail, electronic mail, fax,
or phone call.
In this American elections project, it was decided that topical team members would work
together to gather information that could be used by supporters and opponents of their proposition
before actually taking sides. In this way, topical team members would share all their resources,
later using it to take a stand and plan a rebuttal. Rather than keeping information secret, as might
be done in a real debate setting, the idea was to establish a cooperative and collaborative working
atmosphere. Topical team members would work as a group to compile gathered information (in the
form of facts, opinions, and statistics) and then analyze it to determine what was most suitable to
the sides supporting and opposing their proposition. At this point, students would subdivide into
groups of supporters and opponents and then work separately (and with other party members) to
prepare for the debate. At that time, students would decide on different roles: the spokespersons,
the “artists” who would create visuals (charts and graphs) to be used during the debate, and so
forth.
STEP 4: INSTRUCTOR PREPARES STUDENTS FOR THE LANGUAGE DEMANDS OF
INFORMATION GATHERING
It is at this point that the instructor determines, perhaps in consultation with the students, the
language demands of the information-gathering stage (Step 5). The instructor can then plan
language instruction activities to prepare students for information-gathering tasks. If, for example,
students are going to collect information by means of interviews, the instructor might plan
exercises on question formation, introduce conversational gambits, and set aside time for role-
plays to provide feedback on pronunciation and to allow students to practice listening and note
taking or audiotaping. If, on the other hand, students are going to use a library to gather materials,
the instructor might review steps for finding resources and practice skimming and note taking with
sample texts. The teacher may also help students devise a grid for organized data collection. If
students will be writing letters to solicit information for their project, the teacher can introduce or
review letter formatting conventions and audience considerations, including levels of formality and
word choice. If students will be using the World Wide Web for information gathering, the instructor
can review the efficient use of this technology.
STEP 5: STUDENTS GATHER INFORMATION
Having practiced the language, skills, and strategies needed to gather information, students are now
ready to collect information and organize it so that others on their team can make sense of it. In
the project highlighted here, students reread course readings in search of relevant materials,
used the library to look for new support, wrote letters to political parties to determine their stand
on the issue under consideration, looked into finding organizations supporting or opposing some
aspect of their proposition (e.g., gun-control groups), and solicited information that could possibly
be used in the debate. During this data-gathering stage, the instructor, knowing the issues and
propositions being researched, also brought in information that was potentially relevant for student
consideration, such as readings, videos, dictocomps, and teacher-generated lectures.
56
STEP 6: INSTRUCTOR PREPARES STUDENTS FOR THE LANGUAGE DEMANDS OF COMPILING
AND ANALYZING DATA
After successfully gathering information, students are confronted with the challenges of organizing
and synthesizing information that may have been collected from different sources and by different
individuals. The instructor can prepare students for the demands of the compilation and analysis
stage by setting up sessions in which students organize sets of materials, and then evaluate,
analyze, and interpret them with an eye toward determining which are most appropriate for the
supporters and opponents of a given proposition. Introducing students to graphic representations
(e.g., grids and charts) that might highlight relationships among ideas is particularly useful at this
point.
STEP 7: STUDENTS COMPILE AND ANALYZE INFORMATION
With the assistance of a variety of organizational techniques (including graphic organizers), students
compile and analyze information to identify data that are particularly relevant to the project. Student
teams weigh the value of the collected data, discarding some because of their inappropriateness for
the project and keeping the rest. Students determine which information represents primary
“evidence” for the supporters and opponents of their proposition. It is at this point that topical
teams divide themselves into two groups and begin to work separately to build the strongest case
for the debate.
STEP 8: INSTRUCTOR PREPARES STUDENTS FOR THE LANGUAGE DEMANDS OF
PRESENTATION OF THE FINAL PRODUCT
At this point in the development of the project, instructors can bring in language improvement
activities to help students succeed with the presentation of their final products. This might entail
practicing oral presentation skills and receiving feedback on voice projection, pronunciation,
organization of ideas, and eye contact. It may involve editing and revising written reports, letters,
or bulletin-board display text. In the case of the American elections debate project, the instructor
focused on conversational gambits to be used during the debate to indicate polite disagreement
and to offer divergent perspectives (see Mach, Stoller, & Tardy, 1997). Students practiced their oral
presentations and tried to hypothesize the questions they would be asked by opponents. They
timed each other and gave each other feedback on content, word choice, persuasiveness, and
intonation. Students also worked with the “artists” in their groups to finalize visual displays, to make
sure they were grammatically correct and easily interpretable by the audience. Students also
created a flyer announcing the debate (see Appendix), which served as an invitation to and
reminder for audience members.
