Derm Handbook for Medical Students and Junior Doctors 2010
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British Association of Dermatologists
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Dermatology
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 1
This publication was supported by the British Association of Dermatologists.
First edition 2009
Revised first edition 2009
For comments and feedback, please contact the author at chiangyizhen@gmail.com.
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 2
Dermatology AAA hhhaaannndddbbbooooookkk fffooorrr mmmeeedddiiicccaaalll ssstttuuudddeeennntttsss &&& jjjuuunnniiiooorrr dddoooccctttooorrrsss
Dr Nicole Yi Zhen Chiang MBChB (Hons)
Core Medical Trainee
Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust
Hope Hospital
Salford M6 8HD
Professor Julian Verbov MD FRCP FRCPCH CBiol FSB FLS
Professor of Dermatology
Consultant Paediatric Dermatologist
Alder Hey Children’s Hospital
Liverpool L12 2AP
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British Association of Dermatologists 4
Contents Page
What is dermatology? 4
Essential clinical skills 5
Preface 5
What is dermatology? 7
Essential Clinical Skills 8
Background Knowledge 23
Emergency Dermatology 28
Skin Infections / Infestations 36
Skin Cancer 39
Inflammatory Skin Conditions 44
Common Important Problems 50
Practical Skills 63
Acknowledgements 67
Management 60
Foreword 6
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 5
This Handbook of Dermatology is intended for senior medical students and newly qualified
doctors.
For many reasons, including modern medical curriculum structure and a lack of suitable
patients to provide adequate clinical material, most UK medical schools provide inadequate
exposure to the specialty for the undergraduate. A basic readable and understandable text
with illustrations has become a necessity.
This text is available online and in print and should become essential reading. Dr Chiang is to
be congratulated for her exceptional industry and enthusiasm in converting an idea into a
reality.
Julian Verbov
Professor of Dermatology Liverpool 2009
Preface
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 6
There is a real need for appropriate information to meet the educational needs of doctors at
all levels. The hard work of those who produce the curricula on which teaching is based can
be undermined if the available teaching and learning materials are not of a standard that
matches the developed content. I am delighted to associate the BAD with this excellent
handbook, designed and developed by the very people at whom it is aimed, and matching
the medical student and junior doctor curriculum directly. Any handbook must meet the
challenges of being comprehensive, but brief, well illustrated, and focused to clinical
presentations as well as disease groups. This book does just that, and is accessible and easily
used. It may be read straight through, or dipped into for specific clinical problems. It has
valuable sections on clinical method, and useful tips on practical procedures. It should find a
home in the pocket of students and doctors in training, and will be rapidly worn out. I wish it
had been available when I was in need, I am sure that you will all use it well in the pursuit of
excellent clinical dermatology!
Dr Mark Goodfield
President of the British Association of Dermatologists
Foreword
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British Association of Dermatologists 7
• Dermatology is the study of both normal and abnormal skin and associated
structures such as hair, nails, and oral and genital mucous membranes.
• Skin diseases are very common, affecting up to a third of the population at any one
time.
• Skin diseases have serious impacts on life. They can cause physical damage,
embarrassment, and social and occupational restrictions. Chronic skin diseases may
cause financial constraints with repeated sick leave. Some skin conditions can be
life-threatening.
• In 2006-07, the total NHS health expenditure for skin diseases was estimated to be
around ₤97 million (approximately 2% of the total NHS health expenditure).
• The British Association of Dermatologists outlined the essential and important
learning outcomes that should be achieved by all medical undergraduates for the
competent assessment of patients presenting with skin disorders (available on:
http://www.bad.org.uk/Portals/_Bad/Education/Undergraduate%20Edu
cation/(Link2)%20Core%20curriculum.pdf).
• This handbook addresses these learning outcomes and aims to equip you with the
knowledge and skills to practise competently and safely as a junior doctor.
What is dermatology?
Why is dermatology important?
What is this handbook about?
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 8
• Detailed history taking and examination provide important diagnostic clues in the
assessment of skin problems.
Taking a dermatological history
• Using the standard structure of history taking, below are the important points to
consider when taking a history from a patient with a skin problem (Table 1).
• For dark lesions or moles, pay attention to questions marked with an asterisk (*).
Table 1. Taking a dermatological history
Main headings Key questions
Presenting complaint Nature, site and duration of problem
History of presenting complaint Initial appearance and evolution of lesion*
Symptoms (particularly itch and pain)*
Aggravating and relieving factors
Previous and current treatments (effective or not)
Recent contact, stressful events, illness and travel
History of sunburn and use of tanning machines*
Skin type (see page 65)*
Past medical history History of atopy i.e. asthma, allergic rhinitis, eczema
History of skin cancer and suspicious skin lesions
Family history Family history of skin disease*
Social history Occupation (including skin contacts at work)
Improvement of lesions when away from work
Medication and allergies Regular, recent and over-the-counter medications
Impact on quality of life Impact of skin condition and concerns
Essential Clinical Skills
Learning outcomes:
1. Ability to take a dermatological history
2. Ability to explore a patient’s concerns and expectations
3. Ability to interact sensitively with people with skin disease
4. Ability to examine skin, hair, nails and mucous membranes systematically
showing respect for the patient
5. Ability to describe physical signs in skin, hair, nails and mucosa
6. Ability to record findings accurately in patient’s records
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Examining the skin
• There are four important principles in performing a good examination of the skin:
INSPECT, DESCRIBE, PALPATE and SYSTEMATIC CHECK (Table 2).
Table 2. Examining the skin
Main principles Key features
INSPECT in general General observation
Site and number of lesion(s)
If multiple, pattern of distribution and configuration
DESCRIBE the individual lesion SCAM
Size (the widest diameter), Shape
Colour
Associated secondary change
Morphology, Margin (border)
*If the lesion is pigmented, remember ABCD
(the presence of any of these features increase the likelihood of melanoma):
Asymmetry (lack of mirror image in any of the
four quadrants)
Irregular Border
Two or more Colours within the lesion
Diameter > 7mm
PALPATE the individual lesion Surface
Consistency
Mobility
Tenderness
Temperature
SYSTEMATIC CHECK Examine the nails, scalp, hair & mucous membranes
General examination of all systems
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Communicating examination findings
• In order to describe, record and communicate examination findings accurately, it is
important to learn the appropriate terminology (Tables 3-10).
Table 3. General terms
Terms Meaning
Pruritus Itching
Lesion An area of altered skin
Rash An eruption
Naevus A localised malformation of tissue structures
Example: (Picture Source: D@nderm)
Comedone A plug in a sebaceous follicle containing altered sebum, bacteria and
cellular debris; can present as either open (blackheads) or closed
(whiteheads)
Example:
Pigmented melanocytic naevus (mole)
Open comedones (left) and closed comedones (right) in acne
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Table 4. Distribution (the pattern of spread of lesions)
Terms Meaning
Generalised All over the body
Widespread Extensive
Localised Restricted to one area of skin only
Flexural Body folds i.e. groin, neck, behind ears, popliteal and antecubital fossa
Extensor Knees, elbows, shins
Pressure areas Sacrum, buttocks, ankles, heels
Dermatome An area of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve
Photosensitive Affects sun-exposed areas such as face, neck and back of hands
Example:
Köebner A linear eruption arising at site of trauma
phenomenon Example:
Sunburn
Psoriasis
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Table 5. Configuration (the pattern or shape of grouped lesions)
Terms Meaning
Discrete Individual lesions separated from each other
Confluent Lesions merging together
Linear In a line
Target Concentric rings (like a dartboard)
Example:
Annular Like a circle or ring
Example:
Discoid / A coin-shaped/round lesion
Nummular Example:
Erythema multiforme
Tinea corporis
(‘ringworm’)
Discoid eczema
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Table 6. Colour
Terms Meaning
Erythema Redness (due to inflammation and vasodilatation) which blanches on
pressure
Example:
Purpura Red or purple colour (due to bleeding into the skin or mucous membrane)
which does not blanch on pressure – petechiae (small pinpoint macules) and
ecchymoses (larger bruise-like patches)
Example:
Palmar erythema
Henoch-Schönlein purpura
(palpable small vessel vasculitis)
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Hypo- Area(s) of paler skin
pigmentation Example:
De- White skin due to absence of melanin
pigmentation Example:
Hyper- Darker skin which may be due to various causes (e.g. post-inflammatory)
pigmentation Example:
Pityriasis versicolor
(a superficial fungus infection)
Melasma
(increased melanin pigmentation)
Vitiligo
(loss of skin melanocytes)
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Table 7. Morphology (the structure of a lesion) – Primary lesions
Terms Meaning
Macule A flat area of altered colour
Example:
Patch Larger flat area of altered colour or texture
Example:
Papule Solid raised lesion < 0.5cm in diameter
Example:
Freckles
Vascular malformation
