Developing a Mental Skills Training Programme for an Elite Athlete
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Third Year Summative Assignment One - Student – Z0906870
Developing a Mental Skills Training Programme for an
Elite Athlete
Why do elite champions prosper in competition over other
elite athletes who possess similar levels of skill and
technical ability? Conversely, why do talented elite athletes
fail to perform at the highest level and less talented
athletes become champions (Gucciardi et al., 2008). History is
full of anecdotal evidence from prominent athletes who cite
“although sport is played with the body, it is won in the
mind” (Moran, 2004: 4).
Despite this contention and evidence to support the
importance of sport psychology, mental skills training (MST)
until recently, experienced a fairly low media profile. MST is
still not without critics, but there is growing recognition
that sporting prowess does not guarantee success and that
mental toughness is an important attribute at elite level
(Gucciardi et al., 2008). Today employing a sports psychologist
is a feature in virtually all elite sport; it is however,
especially evident in mentally demanding individual sports,
such as golf (Moran, 2004).
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Third Year Summative Assignment One - Student – Z0906870
The personal research interest for selecting a PGA Golf
professional to study began with an acknowledgement that at
elite level there are minimal differences between competitors
in technical ability and physical fitness (Jones, Hanton &
Connaughton, 2002). If this is the case, then the argument
for MST standing out as the key differentiator between elite
performers is strengthened (Gould, Jackson & Finch, 1993).
This study has four parts:
1. Selection of Psychological Framework
2. Profile of Athlete and Needs Analysis.
3. Proposed Mental Skills Training Programme.
4. Conclusion
Part One: Selection of Psychological Skills Training
Framework
MST has solid empirical support documenting its ability
to enhance elite performance using psychological
interventions. Weinberg & Williams (2009) confirmed that from
45 studies, 85% found positive performance effects. Cox (2007)
remarked however that the studies involved long periods of pre
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and post intervention, and all included an Education Phase,
Acquisition Phase and Practice Phase (Weinberg & Gould, 2007).
It is important therefore to execute MST within a
Psychological Skills Training Programme (PSTP) that is
systematic, proactive and flexible for elite performers.
Boutcher & Rotella (1987) designed a PSTP specifically for
closed – skill performance enhancement based on golf research.
Four phases were included:
1. Sport analysis
2. Individual assessment
3. Conceptualization / Motivation
4. Mental skill development
This PSTP offers golfers excellent practical exercises for MST
e.g. psychological scorecard (See Appendix Eight). It was
decided however, although appealing because it was golf
specific, it would not be employed in this study because it
was conceptually grounded in the left / right brain dichotomy
of cognitive functioning and the researchers admit “the
veracity of the hemispheric specificity notion was still being
debated” (Boutcher & Rotella’s 1987: 132). Toga & Thompson
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Third Year Summative Assignment One - Student – Z0906870
(2003) confirm that there is still little contemporary and
consistent support for correlating structural differences and
functional differences in the brain.
By virtue of being conceptually contemporary and a
comprehensive staged based model, the PSTP by Weinberg &
Williams (2001, cited in Weinberg & Williams, 2010) would be
employed. It draws its origins from mainstream psychologies
including behaviour modification, cognitive therapy, rational
emotive therapy, goal setting, attentional control and
systematic desensitization (Weinberg and Gould, 2007). It
would be superfluous to provide definitions for these
disciplines; instead reference will be made when
recommendations draw from these disciplines.
Part Two: Athlete Profile and Psychological
Needs Assessment
The Psychological Skills Training Programme for an
Elite Golfer
Phase One - Who is the Client?
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Third Year Summative Assignment One - Student – Z0906870
The PGA Golf Professional, who will be referred to as John,
is 23 yrs old, and is currently Senior Pro at a Five Star Golf
Resort, and as such plays off scratch. John’s golfing résumé
includes numerous appearances at British / English Amateur
Opens and who now competes at Pro – Am tournaments.
Although not applicable to this study, Phase One has a wider
importance in terms of a sports psychologist undertaking
PSTPs’ within organisations that include the opinions of
athletes, coaches and other stakeholders. It is vital that
initial meetings make explicit rules of engagement,
demarcation lines of responsibility and codes of
confidentiality to avoid any confusion or negativity (Cox,
2007).