STEP 9: STUDENTS PRESENT FINAL PRODUCT
Students are now ready to present the final outcome of their projects. In the American elections
project, students staged their debate in front of an audience, following the format previously
agreed upon. The audience voted on the persuasiveness of each political party, and a winner was
57
declared. In the case described here, the debate was videotaped so that students could later review
their debate performances and receive feedback from the instructor and their peers.
STEP 10: STUDENTS EVALUATE THE PROJECT
Although students and instructors alike often view the presentation of the final product as the last
stage in the project work process, it is worthwhile to ask students to reflect on the experience as
the last and final step. Students can reflect on the language they mastered to complete the project,
the content they learned about the targeted theme (in the case highlighted here, that would be
American elections, party platforms, and the role of debate in the election process), the steps they
followed to complete the project, and the effectiveness of their final product. Students can be
asked how they might proceed differently the next time or what suggestions they have for future
project work endeavors. Through these reflective activities, students realize how much they have
learned and the teacher benefits from students’ insights for future classroom projects.
CONCLUSION
Content-based instruction and project work provide two means for making English-language
classrooms more vibrant environments for learning and collaboration. Project work, however, need
not be limited to content-based language classes. Language teachers in more traditional
classrooms can diversify instruction with an occasional project. Similarly, teacher educators can
integrate projects into their courses to reinforce important pedagogical issues and provide trainees
with hands-on experience, a process that may be integrated into future classrooms of their own.
Whether a project centers on American elections, demography, peace education, syllabus design,
or methodology, students of varying levels and needs can benefit from the empowering experience
that results from participation and collaboration in a project. Although project work may be easier
to implement in second language settings because of more readily accessible content resources,
teachers in foreign language settings have already proven that with adaptation and creativity, the
project approach can be successful and rewarding for teachers and students alike.
58
Assessing general language proficiency
[Assessing General Language Proficiency: 5' 22"]
There are differences in how the term general language proficiency (GLP) is understood, and
different interpretations of GLP will affect how language tests are made. There are at least three
possible approaches to understanding and defining general language proficiency, with their
corresponding implications for the tests and assessments they inform.
A. BEFORE YOU WATCH
1. What features do you think are part of General Language Proficiency (GLP)? Continue the list
with at least four additional features...
Listening ability
Grammar
…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………
2. Do you think that the interpretation of GLP affects the way a test is developed? How?
3. Can you name a test which illustrates what, in your opinion, is a good reflection of general
language proficiency? Why do you think this is so?
59
B. WHILE YOU WATCH
4. Before you start making a test,
What do you need to do?
Why?
General Language Proficiency (GLP): three different approaches
C. THE "ABILITIES IN REAL LIFE" (ARL) APPROACH
5. Complete:
The ARL approach sees GLP as the ability to ......................., ......................., .......................,
and ..................................... in real ..........................................
6. Which sections are normally included in a test illustrating this GLP approach? Tick as
appropriate
⃝ Listening
⃝ Grammar
⃝ Speaking
⃝ Reading
⃝ Translation
⃝ Vocabulary
⃝ Writing
7. True (T) or False (F)?
In tests illustrating the "Abilities in Real Life" (ARL) approach, the questions...
a. ...are designed to find out what students know. ______
b. ...assess how performances reflect real life. ______
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the "ARL" approach?
Advantages Disadvantages
60
D. THE "INTERACTIVE " APPROACH
9. Complete:
The "Interactive" approach considers that no skill can be .............................to any other.
For example, in a conversation, there may be three skills involved:
………………………………………………….
………………………………………………….
………………………………………………….
10. What test task is given as an example of this approach?
………………………………………………….
11. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the "Interactive" approach?
Advantages Disadvantages
E. THE "COMMON CORE" APPROACH
12. The "Common Core" approach includes everything that goes into ..................................... and
using a language. The video mentions six main aspects:
1. ................................................. 4. .................................................
2. ................................................. 5. .................................................
3. .................................................. 6. .................................................
13. Which are considered the best predictors of language ability?
................................................. .................................................
14. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the "Common core" approach?
Advantages Disadvantages
61
F. AFTER YOU WATCH
15. Match the GLP approaches described in the video to their definition
GLP approach Definition
A. Abilities in real life 1. Includes everything that goes into knowing and using a
language.
B. Interactive 2. Takes into consideration the ability to speak, write, read and listen
in real life situations.