(naevus flammeus / ‘port wine stain’)
Xanthomata
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Nodule Solid raised lesion >0.5cm in diameter with a deeper component
Example: (Picture source: D@nderm)
Plaque Palpable scaling raised lesion >0.5cm in diameter
Example:
Vesicle Raised, clear fluid-filled lesion <0.5cm in diameter
(small blister) Example:
Bulla Raised, clear fluid-filled lesion >0.5cm in diameter
(large blister) Example:
Psoriasis
Pyogenic granuloma
(granuloma telangiectaticum)
Reaction to insect bites
Acute hand eczema
(pompholyx)
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Pustule Pus-containing lesion <0.5cm in diameter
Example:
Abscess Localised accumulation of pus in the dermis or subcutaneous tissues
Example:
W(h)eal Transient raised lesion due to dermal oedema
Example:
Boil/Furuncle Staphylococcal infection around or within a hair follicle
Carbuncle Staphylococcal infection of adjacent hair follicles (multiple boils/furuncles)
Acne
Periungual abscess
(acute paronychia)
Urticaria
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Table 8. Morphology - Secondary lesions (lesions that evolve from primary lesions)
Terms Meaning
Excoriation Loss of epidermis following trauma
Example:
Lichenification Well-defined roughening of skin with accentuation of skin markings
Example:
Scales Flakes of stratum corneum
Example:
Lichenification due to chronic rubbing in eczema
Psoriasis (showing silvery scales)
Excoriations in eczema
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Crust Rough surface consisting of dried serum, blood, bacteria and cellular debris
that has exuded through an eroded epidermis (e.g. from a burst blister)
Example:
Scar New fibrous tissue which occurs post-wound healing, and may be atrophic
(thinning), hypertrophic (hyperproliferation within wound boundary), or
keloidal (hyperproliferation beyond wound boundary)
Example:
Ulcer Loss of epidermis and dermis (heals with scarring)
Example:
Keloid scars
Leg ulcers
Impetigo
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Fissure An epidermal crack often due to excess dryness
Example:
Striae Linear areas which progress from purple to pink to white, with the
histopathological appearance of a scar (associated with excessive steroid
usage and glucocorticoid production, growth spurts and pregnancy)
Example:
Striae
Eczema
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Table 9. Hair
Terms Meaning
Alopecia Loss of hair
Example:
Hirsutism Androgen-dependent hair growth in a female
Example:
Hypertrichosis Non-androgen dependent pattern of excessive hair growth
(e.g. in pigmented naevi)
Example:
Alopecia areata
(well-defined patch of complete hair loss)
Hirsutism
Hypertrichosis
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Table 10. Nails
Terms Meaning
Clubbing Loss of angle between the posterior nail fold and nail plate
(associations include suppurative lung disease, cyanotic heart disease,
inflammatory bowel disease and idiopathic)
Example: (Picture source: D@nderm)
Koilonychia Spoon-shaped depression of the nail plate
(associations include iron-deficiency anaemia, congenital and idiopathic)
Example: (Picture source: D@nderm)
Onycholysis Separation of the distal end of the nail plate from nail bed
(associations include trauma, psoriasis, fungal nail infection and
hyperthyroidism)
Example: (Picture source: D@nderm)
Pitting Punctate depressions of the nail plate
(associations include psoriasis, eczema and alopecia areata)
Example: (Picture source: D@nderm)
Clubbing
Koilonychia
Onycholysis
Pitting
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• This section covers the basic knowledge of normal skin structure and function
required to help understand how skin diseases occur.
Functions of normal skin
• These include:
i) Protective barrier against environmental insults
ii) Temperature regulation
iii) Sensation
iv) Vitamin D synthesis
v) Immunosurveillance
vi) Appearance/cosmesis
Structure of normal skin and the skin appendages
• The skin is the largest organ in the human body. It is composed of the epidermis and
dermis overlying subcutaneous tissue. The skin appendages (structures formed by
skin-derived cells) are hair, nails, sebaceous glands and sweat glands.
Epidermis
• The epidermis is composed of 4 major cell types, each with specific functions (Table
11).
Background Knowledge
Learning outcomes:
1. Ability to describe the functions of normal skin
2. Ability to describe the structure of normal skin
3. Ability to describe the principles of wound healing
4. Ability to describe the difficulties, physical and psychological, that may be
experienced by people with chronic skin disease
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Table 11. Main functions of each cell type in the epidermis
Cell types Main functions
Keratinocytes Produce keratin as a protective barrier
Langerhans’ cells Present antigens and activate T-lymphocytes for immune protection
Melanocytes Produce melanin, which gives pigment to the skin and protects the
cell nuclei from ultraviolet (UV) radiation-induced DNA damage
Merkel cells Contain specialised nerve endings for sensation
• There are 4 layers in the epidermis (Table 12), each representing a different stage of
maturation of the keratinocytes. The average epidermal turnover time (migration of
cells from the basal cell layer to the horny layer) is about 30 days.
Table 12. Composition of each epidermal layer
Epidermal layers Composition
Stratum basale Actively dividing cells, deepest layer
(Basal cell layer)
Stratum spinosum Differentiating cells
(Prickle cell layer)
Stratum granulosum So-called because cells lose their nuclei and contain
(Granular cell layer) granules of keratohyaline. They secrete lipid into the
intercellular spaces.
Stratum corneum Layer of keratin, most superficial layer
(Horny layer)
• In areas of thick skin such as the sole, there is a fifth layer, stratum lucidum, beneath
the stratum corneum. This consists of paler, compact keratin.
• Pathology of the epidermis may involve:
a) changes in epidermal turnover time - e.g. psoriasis (reduced epidermal
turnover time)
b) changes in the surface of the skin or loss of epidermis - e.g. scales,
crusting, exudate, ulcer
c) changes in pigmentation of the skin - e.g. hypo- or hyper-pigmented skin
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Dermis
• The dermis is made up of collagen (mainly), elastin and glycosaminoglycans, which
are synthesised by fibroblasts. Collectively, they provide the dermis with strength
and elasticity.
• The dermis also contains immune cells, nerves, skin appendages as well as lymphatic
and blood vessels.
• Pathology of the dermis may involve:
a) changes in the contour of the skin or loss of dermis e.g. formation of
papules, nodules, skin atrophy and ulcers
b) disorders of skin appendages e.g. disorders of hair, acne (disorder of
sebaceous glands)
c) changes related to lymphatic and blood vessels e.g. erythema
(vasodilatation), urticaria (increased permeability of capillaries and small
venules), purpura (capillary leakage)
Hair
• There are 3 main types of hair:
a) lanugo hair (fine long hair in fetus)
b) vellus hair (fine short hair on all body surfaces)
c) terminal hair (coarse long hair on the scalp, eyebrows, eyelashes and
pubic areas)
• Each hair consists of modified keratin and is divided into the hair shaft (a keratinized
tube) and hair bulb (actively dividing cells, and melanocytes which give pigment to
the hair).
• Each hair follicle enters its own growth cycle. This occurs in 3 main phases:
a) anagen (long growing phase)
b) catagen (short regressing phase)
c) telogen (resting/shedding phase)
• Pathology of the hair may involve:
a) reduced or absent melanin pigment production e.g. grey or white hair
b) changes in duration of the growth cycle e.g. hair loss (premature entry of
hair follicles into the telogen phase)
c) shaft abnormalities
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Nails
• The nail is made up of a nail plate (hard keratin) which arises from the nail matrix at
the posterior nail fold, and rests on the nail bed.
• The nail bed contains blood capillaries which gives the pink colour of the nails.
• Pathology of the nail may involve:
a) abnormalities of the nail matrix e.g. pits and ridges
b) abnormalities of the nail bed e.g. splinter haemorrhage
c) abnormalities of the nail plate e.g. discoloured nails, thickening of nails
Sebaceous glands
• Sebaceous glands produce sebum via hair follicles (collectively called a
pilosebaceous unit). They secrete sebum onto the skin surface which lubricates and
waterproofs the skin.
• Sebaceous glands are stimulated by the conversion of androgens to
dihydrotestosterone and therefore become active at puberty.
• Pathology of sebaceous glands may involve:
a) increased sebum production and bacterial colonisation e.g. acne
b) sebaceous gland hyperplasia
Sweat glands
• Sweat glands regulate body temperature and are innervated by the sympathetic
nervous system.
• They are divided into two types: eccrine and apocrine sweat glands.
• Eccrine sweat glands are universally distributed in the skin.
• Apocrine sweat glands are found in the axillae, areolae, genitalia and anus, and
modified glands are found in the external auditory canal. They only function from
puberty onwards and action of bacteria on the sweat produces body odour.
• Pathology of sweat glands may involve:
a) inflammation/infection of apocrine glands e.g. hidradenitis suppurativa
b) overactivity of eccrine glands e.g. hyperhidrosis
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Principles of wound healing
• Wound healing occurs in 4 phases: haemostasis, inflammation, proliferation and
remodelling (Table 13).
Table 13. Stages of wound healing
Stages of wound healing Mechanisms
Haemostasis ● Vasoconstriction and platelet aggregation
● Clot formation
Inflammation ● Vasodilatation
● Migration of neutrophils and macrophages
● Phagocytosis of cellular debris and invading
bacteria
Proliferation ● Granulation tissue formation (synthesised by
fibroblasts) and angiogenesis
● Re-epithelialisation (epidermal cell proliferation
and migration)
Remodelling ● Collagen fibre re-organisation
● Scar maturation
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• These are rapidly progressive skin conditions and some are potentially life-
threatening. Early recognition is important to implement prompt supportive care
and therapy.