Phase Two – Initial Meeting with Athlete
Initial meetings between sport psychologist and athlete
are pivotal; they establish rapport, credibility and set the
tone for future relationships (Ravizza, 1988). Petitpas, Giges
& Danish (1999) report, the effectiveness of MST interventions
is closely tied to the quality of the athlete / consultant
relationship.
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Third Year Summative Assignment One - Student – Z0906870
The aims for the meeting with John were two fold: establish
rapport by detailing the nature of the study and secondly to
discover John’s knowledge of sports psychology. Semi
structured interviews are recommended (Orlick, 2000) and the
question schedule (See Appendix One) would be divided between
the initial interview and the second meeting in Phase Four.
The rationale for this division was that the second set of
questions was designed to dovetail into the structured
psychological tests.
Initial meetings are generally seen to commence the
Education Phase for athlete and psychologist (Weinberg &
Gould, 2007) and so with signed consent, (See Appendix Two)
conversations were audio recorded to prevent omission of
information (Branley, 2004). The interview conducted in a
quiet part of the golf club began with an outline of the
study. It was made explicit that it was an academic study and
that the researcher was not qualified to deliver any MST
interventions. Pocwardowski, Sherman and Henschen (1998)
stressed the importance of clarifying expectations of a
consultancy as it allows for a clear understanding from the
start of a working relationship.
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Ravizza (2001) emphasises the important part of the
Education Phase is increasing athlete’s awareness of MST in
enhancing performance. John demonstrated a basic understanding
of how MST was being used in professional golf and cited Karl
Morris and Bob Rotella as familiar individuals he knew from
golfing magazines. John indicated that he had sporadically
experimented with mental practice and self talk throughout his
career but without tutelage. Crucial was the admission by
John, of rarely using MST in his current practice schedules or
competitions. Equally crucial however was the recognition by
John of the need for a re – education programme of MST
followed by a resurrection of MST back into his game.
To consolidate this point John was asked to identify in
percentage terms what proportion of elite golf is about the
mental game, he volunteered 90%. The next consideration was
the percentage of practice devoted to physical and mental
aspects of his game. John’s 80/20 split in favour of physical
practice confirmed Weinberg & William’s (2010) supposition of
the universal disparity between recognising the MST’s
importance and failing to include it into practice schedules.
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Phase Three - Sports Analysis and Education of Sport
Psychologist
Athletes find it easier to relate to a sport psychologist
who understands the nuances of the sport in which they compete
(Kontos & Feltz, 2008). Lack of knowledge by consultants is
cited as one of a series of concerns that have hampered the
advancement of MST interventions (Holliday et al., 2008). The
author of this study is an adequately skilled golfer (+15
Handicap) to be able to converse with John and understand
factors that influence golf outside of the psychological
realm: biomechanics, physiological conditioning, equipment and
strategy (Boutcher & Rotella 1987: 129). There are limitations
however as acknowledged by Boutcher & Rotella (1987: 129) “a
golfer who has a flaw in his swing may attribute this to a
concentration whereas the problem is biomechanical,
collaboration with experts such as swing coaches must be
incorporated into interventions”.
Moran (2004) summarises psychological demands of golf in
three areas: firstly players must be mentally prepared to play
for 4 hours plus. Secondly golf is an individual sport and
players take ultimate responsibility for their performance and
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finally the stop – start nature of golf means “players spend
more time thinking about playing golf than actually hitting
the ball” Moran (2004: 13).
Giacobbi & Foore (2004: 171) found moderately skilled
golfers experienced a range of discrete and intense emotional
responses during competitions. The general stress dimensions
were labelled: evaluation by others - performance challenges -
psycho-emotional concerns - competitive stress. Findings are
consistent with previous research with non-elite golfers
(Cohn, 1990; Beauchamp et al., 1996; Thomas and Fogarty, 1997;
Kirschenbaum et al., 1998). Research outside of golf also
support these findings, performance related stress aside from
organisational and external factors can originate from social
evaluation, self presentation issues and performance related
issues (Gould, Jackson, & Finch, 1993).
Phase Four – Development Needs Assessment Plan
This phase determines the psychological strengths and
limitations of an athlete, related specifically to sport, as
well as any perceived psychological areas of concern
identified by the athlete (Hill, 2001). Assessment helps
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reveal those psychological skills that are deficient or appear
to have the most adverse effect on performance (Weinberg and
Williams, 2010).