C. Core 3. Considers that no skill can be independent of any other.
16. Complete the following summary of the video about GLP and language testing and
assessment with the words provided.
information, limited, ability, detailed, approximation
If you want a test to give you a ................................ understanding of someone's language
proficiency. you need a lot of .......................... A short and ........................ test will only give you
an ............................... of a test taker's ..................................
To learn more about GLP, you can access Section 2.1 in Chapter 2 in The Common European
Framework of Reference: Learning, Teaching Assessment, where the different elements of an
"action oriented approach" to GLP are described and discussed (pp. 9-16):
http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Framework EN.pdf
62
The Common European Framework in its
political and educational context
1. What is the Common European Framework?
The Common European Framework provides a common basis for the elaboration of language
syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, textbooks, etc. across Europe. It describes in a
comprehensive way what language learners have to learn to do in order to use a language for
communication and what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to act
effectively. The description also covers the cultural context in which language is set. The Framework
also defines levels of proficiency which allow learners' progress to be measured at each stage of
learning and on a life-long basis.
The Common European Framework is intended to overcome the barriers to communication
among professionals working in the field of modern languages arising from the different
educational systems in Europe. It provides the means for educational administrators, course
designers, teachers, teacher trainers, examining bodies, etc., to reflect on their current practice,
with a view to situating and coordinating their efforts and to ensuring that they meet the real
needs of the learners for whom they are responsible.
By providing a common basis for the explicit description of objectives, content and methods,
the Framework will enhance the transparency of courses, syllabuses and qualifications, thus
promoting international cooperation in the field of modern languages. The provision of objective
criteria for describing language proficiency will facilitate the mutual recognition of qualifications
gained in different learning contexts, and accordingly will aid European mobility.
The taxonomic nature of the Framework inevitably means trying to handle the great
complexity of human language by breaking language competence down into separate
components. This confronts us with psychological and pedagogical problems of some depth.
Communication calls upon the whole human being. The competences separated and classified
below interact in complex ways in the development of each unique human personality. As a social
agent, each individual forms relationships with a widening cluster of overlapping social groups,
which together define identity. In an intercultural approach, it is a central objective of language
education to promote the favorable development of the learner's whole personality and sense of
identity in response to the enriching experience of otherness in language and culture. It must be
left to teachers and the learners themselves to reintegrate the many parts into a healthily
developing whole.
The Framework includes the description of 'partial' qualifications, appropriate when only a
more restricted knowledge of a language is required (e.g. for understanding rather than speaking),
or when a limited amount of time is available for the learning of a third or fourth language and
more useful results can perhaps be attained by aiming at, say, recognition rather than recall skills.
63
Giving formal recognition to such abilities will help to promote plurilingualism through the
learning of a wider variety of European languages.
2. For what uses is CEF intended?
The uses of the Framework include:
The planning of language learning programmes in terms of:
• their assumptions regarding prior knowledge, and their articulation with earlier learning,
particularly at interfaces between primary, lower secondary, upper secondary and
higher/further education;
• their objectives;
• their content.
The planning of language certification in terms of:
• the content syllabus of examinations;
• assessment criteria, in terms of positive achievement rather than negative deficiencies.
The planning of self-directed learning, including:
• raising the learner's awareness of his or her present state of knowledge;
• self-setting of feasible and worthwhile objectives;
• selection of materials;
• self-assessment.
Learning programmes and certification can be:
• global, bringing a learner forward in all dimensions of language proficiency and
communicative competence;
• modular, improving the learner's proficiency in a restricted area for a particular purpose;
• weighted, emphasizing learning in certain directions and producing a 'profile' in which a
higher level is attained in some areas of knowledge and skill than others;
• partial, taking responsibility only for certain activities and skills (e.g. reception) and leaving
others aside.
The Common European Framework is constructed so as to accommodate these various forms.
In considering the role of a common framework at more advanced stages of language
learning it is necessary to take into account changes in the nature of needs of learners and the
context in which they live, study and work. There is a need for general qualifications at a level
beyond threshold, which may be situated with reference to the CEF. They have, of course, to be
well defined, properly adapted to national situations and embrace new areas, particularly in the
cultural field and more specialized domains. In addition, a considerable role may be played by
64
modules or clusters of modules geared to the specific needs, characteristics and resources of
learners.
3. What criteria must CEF meet?
In order to fulfil its functions, such a Common European Framework must be comprehensive,
transparent and coherent.