• Some are drug reactions and the offending drug should be withdrawn.
• The essential management for all dermatological emergencies, like any emergency,
consists of:
i) full supportive care - ABC of resuscitation
ii) withdrawal of precipitating agents
iii) management of associated complications
iv) specific treatment (highlighted below under each condition)
Emergency Dermatology
Learning outcomes:
1. Ability to recognise and describe these skin reactions:
- urticaria
- erythema nodosum
- erythema multiforme
2. Ability to recognise these emergency presentations, discuss the causes,
potential complications and provide first contact care in these emergencies:
- anaphylaxis and angioedema
- toxic epidermal necrolysis
- Stevens-Johnson syndrome
- acute meningococcaemia
- erythroderma
- eczema herpeticum
- necrotising fasciitis
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Urticaria, Angioedema and Anaphylaxis
Causes ● Idiopathic, food (e.g. nuts, sesame seeds, shellfish, dairy
products), drugs (e.g. penicillin, contrast media, non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), morphine, angiotensin-converting
enzyme inhibitors (ACE-i)), insect bites, contact (e.g. latex), viral or
parasitic infections, autoimmune, and hereditary (in some cases of
angioedema)
Description ● Urticaria is due to a local increase in permeability of capillaries
and small venules. A large number of inflammatory mediators
(including prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and chemotactic factors)
play a role but histamine derived from skin mast cells appears to
be the major mediator. Local mediator release from mast cells can
be induced by immunological or non-immunological mechanisms.
Presentation ● Urticaria (swelling involving the superficial dermis, raising the
epidermis): itchy wheals
● Angioedema (deeper swelling involving the dermis and
subcutaneous tissues): swelling of tongue and lips
● Anaphylaxis (also known as anaphylactic shock): bronchospasm,
facial and laryngeal oedema, hypotension; can present initially
with urticaria and angioedema
Management ● Antihistamines for urticaria
● Corticosteroids for severe acute urticaria and angioedema
● Adrenaline, corticosteroids and antihistamines for anaphylaxis
Complications ● Urticaria is normally uncomplicated
● Angioedema and anaphylaxis can lead to asphyxia, cardiac arrest
and death
Urticaria Angioedema
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Erythema nodosum
Description ● A hypersensitivity response to a variety of stimuli
Causes ● Group A beta-haemolytic streptococcus, primary tuberculosis,
pregnancy, malignancy, sarcoidosis, inflammatory bowel disease
(IBD), chlamydia and leprosy
Presentation ● Discrete tender nodules which may become confluent
● Lesions continue to appear for 1-2 weeks and leave bruise-like
discolouration as they resolve
● Lesions do not ulcerate and resolve without atrophy or scarring
● The shins are the most common site
Erythema nodosum
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British Association of Dermatologists 31
Erythema multiforme, Stevens-Johnson syndrome and Toxic epidermal necrolysis
Description ● Erythema multiforme, often of unknown cause, is an acute self-
limiting inflammatory condition with herpes simplex virus being
the main precipitating factor. Other infections and drugs are also
causes. Mucosal involvement is absent or limited to only one
mucosal surface.
● Stevens-Johnson syndrome is characterised by
mucocutaneous necrosis with at least two mucosal sites involved.
Skin involvement may be limited or extensive. Drugs or
combinations of infections or drugs are the main associations.
Epithelial necrosis with few inflammatory cells is seen on
histopathology. The extensive necrosis distinguishes Stevens-
Johnson syndrome from erythema multiforme. Stevens-Johnson
syndrome may have features overlapping with toxic epidermal
necrolysis including a prodromal illness.
● Toxic epidermal necrosis which is usually drug-induced, is
an acute severe similar disease characterised by extensive skin and
mucosal necrosis accompanied by systemic toxicity. On
histopathology there is full thickness epidermal necrosis with
subepidermal detachment.
Management ● Early recognition and call for help
● Full supportive care to maintain haemodynamic equilibrium
Complications ● Mortality rates are 5-12% with SJS and >30% with TEN with
death often due to sepsis, electrolyte imbalance or multi-system
organ failure
Erythema multiforme Stevens-Johnson syndrome
Further reading: Bastuji-Garin S, Rzany B, Stern RS, et al. Clinical classification of cases of toxic epidermal
necrolysis, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, and erythema multiforme. Arch Dermatol 1993;129:92-96.
Em
erg
en
cy D
erm
ato
log
y –
Ery
the
ma
mu
ltiform
e, S
tev
en
s-Joh
nso
n sy
nd
rom
e a
nd
To
xic e
pid
erm
al n
ecro
lysis
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 32
Acute meningococcaemia
Description ● A serious communicable infection transmitted via respiratory
secretions; bacteria get into the circulating blood
Cause ● Gram negative diplococcus Neisseria meningitides
Presentation ● Features of meningitis (e.g. headache, fever, neck stiffness),
septicaemia (e.g. hypotension, fever, myalgia) and a typical rash
● Non-blanching purpuric rash on the trunk and extremities, which
may be preceded by a blanching maculopapular rash, and can
rapidly progress to ecchymoses, haemorrhagic bullae and tissue
necrosis
Management ● Antibiotics (e.g. benzylpenicillin)
● Prophylactic antibiotics (e.g. rifampicin) for close contacts (ideally
within 14 days of exposure)
Complications ● Septicaemic shock, disseminated intravascular coagulation, multi-
organ failure and death
Further reading: Hart CA, Thomson APJ. Meningococcal disease and its management in children.
BMJ 2006;333:685-690 (http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/333/7570/685)
Em
erg
en
cy D
erm
ato
log
y –
Acu
te m
en
ing
oco
ccae
mia
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 33
Erythroderma (‘red skin’)
Description ● Exfoliative dermatitis involving at least 90% of the skin surface
Causes ● Previous skin disease (e.g. eczema, psoriasis), lymphoma, drugs
(e.g.sulphonamides, gold, sulphonylureas, penicillin, allopurinol,
captopril) and idiopathic
Presentation ● Skin appears inflamed, oedematous and scaly
● Systemically unwell with lymphadenopathy and malaise
Management ● Treat the underlying cause, where known
● Emollients and wet-wraps to maintain skin moisture
● Topical steroids may help to relieve inflammation
Complications ● Secondary infection, fluid loss and electrolyte imbalance,
hypothermia, high-output cardiac failure and capillary leak
syndrome (most severe)
Prognosis ● Largely depends on the underlying cause
● Overall mortality rate ranges from 20 to 40%
Erythroderma
Em
erg
en
cy D
erm
ato
log
y –
Ery
thro
de
rma
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 34
Eczema herpeticum (Kaposi’s varicelliform eruption)
Description ● Widespread eruption - serious complication of atopic eczema or
less commonly other skin conditions
Cause ● Herpes simplex virus
Presentation ● Extensive crusted papules, blisters and erosions
● Systemically unwell with fever and malaise
Management ● Antivirals (e.g. aciclovir)
● Antibiotics for bacterial secondary infection
Complications ● Herpes hepatitis, encephalitis, disseminated intravascular
coagulation (DIC) and rarely, death
Eczema herpeticum
Em
erg
en
cy D
erm
ato
log
y –
Ecze
ma
he
rpe
ticum
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 35
Necrotising fasciitis
Description ● A rapidly spreading infection of the deep fascia with secondary
tissue necrosis
Causes ● Group A haemolytic streptococcus, or a mixture of anaerobic and
aerobic bacteria
● Risk factors include abdominal surgery and medical co-morbidities
(e.g. diabetes, malignancy)
● 50% of cases occur in previously healthy individuals
Presentation ● Severe pain
● Erythematous, blistering, and necrotic skin
● Systemically unwell with fever and tachycardia
● Presence of crepitus (subcutaneous emphysema)
● X-ray may show soft tissue gas (absence should not exclude the
diagnosis)
Management ● Urgent referral for extensive surgical debridement
● Intravenous antibiotics
Prognosis ● Mortality up to 76%
Further reading: Hasham S, Matteucci P, Stanley PRW, Hart NB. Necrotising fasciitis. BMJ 2005;330:830-833
(http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/330/7495/830)
Em
erg
en
cy D
erm
ato
log
y –
Ne
crotisin
g fa
sciitis
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 36
• The normal skin microflora and antimicrobial peptides protect the skin against
infection. However, when there is skin damage, microorganisms can penetrate
resulting in infection.
• There are 3 main types of skin infections according to their sources: bacterial (e.g.
staphylococcal and streptococcal), viral (e.g. human papilloma virus, herpes simplex
and herpes zoster (see below)), and fungal (e.g. yeasts). Infestations (e.g. scabies
(see page 53 & 54), cutaneous leishmaniasis) can also occur.