There exists a whole battery of interviews, observations
and psychological tests which can be administered in this
phase however Vealey (2007: 293) argues “the mental training
process begins with a consideration of the sport
psychologist’s philosophy about the nature of mental skills
and mental training”. Different MST approaches include:
Educational versus Clinical, Program Centred versus Athlete
Centred and Performance Enhancement versus Personal
Development.
For John it was decided an educational approach was the most
appropriate approach for two reasons:
Initial interview revealed John required a general re-
education of MST benefits and any specific requirements
would be revealed from interviews, performance profiling and
test administrations.
Ultimate goal of educational approach is self – regulation,
resulting in John using MST with out needing constant
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Third Year Summative Assignment One - Student – Z0906870
direction (Weinberg & Gould 2007; Kirschenbaum et al., 1998;
Boutcher & Rotella, 1987).
During needs assessment it is recommended that volume,
nature, type of tests within PSTP should be an active
collaborative process to avoid athlete passivity and assist
long term adherence. Athletes do not usually respond well to
long extensive psychological testing unless they obtain highly
specific and useful feedback from it (Hardy & Parfitt, 1994;
Orlick & Partington, 1988, cited in Hardy, Jones and Gould,
2007).
1. Interview – Second set of questions (See Appendix One), were
designed to ascertain John’s thoughts on his psychological
strengths and weaknesses. John was confident at scoring well
throughout a round of golf but was aware he was perhaps not
as confident as he could be at crucial times e.g. when
putting for important holes to win “big tournaments” where
spectators were around the greens. He lacked self belief or
what he termed “self doubt at crucial points in important
tournaments”, John described how he would become anxious if
he was close to the top of the leader board and had
attracted an audience of observers. He described how his
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Third Year Summative Assignment One - Student – Z0906870
heart rate would increase, he would sweat a little more and
his muscles would become tense. It was decided at this point
in the conversation that it was an ideal opportunity for
John to undertake a selected psychological inventory.
The reason for administering the tests at this point was a
little opportunistic on the part of the researcher. John was
recalling vividly the images and memories of those crucial
points in previous competitions and it therefore seemed
appropriate to administer the tests while he was recalling
these emotions. Even though post competition accuracy
diminishes, it is still possible for an athlete to identify
a range of optimal and dysfunctional emotions related to
previous successful and unsuccessful performances (Hanin,
2000 cited in Horn, 2008).
2. Performance Profiling (PP) – “is a natural application of
Kelly’s (1955) Personal Construct Theory (PCT) to sport
psychology” (Butler & Hardy 1992: 254) The fundamental
premise of PCT is that individuals strive to make sense of
their own world and construct personal theories. Butler &
Hardy (1992) argue that PP resists the notion of the athlete
being a passive observer in the consultative process by
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having to accept what a sport psychologist advises. Athlete
inclusion results in longer adherence to MST (Weinberg &
Williams, 2010). PP allowed John to personally construct and
rate specific attributes which he believed to be important
in golf and rate which area of his current performance
needed attention compared to his best ever performance.
John’s PP is provided (See Appendix Three) and a
graphical representation of John’s PP results (See Appendix
Four) confirms both John’s interview assertion of
psychological skills as the most important collection of
golf attributes and secondly they reveal a correlation
between Psychological Skills (Self Belief) and Technical
Golf Skills (Putting). Butler & Hardy (1992: 262) suggest
that “visual displays gives clear and digestible information
to both athlete and coach of how an athlete personally
perceives there current performance”. Furthermore they
suggest PP can lead to enhanced athlete awareness, form a
basis for goal setting which can help resolve long term
motivation and adherence problems. For sports psychologists
and coaches PP can direct the future design of training in
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Third Year Summative Assignment One - Student – Z0906870
physical, technical and psychological areas (Butler & Hardy,
1992).
3. Observation – Due to the timing of the assessment (winter -
snow) it was not possible to observe John in any “big”
competitive situations where any signposts or behavioural
manifestations of John’s Self Belief – “Self Doubt” could be
observed. This was a limitation of the study because
attending competitions has been proposed as a very good
strategy for enhancing client – practitioner relationship
(Ravizza, 1988) as well as providing an opportunity for a
consultant to move away from reliance on self – report
information (Taylor, 1995).
4. Psychological Inventories – are used to assess the
psychological skills of an athlete from which effective
interventions can be designed (Hemmings & Holder, 2009).