'Comprehensive' means that the Common European Framework should attempt to specify
as full a range of language knowledge, skills and use as possible (without of course attempting to
forecast a priori all possible uses of language in all situations - an impossible task), and that all
users should be able to describe their objectives, etc., by reference to it. CEF should differentiate
the various dimensions in which language proficiency is described, and provide a series of
reference points (levels or steps) by which progress in learning can be calibrated. It should be
borne in mind that the development of communicative proficiency involves other dimensions than
the strictly linguistic (e.g. sociocultural awareness, imaginative experience, affective relations,
learning to learn, etc.).
'Transparent' means that information must be clearly formulated and explicit, available and
readily comprehensible to users.
'Coherent' means that the description is free from internal contradictions. With regard to
educational systems, coherence requires that there is a harmonious relation among their
components:
• the identification of needs;
• the determination of objectives;
• the definition of content;
• the selection or creation of material;
• the establishment of teaching/learning programmes;
• the teaching and learning methods employed;
• evaluation, testing and assessment.
The construction of a comprehensive, transparent and coherent framework for language learning
and teaching does not imply the imposition of one single uniform system. On the contrary, the
framework should be open and flexible, so that it can be applied, with such adaptations as prove
necessary, to particular situations. CEF should be:
• multi-purpose: usable for the full variety of purposes involved in the planning and provision
of facilities for language learning
• flexible: adaptable for use in different circumstances
• open: capable of further extension and refinement
• dynamic: in continuous evolution in response to experience in its use
• user-friendly: presented in a form readily understandable and usable by those to whom it
is addressed
• non-dogmatic: not irrevocably and exclusively attached to any one of a number of
competing linguistic or educational theories or practices.
65
4. Language assessment
The CEF is 'A common European framework for language learning, teaching and assessment'. Up
to this point, the focus has been upon the nature of language use and the language user and the
implications for learning and teaching.
In relation to the assessment of language proficiency, there are three main ways in which
the Framework can be used:
1. for the specification of the content of tests and examinations.
2. for stating the criteria for the attainment of a learning objective, both in relation to the
assessment o fa particular spoken or written performance, and in relation to continuous
teacher-, peer- or self-assessment.
3. for describing the levels of proficiency in existing tests and examinations thus enabling
comparisons to be made across different systems of qualifications.
66
Common Reference Levels
a. Criteria for descriptors for Common Reference Levels
One of the aims of the Framework is to help partners to describe the levels of proficiency required
by existing standards, tests and examinations in order to facilitate comparisons between different
systems of qualifications. For this purpose, the Descriptive Scheme and the Common Reference
Levels have been developed. Between them they provide a conceptual grid which users can exploit
to describe their system. Ideally a scale of reference levels in a common framework should meet
the following four criteria. Two relate to description issues, and two relate to measurement issues:
Description Issues
• A common framework scale should be context-free in order to accommodate generalizable
results from different specific contexts. That is to say that a common scale should not be
produced specifically for, let us say, the school context and then applied to adults, or vice-
versa. Yet at the same time the descriptors in a common Framework scale need to be
context-relevant, relatable to or translatable into each and every relevant context - and
appropriate for the function they are used for in that context. This means that the
categories used to describe what learners can do in different contexts of use must be
relatable to the target contexts of use of the different groups of learners within the overall
target population.
• The description also needs to be based on theories of language competence. This is difficult
to achieve because the available theory and research is inadequate to provide a basis for
such a description. Nevertheless, the categorization and description needs to be
theoretically grounded. In addition, whilst relating to theory, the description must also
remain user-friendly - accessible to practitioners. It should encourage them to think further
about what competence means in their context.
Measurement Issues
• The points on the scale at which particular activities and competences are situated in a
common framework scale should be objectively determined in that they are based on a
theory of measurement. This is in order to avoid systematizing error through adopting
unfounded conventions and 'rules of thumb' from the authors, particular groups of
practitioners or existing scales that are consulted.
• The number of levels adopted should be adequate to show progression in different sectors,
but, in any particular context, should not exceed the number of levels between which
people are capable of making reasonably consistent distinctions. This may mean adopting
different sizes of scale step for different dimensions, or a two-tier approach between
67
broader (common, conventional) and narrower (local, pedagogic) levels.
b. The Common Reference Levels
There does appear in practice to be a wide, though by no means universal, consensus on the
number and nature of levels appropriate to the organization of language learning and the public
recognition of achievement. It seems that an outline framework of six broad levels gives an
adequate coverage of the learning space relevant to European language learners for these
purposes.