Skin Infections / Infestations
Herpes zoster (shingles) infection due to varicella-zoster virus affecting the
distribution of the ophthalmic division of the fifth cranial (trigeminal) nerve
Learning outcomes:
Ability to describe the presentation, investigation and management of:
- cellulitis and erysipelas
- staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome
Sk
in In
fectio
ns / In
festa
tion
s
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 37
Erysipelas and Cellulitis
Description ● Spreading bacterial infection of the skin
● Cellulitis involves the deep subcutaneous tissue
● Erysipelas is an acute superficial form of cellulitis and involves
the dermis and upper subcutaneous tissue
Causes ● Streptococcus pyogenes and Staphylococcus aureus
● Risk factors include immunosuppression, wounds, leg ulcers,
toeweb intertrigo, and minor skin injury
Presentation ● Most common in the lower limbs
● Local signs of inflammation – swelling (tumor), erythema (rubor),
warmth (calor), pain (dolor); may be associated with lymphangitis
● Systemically unwell with fever, malaise or rigors, particularly with
erysipelas
● Erysipelas is distinguished from cellulitis by a well-defined, red
raised border
Management ● Antibiotics (e.g. flucloxacillin or benzylpenicillin)
● Supportive care including rest, leg elevation, sterile dressings and
analgesia
Complications ● Local necrosis, abscess and septicaemia
Cellulitis with elephantiasis of the penis Erysipelas
Sk
in In
fectio
ns a
nd
Infe
statio
ns –
Ery
sipe
las a
nd
Ce
llulitis
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 38
Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome
Description ● Commonly seen in infancy and early childhood
Cause ● Production of a circulating epidermolytic toxin from phage group
II, benzylpenicillin-resistant (coagulase positive) staphylococci
Presentation ● Develops within a few hours to a few days, and may be worse over
the face, neck, axillae or groins
● A scald-like skin appearance is followed by large flaccid bulla
● Perioral crusting is typical
● There is intraepidermal blistering in this condition
● Lesions are very painful
● Sometimes the eruption is more localised
● Recovery is usually within 5-7 days
Management ● Antibiotics (e.g. a systemic penicillinase-resistant penicillin,
fusidic acid, erythromycin or appropriate cephalosporin)
● Analgesia
Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome
Sk
in In
fectio
ns a
nd
Infe
statio
ns –
Sta
ph
ylo
cocca
l scald
ed
skin
syn
dro
me
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 39
• Skin cancer is one of the most common cancers.
• In general, skin cancer can be divided into: non-melanoma (basal cell carcinoma and
squamous cell carcinoma) and melanoma (malignant melanoma).
• Malignant melanoma is the most life-threatening type of skin cancer and is one of
the few cancers affecting the younger population.
• Sun exposure is the single most preventable risk factor for skin cancer.
Skin Cancer
Learning outcomes:
Ability to recognise:
- basal cell carcinoma
- squamous cell carcinoma
- malignant melanoma
Sk
in C
an
cer
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 40
Basal cell carcinoma
Description ● A slow-growing, locally invasive malignant tumour of the
epidermal keratinocytes normally in older individuals, only rarely
metastasises
● Most common malignant skin tumour
Causes ● Risk factors include UV exposure, history of frequent or severe
sunburn in childhood, skin type I (always burns, never tans),
increasing age, male sex, immunosuppression, previous history of
skin cancer, and genetic predisposition
Presentation ● Various morphological types including nodular (most common),
superficial (plaque-like), cystic, morphoeic (sclerosing), keratotic
and pigmented
● Nodular basal cell carcinoma is a small, skin-coloured papule or
nodule with surface telangiectasia, and a pearly rolled edge; the
lesion may have a necrotic or ulcerated centre (rodent ulcer)
● Most common over the head and neck
Management ● Surgical excision - treatment of choice as it allows histological
examination of the tumour and margins
● Radiotherapy - when surgery is not appropriate
● Other e.g. cryotherapy, curettage and cautery, topical
photodynamic therapy, and topical treatment (e.g. imiquimod
cream) - for small and low-risk lesions
Complications ● Local tissue invasion and destruction
Prognosis ● Depends on tumour size, site, type, growth pattern/histological
subtype, failure of previous treatment/recurrence, and
immunosuppression
Basal cell carcinoma – nodular type
Sk
in C
an
cer –
Ba
sal ce
ll carcin
om
a
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 41
Squamous cell carcinoma
Description ● A locally invasive malignant tumour of the epidermal
keratinocytes or its appendages, which has the potential to
metastasise
Causes ● Risk factors include excessive UV exposure, pre-malignant skin
conditions (e.g. actinic keratoses), chronic inflammation (e.g. leg
ulcers, wound scars), immunosuppression and genetic
predisposition
Presentation ● Keratotic (e.g. scaly, crusty), ill-defined nodule which may ulcerate
Management ● Surgical excision - treatment of choice
● Mohs’ micrographic surgery (i.e. excision of the lesion and tissue
borders are progressively excised until specimens are
microscopically free of tumour) - for high risk, recurrent tumours
● Radiotherapy - for large, non-resectable tumours
● Chemotherapy - for metastatic disease
Prognosis ● Depends on tumour size, site, histological pattern, depth
of invasion, perineural involvement, and immunosuppression
Squamous cell carcinoma – adjacent to ear (left) and glans penis (right)
Sk
in C
an
cer –
Sq
ua
mo
us ce
ll carcin
om
a
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 42
Malignant melanoma
Description ● An invasive malignant tumour of the epidermal melanocytes,
which has the potential to metastasise
Causes ● Risk factors include excessive UV exposure, skin type I (always
burns, never tans), history of multiple moles or atypical moles, and
family history or previous history of melanoma
Presentation ● The ‘ABCDE Symptoms’ rule (*major suspicious features):
Asymmetrical shape*
Border irregularity
Colour irregularity*
Diameter > 7mm
Evolution of lesion (e.g. change in size and/or shape)*
Symptoms (e.g. bleeding, itching)
● More common on the legs in women and trunk in men
Types ● Superficial spreading melanoma – common on the lower limbs,
in young and middle-aged adults; related to intermittent high-
intensity UV exposure
● Nodular melanoma - common on the trunk, in young and middle-
aged adults; related to intermittent high-intensity UV exposure
● Lentigo maligna melanoma - common on the face, in elderly
population; related to long-term cumulative UV exposure
● Acral lentiginous melanoma - common on the palms, soles and nail
beds, in elderly population; no clear relation with UV exposure
Management ● Surgical excision - definitive treatment
● Radiotherapy may sometimes be useful
Prognosis ● Recurrence of melanoma based on Breslow thickness (thickness of
tumour): <0.76mm thick – low risk, 0.76mm-1.5mm thick –
medium risk, >1.5mm thick – high risk
● 5-year survival rates based on the TNM classification (primary
Tumour, regional Nodes, Metastases): stage 1 (T <2mm thick, N0,
M0) - 90%, stage 2 (T>2mm thick, N0, M0) – 80%, stage 3 (N≥1,
M0) – 40- 50%, and stage 4 (M ≥ 1) – 20-30%
Sk
in C
an
cer –
Ma
lign
an
t me
lan
om
a
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 43
Superficial spreading melanoma Nodular melanoma
Lentigo maligna melanoma Acral lentiginous melanoma
Sk
in C
an
cer –
Ma
lign
an
t me
lan
om
a
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 44
• Eczema, acne and psoriasis are chronic inflammatory skin disorders that follow a
relapsing and remitting course. There are many types of eczema but we shall just
consider atopic eczema here.
• These skin disorders are not infectious.
• Management is aimed at achieving control and not providing a cure.
• Complications are mainly due to the psychological and social effects.
• Patient education is important in these chronic skin conditions and should
concentrate on providing information about the nature of condition, aims of
treatment and the available treatment options.
Inflammatory Skin Conditions
Learning outcomes:
Ability to describe the presentation, demonstrate assessment, formulate a
differential diagnosis, instigate investigation and discuss how to provide
continuing care of:
- atopic eczema
- acne
- psoriasis
Infla
mm
ato
ry S
kin
Co
nd
ition
s
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 45
Atopic eczema
Description ● Eczema (or dermatitis) is characterized by papules and vesicles on
an erythematous base
● Atopic eczema is the most common type - usually develops by
early childhood and resolves during teenage years (but may recur)
Epidemiology ● 20% prevalence in <12 years old in the UK
Causes ● Not fully understood, but a positive family history of atopy (i.e.