Research has revealed that between “63% and 75% of sport
psychologists use paper and pencil inventories to assess
psychological skills related to sport” (O’Connor, 2004:
464). An advantage of undertaking inventories in addition to
interviews is that it helps to identify consistencies and
inconsistencies between oral and written statements (Vealey,
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2007). Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS) (See Appendix
Five) was nominated to be employed for its notional
application relevance to John’s a lack of self – belief
during competition environments compared to practice
sessions.
TOPS – is a 64 – item inventory measuring the frequency
of athlete’s using psychological skills in competitive
and practice situations – mental imagery, self talk,
emotional control, automaticity, goal setting,
activation, negative thinking and relaxation (Krane and
Williams, 2010).
Self – report inventories are subject to athlete distortion
i.e. faking good or faking bad, it was deemed unnecessary
for this study to minimise this factor by administering the
Marlowe – Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MC – SDS,
Reynolds, 1982, cited in Cox 2007).
Part Three: Proposed Mental Skills Programme
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Phase Five – Psychological Skills Package Selection
Following data collection athletes should have the
opportunity to react to consultant’s evaluations of their
psychological strengths and weaknesses and agree on how to
proceed. “Motivation and adherence problems will occur in the
PSTP if the athlete does not fully accept the decisions
reached in the needs assessment” (Weinberg & Gould, 2010:
373). It was agreed with John that the overall aim of the
intervention should be to develop his mental toughness when
putting under the pressurised conditions of competition.
Gucciardi et al., (2008: 262) describes mental toughness as “the
superior mental characteristics of those athletes who excel in
both practice and competitive situations while others fail”.
Mental toughness contains a myriad of characteristics
including self belief, positive attitude, thriving on
competition, enjoying pressure and quality preparation each of
which are seen as pre – requisite mental skills of elite
athletes, those who perform on the big stage and those who do
not (Gould, Jackson & Finch, 1993).
It was decided to prioritise two psychological skills for
John, Mental Imagery and Mental Practice. Each of which have
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proven results in educating athletes how to enhance
characteristics identified with mental toughness e.g. coping
with pressure and unshakeable belief (Jones, Hanton &
Connaughton, 2002). The basis for this decision was that John
was familiar with Mental Imagery and Practice which would
increase the likelihood of future self – regulation. Secondly
because John in the past had not adhered to MST, a Multimodal
MST intervention which would integrate several techniques was
not realistic. This was a limitation to the study because
there is a body of evidence that demonstrates the
“effectiveness of integrating techniques such as Relaxation,
Self Talk with Mental Imagery for golf putting” (Pates,
Oliver, & Maynard, 2001, cited in Vealey, 2007).
Mental Imagery – has been defined as a polysensory cognitive
intervention that uses “all the senses to re – create or
create an experience in the mind” (Vealey, 2007: 268).
Research indicates that when individuals engage in vivid
imagery, their brains interpret these images as identical to
the actual stimulus situation (Jeannerod, 1994 cited in
Vealey, 2007). For this reason, imagery can be used by the
brain to provide “powerful repetition, elaboration,
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intensification and preservation of important athletic
sequences and skills” (Cox, 2007). The evidence base for the
use of imagery by elite athletes is compelling, Orlick &
Partington (1988: 130) in their seminal paper on Canadian
Winter and Summer Olympians reported “statistically
significant links were found between Olympic performance
outcome and certain mental skills”, specifically 99% of their
sample (n=235) reported use of imagery.
Imagery is therefore considered to be “one of the most
popular performance enhancement techniques because of its
versatility in affecting several different outcomes” (Ross –
Stewart & Short, 2009: S34). When applied to John’s putting
problems, research has shown that imagery has both cognitive
and motivational functions that influence a performer to
build, maintain and regain confidence in a motor skill. Vealey
and Greenleaf (2006, cited in Vealey, 2007: 296) report that
“using imagery immediately before performance, can improve
performance on strength tasks, muscular endurance tasks, and
golf putting”.
Athletes must apply imagery in a continuous and
systematic manner for it to qualify as MST, dreaming or random
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imagery is not systematic and there is no evidence that these
forms of imagery enhance athletes’ performance (Weinberg and
Williams, 2010). During conversations with John he cited this
as a primary reason for why mental imagery has failed him in
the past. It was therefore decided to administer the Sport
Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ - Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas,
1998, cited in Murphy et al., 2008.) to evaluate the frequency to
which John used imagery (See Appendices, Seven, Nine and Ten).
Occasional and sporadic MST will not achieve desired
performance enhancement, similar to physical practice, a
periodization strategy of mental practice is required to
produce “consistent and powerful interventions” (Holliday et al.,
2008: 200).