• Breakthrough, corresponding to what Wilkins in his 1978 proposal labelled 'Formulaic
Proficiency', and Trim in the same publication1 'Introductory'.
• Waystage, reflecting the Council of Europe content specification.
• Threshold, reflecting the Council of Europe content specification.
• Vantage, reflecting the third Council of Europe content specification, a level described as
'Limited Operational Proficiency' by Wilkins, and 'adequate response to situations normally
encountered' by Trim.
• Effective OperationaI Proficiency which was called 'Effective Proficiency' by Trim,
'Adequate Operational Proficiency' by Wilkins, and represents an advanced level of
competence suitable for more complex work and study tasks.
• Mastery (Trim: 'comprehensive mastery'; Wilkins: 'Comprehensive Operational Proficiency'),
corresponds to the top examination objective in the scheme adopted by ALTE (Association
of Language Testers in Europe). It could be extended to include the more developed
intercultural competence above that level which is achieved by many language
professionals.
When one looks at these six levels, however, one sees that they are respectively higher and lower
interpretations of the classic division into basic, intermediate and advanced. Also, some of the
names given to Council of Europe specifications for levels have proved resistant to translation (e.g.
Waystage, Vantage). Toe scheme therefore proposed adopts a 'hyper text' branching principle,
starting from an initial division into three broad levels - A, B and C:
Figure 1
1 Trim, J. L. M. 1978 Some Possible Lines of Development of an Overall Structure for a European Unit Credit Scheme for
Foreign Language Learning by Adults, Council of Europe.
68
c. Presentation of Common Reference Levels
The establishment of a set of common reference points in no way limits how different sectors in
different pedagogic cultures may choose to organize or describe their system of levels and
modules. It is also to be expected that the precise formulation of the set of common reference
points, the wording of the descriptors, will develop over time as the experience of member states
and of institutions with related expertise is incorporated into the description.
It is also desirable that the common reference points are presented in different ways for
different purposes. For some purposes it will be appropriate to summarize the set of proposed
Common Reference Levels in single holistic paragraphs, as shown in Table 1. Such a simple 'global'
representation will make it easier to communicate the system to non-specialist users and will also
provide teachers and curriculum planners with orientation points:
Table 1. Common Reference Levels: global scale
Proficient User
C2
Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise
information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing
arguments and accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express him/herself
spontaneously, very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of
meaning even in more complex situations.
C1
Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise
implicit meaning. Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously without
much obvious searching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and
effectively for social, academic and professional purposes. Can produce clear,
well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of
organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.
Independent
User
B2
Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract
topics, including technical discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can
interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular
interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain for either party.
Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a
viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of
various options.
B1
Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters
regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most
situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is
spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of
personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes and
ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.
Basic User
A2
Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of
most immediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information,
shopping, local geography, employment). Can communicate in simple and
routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar
and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her
background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need.
A1
Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases
aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce
him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions about personal
69
details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/she
has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and
clearly and is prepared to help.
In order to orient learners, teachers and other users within the educational system for some
practical purpose, however, a more detailed overview is likely to be necessary. Such an overview
can be presented in the form of a grid showing major categories of language use at each of the
six levels. The example in Table 2 (on the next two pages) is a draft for a self-assessment orientation
tool based on the six levels. It is intended to help learners to profile their main language skills, and
decide at which level they might look at a checklist of more detailed descriptors in order to self-
assess their level of proficiency.
For other purposes, it may be desirable to focus on a particular spectrum of levels, and a
particular set of categories. By restricting the range of levels and categories covered to those
relevant to a particular purpose, it will be possible to add more detail: finer levels and categories.
Such detail would enable a set of modules to be 'mapped' relative to one another - and also to be
situated in relation to the Common Framework.
Alternatively, rather than profiling categories of communicative activities, one may wish to
assess a performance on the basis of the aspects of communicative language competence one
can deduce from it.
d. Illustrative descriptors
The tables used to introduce the Common Reference Levels (Tables 1 and 2) are summarized from
a bank of ‘illustrative descriptors' developed and validated for the CEF. These formulations have
been mathematically scaled to these levels by analyzing the way in which they have been
interpreted in the assessment of large numbers of learners.
Communicative activities
'Can Do' descriptors are provided for reception, interaction and production. There may not be
descriptors for all sub-categories for every level, since some activities cannot be undertaken until
a certain level of competence has been reached, whilst others may cease to be an objective at
higher levels.