eczema, asthma, allergic rhinitis) is often present
● A primary genetic defect in skin barrier function (loss of function
variants of the protein filaggrin) appears to underlie atopic eczema
● Exacerbating factors such as infections, allergens (e.g. chemicals,
food, dust, pet fur), sweating, heat and severe stress
Presentation ● Commonly present as itchy, erythematous dry scaly patches
● More common on the face and extensor aspects of limbs in
infants, and the flexor aspects in children and adults
● Acute lesions are erythematous, vesicular and weepy (exudative)
● Chronic scratching/rubbing can lead to excoriations and
lichenification
● May show nail pitting and ridging of the nails
Management ● General measures - avoid known exacerbating agents, frequent
emollients +/- bandages and bath oil/soap substitute
● Topical therapies – topical steroids for flare-ups; topical
immunomodulators (e.g. tacrolimus, pimecrolimus) can be
used as steroid-sparing agents
● Oral therapies - antihistamines for symptomatic relief, antibiotics
(e.g. flucloxacillin) for secondary bacterial infections, and
antivirals (e.g. aciclovir) for secondary herpes infection
● Phototherapy and immunosuppressants (e.g. oral prednisolone,
azathioprine, ciclosporin) for severe non- responsive cases
Complications ● Secondary bacterial infection (crusted weepy lesions)
● Secondary viral infection - molluscum contagiosum (pearly
papules with central umbilication), viral warts and eczema
herpeticum (see page 34)
Infla
mm
ato
ry S
kin
Co
nd
ition
s – A
top
ic ecze
ma
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 46
Atopic eczema
Further reading: NICE guidelines. Atopic eczema in children, Dec 2007. http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/CG57
Infla
mm
ato
ry S
kin
Co
nd
ition
s – A
top
ic ecze
ma
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 47
Acne vulgaris
Description ● An inflammatory disease of the pilosebaceous follicle
Epidemiology ● Over 80% of teenagers aged 13- 18 years
Causes ● Hormonal (androgen)
● Contributing factors include increased sebum production,
abnormal follicular keratinization, bacterial colonization
(Propionibacterium acnes) and inflammation
Presentation ● Non-inflammatory lesions (mild acne) - open and closed
comedones (blackheads and whiteheads)
● Inflammatory lesions (moderate and severe acne) - papules,
pustules, nodules, and cysts
● Commonly affects the face, chest and upper back
Management ● General measures - no specific food has been identified to cause
acne, treatment needs to be continued for at least 6 weeks to
produce effect
● Topical therapies (for mild acne) - benzoyl peroxide and topical
antibiotics (antimicrobial properties), and topical retinoids
(comedolytic and anti-inflammatory properties)
● Oral therapies (for moderate to severe acne) - oral antibiotics, and
anti-androgens (in females)
● Oral retinoids (for severe acne)
Complications ● Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation, scarring, deformity,
psychological and social effects
Comedones Papules and nodules
Infla
mm
ato
ry S
kin
Co
nd
ition
s – A
cne
vu
lga
ris
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 48
Psoriasis
Description ● A chronic inflammatory skin disease due to hyperproliferation of
keratinocytes and inflammatory cell infiltration
Types ● Chronic plaque psoriasis is the most common type
● Other types include guttate (raindrop lesions), seborrhoeic
(naso-labial and retro-auricular), flexural (body folds), pustular
(palmar-plantar), and erythrodermic (total body redness)
Epidemiology ● Affects about 2% of the population in the UK
Causes ● Complex interaction between genetic, immunological and
environmental factors
● Precipitating factors include trauma (which may produce a
Köebner phenomenon), infection (e.g. tonsillitis), drugs, stress,
and alcohol
Presentation ● Well-demarcated erythematous scaly plaques
● Lesions can sometimes be itchy, burning or painful
● Common on the extensor surfaces of the body and over scalp
● Auspitz sign (scratch and gentle removal of scales cause capillary
bleeding)
● 50% have associated nail changes (e.g. pitting, onycholysis)
● 5-8% suffer from associated psoriatic arthropathy - symmetrical
polyarthritis, asymmetrical oligomonoarthritis, lone distal
interphalangeal disease, psoriatic spondylosis, and arthritis
mutilans (flexion deformity of distal interphalangeal joints)
Management ● General measures - avoid known precipitating factors, emollients
to reduce scales
● Topical therapies (for localised and mild psoriasis) - vitamin D
analogues, topical corticosteroids, coal tar preparations,
dithranol, topical retinoids, keratolytics and scalp preparations
● Phototherapy (for extensive disease) - phototherapy i.e. UVB and
photochemotherapy i.e. psoralen+UVA
● Oral therapies (for extensive and severe psoriasis, or psoriasis
with systemic involvement) - methotrexate, oral retinoids,
ciclosporin, mycophenolate mofetil, fumaric acid esters,
Infla
mm
ato
ry S
kin
Co
nd
ition
s – P
soria
sis
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 49
and biological agents (e.g. infliximab, etanercept, efalizumab)
Complications ● Erythroderma (see page 33), psychological and social effects
Köebner phenomenon Plaque psoriasis
Nail changes and arthropathy Scalp involvement
Infla
mm
ato
ry S
kin
Co
nd
ition
s – P
soria
sis
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 50
• There are several commonly-encountered skin problems in clinical practice. Below
are some of the important differential diagnoses for each of these presentations.
• Clinical exposure is the key to achieve competence in diagnosing, investigating and
managing these skin problems.
Common Important Problems
Learning objectives:
Ability to formulate a differential diagnosis, describe the investigation and
discuss the management in patients with:
- chronic leg ulcers
- itchy eruption
- a changing pigmented lesion
- purpuric eruption
- a red swollen leg
Co
mm
on
Imp
orta
nt P
rob
lem
s
D
erm
ato
log
y:
Ha
nd
bo
ok
fo
r m
ed
ica
l st
ud
en
ts &
ju
nio
r d
oct
ors
Bri
tish
Ass
oci
ati
on
of
De
rma
tolo
gis
ts
51
Ch
ron
ic l
eg
ulc
ers
•
Leg
ulc
ers
are
cla
ssif
ied
acc
ord
ing
to
ae
tio
log
y.
In g
en
era
l, t
he
re a
re t
hre
e m
ain
typ
es:
ve
no
us,
art
eri
al
an
d n
eu
rop
ath
ic u
lce
rs.
Oth
er
cau
ses
incl
ud
e
va
scu
liti
c u
lce
rs (
pu
rpu
ric,
pu
nch
ed
ou
t le
sio
ns)
, in
fect
ed
ulc
ers
(p
uru
len
t d
isch
arg
e,
ma
y h
av
e s
yst
em
ic s
ign
s) a
nd
ma
lig
na
ncy
(e
.g.
squ
am
ou
s ce
ll
carc
ino
ma
in
lon
g-s
tan
din
g n
on
-he
ali
ng
ulc
ers
).
•
In c
lin
ica
l p
ract
ice
, th
ere
ca
n b
e m
ixtu
re o
f a
rte
ria
l, v
en
ou
s a
nd
/or
ne
uro
pa
thic
co
mp
on
en
ts i
n a
n u
lce
r.
V
en
ou
s u
lce
r
Art
eri
al
ulc
er
N
eu
rop
ath
ic u
lce
r
Co
mm
on
Imp
orta
nt P
rob
lem
s –C
hro
nic le
g u
lcers
51 British Association of Dermatologists
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
D
erm
ato
log
y:
Ha
nd
bo
ok
fo
r m
ed
ica
l st
ud
en
ts &
ju
nio
r d
oct
ors
Bri
tish
Ass
oci
ati
on
of
De
rma
tolo
gis
ts
52
Ch
ron
ic l
eg
ulc
ers
V
en
ou
s u
lce
r A
rte
ria
l u
lce
r N
eu
rop
ath
ic u
lce
r
His
tory
-
Oft
en
pa
infu
l, w
ors
e o
n s
tan
din
g
- H
isto
ry o
f v
en
ou
s d
ise
ase
e.g
. v
ari
cose
ve
ins,
de
ep
ve
in t
hro
mb
osi
s
- P
ain
ful
esp
eci
all
y a
t n
igh
t, w
ors
e w
he
n
le
gs
are
ele
va
ted
- H
isto
ry o
f a
rte
ria
l d
ise
ase
e.g
.
a
the
rosc
lero
sis
- O
fte
n p
ain
less
- A
bn
orm
al s
en
sati
on
- H
isto
ry o
f d
iab
ete
s o
r n
eu
rolo
gic
al d
ise
ase
Co
mm
on
sit
es
- M
all
eo
lar
are
a (
mo
re c
om
mo
n o
ve
r
m
ed
ial
tha
n l
ate
ral m
all
eo
lus)
- P
ress
ure
an
d t
rau
ma
sit
es
e.g
. p
reti
bia
l,
su
pra
ma
lleo
lar
(usu
all
y la
tera
l),
an
d a
t
d
ista
l p
oin
ts e
.g.
toe
s
- P
ress
ure
sit
es
e.g
. so
les,
he
el,
to
es,
m
eta
tars
al
he
ad
s
Lesi
on
-
Larg
e,
sha
llo
w i
rre
gu
lar
ulc
er
- E
xud
ati
ve a
nd
gra
nu
lati
ng
ba
se
- S
ma
ll,
sha
rply
de
fin
ed
de
ep
ulc
er
- N
ecr
oti
c b
ase
- V
ari
ab
le s
ize
an
d d
ep
th
- G
ran
ula
tin
g b
ase
- M
ay
be
su
rro
un
de
d b
y o
r u
nd
ern
ea
th a
h
yp
erk
era
toti
c le
sio
n (
e.g
. ca
llu
s)
Ass
oci
ate
d
fea
ture
s
- W
arm
sk
in
- N
orm
al
pe
rip
he
ral
pu
lse
s
- Le
g o
ed
em
a,
ha
em
osi
de
rin
an
d m
ela
nin
d
ep
osi
tio
n (
bro
wn
pig
me
nt)
,
li
po
de
rma
tosc
lero
sis,
an
d a
tro
ph
ie
b
lan
che
(w
hit
e s
carr
ing
wit
h d
ila
ted
ca
pil
lari
es)
- C
old
sk
in
- W
ea
k o
r a
bse
nt
pe
rip
he
ral
pu
lse
s
- S
hin
y p
ale
sk
in
- Lo
ss o
f h
air
- W
arm
sk
in
- N
orm
al
pe
rip
he
ral
pu
lse
s*
*
cold
, w
ea
k o
r a
bse
nt
pu
lse
s if
it i
s a
n
eu
rois
cha
em
ic u
lce
r
- P
eri
ph
era
l ne
uro
pa
thy
Po
ssib
le
inv
est
iga
tio
ns
- N
orm
al
an
kle
/bra
chia
l p
ress
ure
in
de
x
(i
.e.