Mental Practice is a particular application of mental
imagery and is often used as a synonym to imagery. It is
defined as the “cognitive rehearsal of a task in the absence
of overt physical movement” and meta – analysis has revealed
that it is important to identify imagery conditions under
which mental practice is most effective (Driskell et al., (1994:
481). Comprehensive reviews have concluded that mental
practice enhances performance in many sport skills including
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golf and is certainly “better than no practice at all”,
(Vealey & Greenleaf, 2010: 271). Mental practice occurs more
effectively across a period of time in an intermittent
learning style similar to a distributed physical practice
schedule (Vealey & Greenleaf, 2010). The importance of this
similarity will become more apparent in Phase 6 when
periodization strategies are discussed as part of effective
implementation strategies and adherence
For this study Mental Imagery and Mental Practice
theories have been combined to construct an example of an
Imagery Script for John (See Appendix Six). The script is
theoretically based on two models, Holmes & Collins’s (2001
cited in Weinberg and Gould, 2007) PETTLEP framework (See
Appendix Six ) and Martin et al., (1999, cited in Murphy et al.,
2008) Applied Model of Imagery Use (See Appendix Six ) and
takes an integrated applied approach to its use of the models.
Holmes & Collins’s (2001) PETTLEP framework is
theoretically grounded in Functional Equivalence Theory.
Functional equivalence theory proposes that imagery draws on
the same neural network that is used in actual perception and
motor control, and can also activate neural circuits used in
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memory and emotion ( Kosselyn, Ganis, & Thompson, 2001, cited
in Horn, 2008). Put simply if imagery is similar to perception
then the same parts of the brain should engage when we imagine
things as when we actually perceive them (Moran, 2004).
The second approach to understanding imagery use in sport
is the Applied Model of Imagery Use developed by Martin et al.,
(1999, cited in Murphy et al., 2008). It proposes that different
types of imagery will be used for different athletic goals and
cognitive and motivational outcomes. The model centres on
imagery content and includes five types of imagery identified
as key determinants for effective change, these are summarised
in (See Appendix Six).
Finally evidence suggests that John should audio record
his imagery script on an MP3 player to achieve the most
accurate motor representation of successful putting. Smith and
Holmes, (2004) in an imagery training programme designed to
improve golf putting, found performance was enhanced more by
mental practice while listening to audio tapes of imagery
scripts than by mental practice using scripts. “This indicates
that the form in which an imagery intervention is delivered
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Third Year Summative Assignment One - Student – Z0906870
can have a significant impact on its performance
effectiveness” (Smith & Holmes, 2004: 385).
Part Four: Conclusion
Phase Six – Implementation of PSTP and Phase Seven –
Evaluation (See Appendix Seven)
These phases are clearly the most critical of the PSTP
since all positive collaborations from the needs assessment
and design phases have the potential to be lost and self
regulation and adherence will fail if important implementation
questions have not been considered. Holliday et al.,(2008: 200)
suggest that during implementations phases, “consultants have
struggled with a series of concerns about the overall
effectiveness of MST programmes, particularly when trying to
develop stable, long term consulting relationships”. Holliday
et al., (2008) argue that the problems of athlete trust,
commitment, motivation to practice and MST adherence (Weinberg
and Williams, 2006) can be addressed by applying the same
principles of implementation and evaluation that have been
used in physical training programmes.
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Periodization is a programme that has been used to
maximise and evaluate the effects of physical training, long
term athlete development and peak performance for targeted
competitions, through “planned variation in key training
variables, particularly volume and intensity, over
predetermined training cycles” (Holliday et al., 2008: 200).
The researchers argue that periodization can work for mental
as well as physical training, particularly because the
proactive nature of MST is ideally suited to periodization.
“Too often, sport psychologists are asked to fix struggling
athletes with mental problems as they approach competitions”
(Holliday et al., 2008: 205), however such approaches fail to
address the long term developmental MST needs of the athlete.
Holliday et al., (2008) offer two validations for the use of
periodizations, firstly that it offers sports psychologists a
better understanding of athlete dose – response effects.
Secondly by using a common conceptual framework and technical
vocabulary it will bridge any gaps in trust with athletes and
lead to adherence and self regulation because MST is not in
isolation of physical practice.
Word Count –3823
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.
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Third Year Summative Assignment One - Student – Z0906870
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