Strategies
'Can Do' descriptors are provided for some of the strategies employed in performing
communicative activities. Strategies are seen as a hinge between the learner's resources
(competences) and what he/she can do with them (communicative activities).
70
Table 2. Common Reference Levels: self-assessment grid
A1 A2 B1 U
ND
ER
ST
AN
DI
NG
Listening I can recognise familiar
words and very basic
phrases concerning myself,
my family and immediate
concrete surroundings
when people speak slowly
and clearly.
I can understand phrases
and the highest frequency
vocabulary related to areas
Of most immediate personal
relevance (e.g. very basic
personal and family
information, shopping, local
area, employment).
I can catch the main point in
short, clear, simple
messages
and announcements.
I can understand the main
points of clear standard
speech on familiar matters
regularly encountered in
work, school, leisure, etc. I
can understand the main
point of many radio or TV
programmes on current
affairs or topics of personal
or professional interest
when the delivery is
relatively slow and clear.
Reading I can understand familiar
names, words and very
simple sentences, for
example on notices and
posters or in catalogues.
I can read very short, simple
texts. I can find specific,
predictable information in
simple everyday material
such as advertisements,
prospectuses, menus and
timetables and I can
understand short simple
personal letters.
I can understand texts that
consist mainly of high
frequency every day or job-
related language. I can
understand the description
of events, feelings and
wishes in personal letters.
SP
EA
KI
NG
Spoken
Interaction
I can interact in a simple
way provided the other
person is prepared to
repeat or rephrase things
at a slower rate of speech
and help me formulate
what I'm trying to say. I
can ask and answer simple
questions in areas of
immediate need or on very
familiar topics.
I can communicate in
simple and routine tasks
requiring a simple and
direct exchange of
information on familiar
topics and activities. I can
handle very short social
exchanges, even though I
can't usually understand
enough to keep the
conversation going myself.
I can deal with most
situations likely to arise
whilst travelling in an area
where the language is
spoken. I can enter
unprepared into
conversation on topics
that are familiar, of
personal interest or
pertinent to everyday life
(e.g. family, hobbies, work,
travel and current events).
Spoken
Production
I can use simple phrases
and sentences to describe
where I live and people I
know.
I can use a series of phrases
and sentences to describe
in simple terms my family
and other people, living
conditions, my educational
background and my
present or most recent job.
I can connect phrases in a
simple way in order to
describe experiences and
events, my dreams, hopes
and ambitions. I can briefly
give reasons and
explanations for opinions
and plans. I can narrate a
story or relate the plot of a
book or film and describe
my reactions.
WR
IT
IN
G Writing I can write a short, simple
postcard, for example
sending holiday greetings.
I can fill in forms with
personal details, for
example entering my
name, nationality and
address on a hotel
registration form.
I can write short, simple
notes and messages
relating to matters in areas
of immediate need. I can
write a very simple personal
letter, for example thanking
someone for something.
I can write simple
connected text on topics
which are familiar or of
personal interest. I can
write personal letters
describing experiences and
impressions.
71
B2 C1 C2
UN
DE
RS
TA
ND
IN
G
Listening I can understand extended
speech and lectures and
follow even complex lines of
argument provided the
topic is reasonably familiar. I
can understand most TV
news and current affairs
programmes. I can
understand the majority of
films in standard dialect.
I can understand extended
speech even when it is not
clearly structured and when
relationships are only
implied and not signaled
explicitly. I can understand
television programmes and
films without too much
effort.
I have no difficulty in
understanding any kind of
spoken language, whether
live or broadcast, even when
delivered at fast native
speed, provided I have some
time to get familiar with the
accent.
Reading I can read articles and
reports concerned with
contemporary problems in
which the writers adopt
particular attitudes or
viewpoints. I can understand
contemporary literary prose.
I can understand long and
complex factual and literary
texts, appreciating
distinctions of style. I can
understand specialized
articles and longer technical
instructions, even when they
do not relate to my field.
I can read with ease virtually
all forms of the written
language, including
abstract, structurally or
linguistically complex texts
such as manuals, specialized
articles and literary works.
SP
EA
KI
NG
Spoken
Interaction
I can interact with a degree
of fluency and spontaneity
that makes regular
interaction with native
speakers quite possible. I
can take an active part in
discussion in familiar
contexts, accounting for and
sustaining my views.
I can express myself fluently
and spontaneously without
much obvious searching for
expressions. I can use
language flexibly and
effectively for social and
professional purposes. I can
formulate ideas and
opinions with precision and
relate my contribution
skillfully to those of other
speakers.