AB
PI
0.8
-1)
- A
BP
I <
0.8
- p
rese
nce
of
art
eri
al
in
suff
icie
ncy
- D
op
ple
r st
ud
ies
an
d a
ng
iog
rap
hy
- A
BP
I <
0.8
imp
lie
s a
ne
uro
isch
ae
mic
u
lce
r
- X
-ra
y t
o e
xclu
de
ost
eo
mye
liti
s
Ma
na
ge
me
nt
- C
om
pre
ssio
n b
an
da
gin
g
(a
fte
r e
xclu
din
g a
rte
ria
l in
suff
icie
ncy
)
- V
asc
ula
r re
con
stru
ctio
n
- C
om
pre
ssio
n b
an
da
gin
g i
s co
ntr
ain
dic
ate
d
- W
ou
nd
de
bri
de
me
nt
- R
eg
ula
r re
po
siti
on
ing
, a
pp
rop
ria
te
fo
otw
ea
r a
nd
go
od
nu
trit
ion
Co
mm
on
Imp
orta
nt P
rob
lem
s –C
hro
nic le
g u
lcers
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
52 British Association of Dermatologists
D
erm
ato
log
y:
Ha
nd
bo
ok
fo
r m
ed
ica
l st
ud
en
ts &
ju
nio
r d
oct
ors
Bri
tish
Ass
oci
ati
on
of
De
rma
tolo
gis
ts
53
Itch
y e
rup
tio
n
•
An
itc
hy
(p
ruri
tic)
eru
pti
on
ca
n b
e c
au
sed
by
an
in
fla
mm
ato
ry c
on
dit
ion
(e
.g.
ecz
em
a),
in
fect
ion
(e
.g.
va
rice
lla),
in
fest
ati
on
(e
.g.
sca
bie
s),
all
erg
ic
rea
ctio
n (
e.g
. so
me
ca
ses
of
urt
ica
ria
) o
r a
n u
nk
no
wn
ca
use
, p
oss
ibly
au
toim
mu
ne
(e
.g.
lich
en
pla
nu
s).
Ch
ron
ic f
issu
red
ha
nd
ecz
em
a
S
cab
ies
U
rtic
ari
a
L
ich
en
pla
nu
s
Wic
kh
am
’s s
tria
e
Co
mm
on
Imp
orta
nt P
rob
lem
s –Itch
y e
rup
tion
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
53 British Association of Dermatologists
D
erm
ato
log
y:
Ha
nd
bo
ok
fo
r m
ed
ica
l st
ud
en
ts &
ju
nio
r d
oct
ors
Bri
tish
Ass
oci
ati
on
of
De
rma
tolo
gis
ts
54
Itch
y e
rup
tio
n
E
cze
ma
S
cab
ies
Urt
ica
ria
Li
che
n p
lan
us
His
tory
-
Pe
rso
na
l or
fam
ily h
isto
ry o
f
a
top
y
- E
xace
rba
tin
g f
act
ors
(e
.g.
a
lle
rge
ns,
irr
ita
nts
)
- M
ay
ha
ve h
isto
ry o
f co
nta
ct
w
ith
sym
pto
ma
tic
ind
ivid
ua
ls
- P
ruri
tus
wo
rse
at
nig
ht
- P
reci
pit
ati
ng
fa
cto
rs (
e.g
. fo
od
,
co
nta
ct,
dru
gs)
- F
am
ily
his
tory
in
10
% o
f ca
ses
- M
ay
be
dru
g-i
nd
uce
d
Co
mm
on
sit
es
- V
ari
ab
le (
e.g
. fl
exo
r a
spe
cts
in
ch
ild
ren
an
d a
du
lts
wit
h a
top
ic
e
cze
ma
)
- S
ide
s o
f fi
ng
ers
, fi
ng
er
we
bs,
w
rist
s, e
lbo
ws,
an
kle
s, f
ee
t,
n
ipp
les
an
d g
en
ita
ls
- N
o s
pe
cifi
c te
nd
en
cy
- F
ore
arm
s, w
rist
s, a
nd
le
gs
- A
lwa
ys
exa
min
e t
he
ora
l
m
uco
sa
Lesi
on
-
Dry
, e
ryth
em
ato
us
pa
tch
es
- A
cute
ecz
em
a i
s
e
ryth
em
ato
us,
ve
sicu
lar
an
d
e
xud
ati
ve
- Li
ne
ar
bu
rro
ws
(ma
y b
e
to
rtu
ou
s) o
r ru
bb
ery
no
du
les
- P
ink
wh
ea
ls (
tra
nsi
en
t)
- M
ay
be
ro
un
d,
an
nu
lar,
or
p
oly
cycl
ic
- V
iola
ceo
us
(lil
ac)
fla
t-to
pp
ed
p
ap
ule
s
- S
ym
me
tric
al
dis
trib
uti
on
Ass
oci
ate
d
fea
ture
s
- S
eco
nd
ary
ba
cte
ria
l or
vir
al
in
fect
ion
s
- S
eco
nd
ary
ecz
em
a a
nd
im
pe
tig
o
- M
ay
be
ass
oci
ate
d w
ith
a
ng
ioe
de
ma
or
an
ap
hy
laxi
s
- N
ail
ch
an
ge
s a
nd
ha
ir lo
ss
- La
cy w
hit
e s
tre
ak
s o
n t
he
ora
l
m
uco
sa a
nd
sk
in l
esi
on
s
(W
ick
ha
m’s
str
iae
)
Po
ssib
le
inv
est
iga
tio
ns
- P
atc
h t
est
ing
- S
eru
m I
gE
le
ve
ls
- S
kin
sw
ab
- S
kin
scr
ap
e,
ext
ract
ion
of
mit
e
a
nd
vie
w u
nd
er
mic
rosc
op
e
- B
loo
ds
an
d u
rin
aly
sis
to
e
xclu
de
a s
yst
em
ic c
au
se
- S
kin
bio
psy
Ma
na
ge
me
nt
- E
mo
llie
nts
- C
ort
ico
ste
roid
s
- Im
mu
no
mo
du
lato
rs
- A
nti
his
tam
ine
s
- S
cab
icid
e (
e.g
. p
erm
eth
rin
(L
ycle
ar)
or
ma
lath
ion
(P
rio
de
rm))
- A
nti
his
tam
ine
s
- A
nti
his
tam
ine
s
- C
ort
ico
ste
roid
s
- C
ort
ico
ste
roid
s
- A
nti
his
tam
ine
s
Co
mm
on
Imp
orta
nt P
rob
lem
s –Itch
y e
rup
tion
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
54 British Association of Dermatologists
D
erm
ato
log
y:
Ha
nd
bo
ok
fo
r m
ed
ica
l st
ud
en
ts &
ju
nio
r d
oct
ors
Bri
tish
Ass
oci
ati
on
of
De
rma
tolo
gis
ts
55
A c
ha
ng
ing
pig
me
nte
d l
esi
on
•
A c
ha
ng
ing
pig
me
nte
d le
sio
n c
an
be
be
nig
n (
e.g
. m
ela
no
cyti
c n
ae
vi,
se
bo
rrh
oe
ic w
art
) o
r m
ali
gn
an
t (e
.g.
ma
lig
na
nt
me
lan
om
a).