I can take part effortlessly in
any conversation or
discussion and have a good
familiarity with idiomatic
expressions and
colloquialisms. I can express
myself fluently and convey
finer shades of meaning
precisely. If I do have a
problem I can backtrack and
restructure around the
difficulty so smoothly that
other people are hardly
aware of it.
Spoken
Production
I can present clear, detailed
descriptions on a wide
range of subjects related to
my field of interest. I can
explain a viewpoint on a
topical issue giving the
advantages and
disadvantages of various
options.
I can present clear, detailed
descriptions of complex
subjects integrating sub-
themes, developing
particular points and
rounding off with an
appropriate conclusion.
I can present a clear,
smoothly flowing
description or argument in a
style appropriate to the
context and with an
effective logical structure
which helps the recipient to
notice and remember
significant points.
WR
IT
IN
G
Writing I can write clear, detailed
text on a wide range of
subjects related to my
interests. I can write an
essay or report, passing on
information or giving
reasons in support of or
against a particular point of
view. I can write letters
highlighting the personal
significance of events and
experiences.
I can express myself in clear,
well-structured text,
expressing points of view at
some length. I can write
about complex subjects in a
letter, an essay or a report,
underlining what I consider
to be the salient issues. I can
select style appropriate to
the reader in mind.
I can write clear, smoothly
flowing text in an
appropriate style. I can write
complex letters, reports or
articles which present a case
with an effective logical
structure which helps the
recipient to notice and
remember significant points.
I can write summaries and
reviews of professional or
literary works.
72
General Preface to the ACTFL
Proficiency Guidelines 2012
The ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines are descriptions of what individuals can do with language in
terms of speaking, writing, listening, and reading in real-world situations in a spontaneous and
non-rehearsed context. For each skill, these guidelines identify five major levels of proficiency:
Distinguished, Superior, Advanced, Intermediate, and Novice. The major levels Advanced,
Intermediate, and Novice are subdivided into High, Mid, and Low sublevels. The levels of the ACTFL
Guidelines describe the continuum of proficiency from that of the highly articulate, well-educated
language user to a level of little or no functional ability.
These Guidelines present the levels of proficiency as ranges, and describe what an individual
can and cannot do with language at each level, regardless of where, when, or how the language
was acquired. Together these levels form a hierarchy in which each level subsumes all lower levels.
The Guidelines are not based on any particular theory, pedagogical method, or educational
curriculum. They neither describe how an individual learns a language nor prescribe how an
individual should learn a language, and they should not be used for such purposes. They are an
instrument for the evaluation of functional language ability.
The ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines were first published in 1986 as an adaptation for the
academic community of the U.S. Government's Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR) Skill Level
Descriptions. This third edition of the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines includes the first revisions of
Listening and Reading since their original publication in 1986, and a second revision of the ACTFL
Speaking and Writing Guidelines, which were revised to reflect real-world assessment needs in
1999 and 2001 respectively. New for the 2012 edition are the addition of the major level of
Distinguished to the Speaking and Writing Guidelines, the division of the Advanced level into the
three sublevels of High, Mid, and Low for the Listening and Reading Guidelines, and the addition
of a general level description at the Advanced, Intermediate, and Novice levels for all skills.
Another new feature of the 2012 Guidelines is their publication online, supported with
glossed terminology and annotated, multimedia samples of performance at each level for
Speaking and Writing, and examples of oral and written texts and tasks associated with each level
for Reading and Listening.
The direct application of the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines is for the evaluation of functional
language ability. The Guidelines are intended to be used for global assessment in academic and
workplace settings. However, the Guidelines do have instructional implications. The ACTFL
Proficiency Guidelines underlie the development of the ACTFL Performance Guidelines for K-12
Learners (1998) and are used in conjunction with the National Standards for Foreign Language
Learning (1996, 1998, 2006) to describe how well students meet content standards. For the past
25 years, the ACTFL Guidelines have had an increasingly profound impact on language teaching
and learning in the United States.
75
Reading: The Alternatives in Language Assessment
Link: https://goo.gl/4eagXQ
Summary: This paper explores the advantages and disadvantages of different kinds of language
assessment, from traditional testing to more modern ways to assess learning.
Reading: Task-Based Teaching and Testing
Link: https://goo.gl/54kge6
Summary: From the teacher´s perspective, the author presents key underpinnings of task-based
instruction, its emergence within language education, and its component parts. Furthermore, he
highlights the fundamental processes of teaching and testing, outlining a task-based approach to
each and posing questions in need of inquiry, such as the challenges of TLBT in language education.
Reading: Language testing does more harm than good
Link: https://goo.gl/Rzm1Nd
Summary: University staff members hold a debate, based on teacher´s concerns, about the
importance of testing to assess students´ learning.
Reading: Assessment Portfolios and English Language Learners: Frequently Asked Questions and a
Case Study of the Brooklyn International High School
Link: https://goo.gl/E6U18g
Summary: This paper presents answers to frequently asked questions about assessment portfolios
for English language learners and to describe the lessons that portfolio users have learned. Also
included is a case study of the use of assessment portfolios at The Brooklyn International High
School in Brooklyn, New York. The advantages and challenges of using assessment portfolios are
applicable not only to English language learners, but also to a number of other student populations.
Therefore, this publication is helpful for a variety of audiences. It is particularly relevant for school
principals and English-as-a-second-language and bilingual program directors who are considering
assessment portfolios for use in their schools.
76
Reading. The Effects of Self- and Peer-assessment on Iranian EFL Learners' Argumentative Writing
Performance
Link: https://goo.gl/YD6qjn
Summary: In this article, the researchers find the effect of self- and peer-assessments on the
argumentative writing performance of intermediate Iranian EFL learners. Among their findings, it is
indicated that the use of self- and peer-assessments significantly affected the writing ability of the
learners, which leads to the conclusion that using alternative assessments for Iranian EFL students
could be helpful in overcoming some of their argumentative writing difficulties. The results of this
study have clear implications for both learners and teachers and other stakeholders of ELT. They can
use these alternative assessments as a learning opportunity to lower the anxiety and improve the
argumentative writing skill of students.
Reading: Alternative assessment: Portfolio assessment for young learners
Link: https://goo.gl/DBx2jg
Summary: This paper discusses the significance of this type of alternative assessment and explores
different researchers’ views on portfolio assessment and its implications to young learners’
assessment. Moreover, it illustrates some important aspects teachers should take into consideration
about using portfolios with children.
Reading: CONTENT-BASED SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING
Link: https://goo.gl/fzMjsG
Summary: This article discusses the features and nature of content-based instruction from its roots
in the communicative approach to the connection with the ESP (English for Special Purposes)
movement.
Reading: Content-based projects in the EFL classroom
Link: https://goo.gl/Lsm3BT
Summary: This article introduces content-based projects as a method that can be used to enhance
EFL (English as a Foreign Language) teaching in an academic context. Students engage in individual
projects related to different disciplines; they conduct an internet search, collect data, interview
people, analyze their findings and eventually give a 5-minute presentation to their colleagues. The
paper presents the steps of implementing this method over a semester, showing how it has
improved students' writing skills, especially in the area of content.
Reading: A Content-Rich Maker Project
Link: https://goo.gl/YtDeY6
Summary: A teacher shares his experience with a project that supports a lot of high-level group work.
By developing the research and planning, the teacher was able to capitalize on the students’
engagement. The main areas of learning were informational reading and writing, measurement and
unit conversion, group work communication, and character education.
77
Reading: Assigning CEFR Ratings to ACTFL Assessments
Link: https://goo.gl/869sr8
Summary: An empirically-based alignment of proficiency guidelines between the two major
frameworks for learning, teaching, and assessing foreign language skills: the U.S. defined scales of
proficiency, i.e., the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines/ILR Skill Level Descriptions, and the Common
European Framework of Reference for Language (CEFR).
Reading: Readers Theatre: Improving Oral Proficiency in a Japanese University EFL Course
Link: https://goo.gl/3kY7eW
Summary: One effective approach in teaching oral skills is the use of drama called Readers Theatre
(RT). It is a presentational performance based on principles and techniques of oral interpretation
which seeks to entertain, instruct and persuade (Adams, 2003). The objective of this paper is to
examine students’ observations of their own language learning experiences through RT. We first
provide a literature review on the pedagogical values of drama in developing oral competence. The
authors’ observations suggest that using RT in the language classroom is generally a rewarding
learning experience for EFL students and teachers. Therefore, the authors recommend RT as an
effective technique in helping students in the process of improving their oral proficiency.
Reading: Do Language Proficiency Levels Correspond to Language Learning Strategy Adoption?
Link: https://goo.gl/6ygrD2
Summary: This paper explores the relationship between language learning strategies and language
proficiency levels and the pedagogical implications of such relationship.
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