Co
ng
en
ita
l n
ae
vu
s
S
eb
orr
ho
eic
ke
rato
ses
M
ali
gn
an
t m
ela
no
ma
Co
mm
on
Imp
orta
nt P
rob
lem
s –A
cha
ng
ing
pig
me
nte
d le
sion
55 British Association of Dermatologists
D
erm
ato
log
y:
Ha
nd
bo
ok
fo
r m
ed
ica
l st
ud
en
ts &
ju
nio
r d
oct
ors
Bri
tish
Ass
oci
ati
on
of
De
rma
tolo
gis
ts
56
A c
ha
ng
ing
pig
me
nte
d l
esi
on
B
en
ign
M
ali
gn
an
t
M
ela
no
cyti
c n
ae
vi
Se
bo
rrh
oe
ic w
art
M
ali
gn
an
t m
ela
no
ma
His
tory
-
No
t u
sua
lly p
rese
nt
at
bir
th b
ut
de
velo
p
d
uri
ng
in
fan
cy,
chil
dh
oo
d o
r a
do
lesc
en
ce
- A
sym
pto
ma
tic
- T
en
d t
o a
rise
in
th
e m
idd
le-a
ge
d o
r e
lde
rly
- O
fte
n m
ult
iple
an
d a
sym
pto
ma
tic
- T
en
d t
o o
ccu
r in
ad
ult
s o
r th
e m
idd
le-a
ge
d
- H
isto
ry o
f e
volu
tio
n o
f le
sio
n
- M
ay
be
sym
pto
ma
tic
(e.g
. it
chy
, b
lee
din
g)
- P
rese
nce
of
risk
fa
cto
rs
Co
mm
on
sit
es
- V
ari
ab
le
- F
ace
an
d t
run
k
- M
ore
co
mm
on
on
th
e le
gs
in w
om
en
an
d
t
run
k i
n m
en
Lesi
on
-
Co
ng
en
ita
l n
ae
vi m
ay
be
larg
e,
p
igm
en
ted
, p
rotu
be
ran
t a
nd
ha
iry
- Ju
nct
ion
al
na
ev
i a
re s
ma
ll, f
lat
an
d d
ark
- In
tra
de
rma
l na
ev
i a
re u
sua
lly
do
me
-sh
ap
e
p
ap
ule
s o
r n
od
ule
s
- C
om
po
un
d n
ae
vi
are
usu
all
y r
ais
ed
, w
art
y,
h
yp
erk
era
toti
c, a
nd
/or
ha
iry
- W
art
y g
rea
sy p
ap
ule
s o
r n
od
ule
s
- ‘S
tuck
on
’ a
pp
ea
ran
ce,
wit
h w
ell
-de
fin
ed
e
dg
es
- F
ea
ture
s o
f A
BC
DE
:
Asy
mm
etr
ica
l sh
ap
e
Bo
rde
r ir
reg
ula
rity
Co
lou
r ir
reg
ula
rity
Dia
me
ter
> 7
mm
Evo
luti
on
of
lesi
on
Ma
na
ge
me
nt
- R
are
ly n
ee
de
d
- R
are
ly n
ee
de
d
- E
xcis
ion
Co
mm
on
Imp
orta
nt P
rob
lem
s –A
cha
ng
ing
pig
me
nte
d le
sion
56 British Association of Dermatologists
D
erm
ato
log
y:
Ha
nd
bo
ok
fo
r m
ed
ica
l st
ud
en
ts &
ju
nio
r d
oct
ors
Bri
tish
Ass
oci
ati
on
of
De
rma
tolo
gis
ts
57
Pu
rpu
ric
eru
pti
on
•
A p
urp
uri
c e
rup
tio
n c
an
be
th
rom
bo
cyto
pe
nic
(e
.g.
me
nin
go
cocc
al
sep
tica
em
ia,
dis
sem
ina
ted
in
tra
va
scu
lar
coa
gu
lati
on
, id
iop
ath
ic
thro
mb
ocy
top
en
ic p
urp
ura
) o
r n
on
-th
rom
bo
cyto
pe
nic
e.g
. tr
au
ma
, d
rug
s (e
.g.
ste
roid
s),
ag
ed
sk
in,
va
scu
liti
s (e
.g.
He
no
ch-S
chö
nle
in p
urp
ura
).
•
Pla
tele
t co
un
ts a
nd
a c
lott
ing
scr
ee
n a
re im
po
rta
nt
to e
xclu
de
co
ag
ula
tio
n d
iso
rde
rs.
He
no
ch-S
chö
nle
in p
urp
ura
S
en
ile
pu
rpu
ra
Co
mm
on
Imp
orta
nt P
rob
lem
s –P
urp
uric
eru
ptio
n
57 British Association of Dermatologists
D
erm
ato
log
y:
Ha
nd
bo
ok
fo
r m
ed
ica
l st
ud
en
ts &
ju
nio
r d
oct
ors
Bri
tish
Ass
oci
ati
on
of
De
rma
tolo
gis
ts
58
Pu
rpu
ric
eru
pti
on
M
en
ing
oco
cca
l se
pti
cae
mia
D
isse
min
ate
d i
ntr
av
asc
ula
r
coa
gu
lati
on
Va
scu
liti
s S
en
ile
pu
rpu
ra
His
tory
-
Acu
te o
nse
t
- S
ym
pto
ms
of
me
nin
git
is a
nd
se
pti
cae
mia
- H
isto
ry o
f tr
au
ma
, m
ali
gn
an
cy,
se
psi
s, o
bst
etr
ic c
om
pli
cati
on
s,
tr
an
sfu
sio
ns,
or
live
r fa
ilu
re
- P
ain
ful
lesi
on
s
- A
rise
in
th
e e
lde
rly
po
pu
lati
on
w
ith
su
n-d
am
ag
ed
sk
in
Co
mm
on
sit
es
-
Ext
rem
itie
s -
Sp
on
tan
eo
us
ble
ed
ing
fro
m
e
ar,
no
se a
nd
th
roa
t,
g
ast
roin
test
ina
l tr
act
,
re
spir
ato
ry t
ract
or
wo
un
d s
ite
- D
ep
en
de
nt
are
as
(e.g
. le
gs,
b
utt
ock
s, f
lan
ks)
- E
xte
nso
r su
rfa
ces
of
ha
nd
s
a
nd
fo
rea
rms
- S
uch
sk
in i
s e
asi
ly t
rau
ma
tise
d
Lesi
on
-
Pe
tech
iae
, e
cch
ymo
ses,
h
ae
mo
rrh
ag
ic b
ull
ae
an
d/o
r
ti
ssu
e n
ecr
osi
s
- P
ete
chia
e,
ecc
hym
ose
s,
h
ae
mo
rra
gic
bu
lla
e a
nd
/or
ti
ssu
e n
ecr
osi
s
- P
alp
ab
le p
urp
ura
(o
fte
n
p
ain
ful)
- N
on
-pa
lpa
ble
pu
rpu
ra
- S
urr
ou
nd
ing
sk
in i
s a
tro
ph
ic
a
nd
th
in
Ass
oci
ate
d
fea
ture
s
- S
yst
em
ica
lly u
nw
ell
-
Sy
ste
mic
ally
un
we
ll
- S
yst
em
ica
lly u
nw
ell
-
Sy
ste
mic
ally
we
ll
Po
ssib
le
inv
est
iga
tio
ns
- B
loo
ds
- Lu
mb
ar
pu
nct
ure
- B
loo
ds
(a c
lott
ing
scr
ee
n is
im
po
rta
nt)
- B
loo
ds
an
d u
rin
aly
sis
- S
kin
bio
psy
- N
o i
nve
stig
ati
on
is
ne
ed
ed
Ma
na
ge
me
nt
- A
nti
bio
tics
-
Tre
at
the
un
de
rly
ing
ca
use
- T
ran
sfu
se f
or
coa
gu
lati
on
d
efi
cie
nci
es
- A
nti
coa
gu
lan
ts f
or
thro
mb
osi
s
- T
rea
t th
e u
nd
erl
yin
g c
au
se
- S
tero
ids
an
d
im
mu
no
sup
pre
ssa
nts
if
the
re
is
sy
ste
mic
in
volv
em
en
t
- N
o t
rea
tme
nt
is n
ee
de
d
Co
mm
on
Imp
orta
nt P
rob
lem
s –P
urp
uric
eru
ptio
n
58 British Association of Dermatologists
D
erm
ato
log
y:
Ha
nd
bo
ok
fo
r m
ed
ica
l st
ud
en
ts &
ju
nio
r d
oct
ors
Bri
tish
Ass
oci
ati
on
of
De
rma
tolo
gis
ts
59
A r
ed
sw
oll
en
le
g
•
Th
e m
ain
dif
fere
nti
al
dia
gn
ose
s fo
r a
re
d s
wo
lle
n le
g a
re c
ell
uli
tis,
ery
sip
ela
s, v
en
ou
s th
rom
bo
sis
an
d c
hro
nic
ve
no
us
insu
ffic
ien
cy.
C
ell
uli
tis/
Ery
sip
ela
s V
en
ou
s th
rom
bo
sis
Ch
ron
ic v
en
ou
s in
suff
icie
ncy
His
tory
-
Pa
infu
l sp
rea
din
g r
ash
- H
isto
ry o
f a
bra
sio
n o
r u
lce
r
- P
ain
wit
h s
we
llin
g a
nd
re
dn
ess
- H
isto
ry o
f p
rolo
ng
ed
be
d r
est
, lo
ng
ha
ul
fl
igh
ts o
r cl
ott
ing
te
nd
en
cy
- H
ea
vin
ess
or
ach
ing
of
leg
, w
hic
h i
s
w
ors
e o
n s
tan
din
g a
nd
re
liev
ed
by
w
alk
ing
- H
isto
ry o
f v
en
ou
s th
rom
bo
sis
Lesi
on
-
Ery
sip
ela
s (w
ell
-de
fin
ed
ed
ge
)
- C
ell
uli
tis
(dif
fuse
ed
ge
)
- C
om
ple
te v
en
ou
s o
cclu
sio
n m
ay
lea
d t
o
cy
an
oti
c d
isco
lou
rati
on
- D
isco
lou
red
(b
lue
-pu
rple
)
- O
ed
em
a (
imp
rove
d i
n t
he
mo
rnin
g)
- V
en
ou
s co
ng
est
ion
an
d v
ari
cose
ve
ins
Ass
oci
ate
d
fea
ture
s
- S
yst
em
ica
lly u
nw
ell
wit
h f
ev
er
an
d m
ala
ise
- M
ay
ha
ve l
ymp
ha
ng
itis
- U
sua
lly
sy
ste
ma
tica
lly
we
ll
- M
ay
pre
sen
t w
ith
pu
lmo
na
ry e
mb
oli
sm
- Li
po
de
rma
tosc
lero
sis
(ery
the
ma
tou
s
in
du
rati
on
, cr
ea
tin
g ‘
cha
mp
ag
ne
b
ott
le’
ap
pe
ara
nce
)
- S
tasi
s d
erm
ati
tis
(ecz
em
a w
ith
in
fla
mm
ato
ry p
ap
ule
s, s
caly
an
d
cr
ust
ed
ero
sio
ns)
- V
en
ou
s u
lce
r
Po
ssib
le
inv
est
iga
tio
ns
- A
nti
-str
ep
toco
cca
l O t
itre
(A
SO
T)
- S
kin
sw
ab
- D
-dim
er
- D
op
ple
r u
ltra
sou
nd
an
d/o
r v
en
og
rap
hy
- D
op
ple
r u
ltra
sou
nd
an
d/o
r v
en
og
rap
hy
Ma
na
ge
me
nt
- A
nti
bio
tics
-
An
tico
ag
ula
nts
-
Leg
ele
va
tio
n a
nd
co
mp
ress
ion
st
ock
ing
s
- S
cle
roth
era
py
or
surg
ery
fo
r v
ari
cose
ve
ins
Co
mm
on
Imp
orta
nt P
rob
lem
s –A
red
swo
llen
leg
59 British Association of Dermatologists
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 60
Management and therapeutics
• Treatment modalities for skin disease can be broadly categorised into medical
therapy (topical and systemic treatments) and physical therapy (e.g. cryotherapy,
phototherapy, photodynamic therapy, lasers and surgery).
• Topical treatments directly deliver treatment to the affected areas and this reduces
systemic side effects. It is suitable for localised and less severe skin conditions. They
consist of active constituents which are transported into the skin by a base (also
known as a ‘vehicle’). Examples of active ingredients are steroids, tar,
immunomodulators, retinoids, and antibiotics. The common forms of base are lotion
(liquid), cream (oil in water), gel (organic polymers in liquid, transparent), ointment
(oil with little or no water) and paste (powder in ointment).
• Systemic therapy is used for extensive and more serious skin conditions, if the
treatment is ineffective topically or if there is systemic involvement. However, they
have the disadvantage of causing systemic side effects.
Management
Learning objectives:
Ability to describe the principles of use of the following drugs:
- Emollients
- Topical/oral corticosteroids
- Oral aciclovir
- Oral antihistamines
- Topical/oral antibiotics/antiseptics
- Oral retinoids
Ma
na
ge
me
nt
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 61
Emollients
Examples ● Aqueous cream, emulsifying ointment, liquid paraffin and white soft
paraffin in equal parts (50:50)
Quantity ● 500 grams per tub
Indications ● To rehydrate skin and re-establish the surface lipid layer
● Useful for dry, scaling conditions
Side effects ● Reactions may be irritant or allergic (e.g. due to preservatives or perfumes
in creams)
Topical/Oral corticosteroids
Examples ● Topical steroids: classified as mildly potent (e.g, hydrocortisone),
moderately potent (e.g. clobetasone butyrate (Eumovate)), potent
(e.g.betamethasone valerate (Betnovate)), and very potent (e.g. clobetasol
propionate (Dermovate))
● Oral steroids: prednisolone
Quantity ● Usually 30 grams per tube (enough to cover the whole body once)
Indications ● Anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative effects
● Useful for allergic and immune reactions, inflammatory skin conditions,
bullous and blistering disorders, connective tissue diseases, and vasculitis
Side effects ● Local side effects (from topical corticosteroids): skin atrophy (thinning),
telangiectasia, striae, may mask, cause or exacerbate skin infections,
acne, or perioral dermatitis, and allergic contact dermatitis.
● Systemic side effects (from oral corticosteroids): Cushing’s syndrome,
immunosuppression, hypertension, diabetes, osteoporosis, cataract, and
steroid-induced psychosis
Oral aciclovir
Examples ● Aciclovir
Indications ● Viral infections due to herpes simplex and herpes zoster virus
Side effects ● Gastrointestinal upsets, raised liver enzymes, reversible neurological
reactions, and haematological disorders
Ma
na
ge
me
nt –
Em
ollie
nts, T
op
ical/O
ral co
rticoste
roid
s, Ora
l aciclo
vir
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 62
Oral antihistamines
Examples ● Classified into nonsedative (e.g. cetirizine, loratadine) and sedative
antihistamines (e.g. chlorpheniramine, hydroxyzine)
Indications ● Block histamine receptors producing an anti-pruritic effect
● Useful for type-1 hypersensitivity reactions and eczema (especially
sedative antihistamines for children)
Side effects ● Sedative antihistamines can cause sedation and anticholinergic effects
(e.g. dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, and constipation)
Topical/Oral antibiotics/antiseptics
Examples ● Topical antiseptics: chlorhexidine
● Topical antibiotics: fusidic acid, mupirocin (Bactroban), neomycin
● Oral antibiotics: penicillins, cephalosporins, gentamicin, macrolides,
nitrofurantoin, quinolones, tetracyclines, vancomycin, metronidazole,
trimethoprim
Indications ● Useful for bacterial skin infections, and some are used for acne
Side effects ● Local side effects (from topical antibiotics): local skin irritation/allergy
● Systemic side effects (from oral antibiotics): gastrointestinal upset, rashes,
anaphylaxis, vaginal candidiasis, antibiotic-associated infection such as
Clostridium difficile, and antibiotic resistance (rapidly appears to fusidic
acid)
Oral retinoids
Examples ● Isotretinoin, Acitretin
Indications ● Acne, psoriasis, and disorders of keratinisation
Side effects ● Mucocutaneous reactions such as dry skin, dry lips and dry eyes,
disordered liver function, hypercholesterolaemia, hypertriglyceridaemia,
myalgia, arthralgia and depression
● Teratogenicity: effective contraception must be practised one month
before, during and at least one month after isotretinoin, but for two years
after Acitretin (consult current BNF for further details)
Ma
na
ge
me
nt –
Ora
l an
tihista
min
es, T
op
ica/O
ral a
ntib
iotics/a
ntise
ptics, O
ral re
tino
ids
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 63
• There are four main aspects to focus on in clinical practice:
i) Patient education, particularly on the nature of disease, treatment and
ways to achieve full compliance and effectiveness, and prevention strategies
ii) Effective written communication to general practitioner so that patients
care can be continued appropriately
iii) Good prescribing skills
iv) Good clinical examination and appropriate investigations to facilitate
accurate diagnosis
• This section highlights several general points on the important clinical skills in
dermatology.
Practical Skills
Learning objectives:
1. Ability to perform the following tasks:
- explain how to use an emollient or a topical corticosteroid
- make a referral
- write a discharge letter
- write a prescription for emollient
- take a skin swab
- take a skin scrape
- measure the ankle-brachial pressure index and interpret the result
2. Describe the principles of prevention in:
- pressure sores
- sun damage and skin cancer
Pra
ctical S
kills
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 64
Patient education
How to use emollients
● Apply liberally and regularly
How to use topical corticosteroids
● Apply thinly and only for short-term use (often 1 or 2 weeks only)
● Only use 1% hydrocortisone or equivalent strength on the face
● Fingertip unit (advised on packaging) – strip of cream the length of a
fingertip
Preventing pressure sores
● Pressure sores are due to ischaemia resulting from localised damage to
the skin caused by sustained pressure, friction and moisture, particularly
over bony prominences.
● Preventative measures involve frequent repositioning, nutritional support,
and use of pressure relieving devices e.g. special beds
Preventing sun damage and skin cancer
● Excessive exposure to UV radiation is the most significant
and preventable risk factor for the development of skin cancer (Table 14)
● Skin types I and II are at higher risk of developing skin cancer with
excessive sun exposure than other skin types (Table 15)
Table 14. SMART ways to avoid excessive sun exposure
Spend time in the shade between 11am-3pm
Make sure you never burn
Aim to cover up with a t-shirt, wide-brimmed hat and sunglasses
Remember to take extra care with children
Then use Sun Protection Factor (SPF) 20+ sunscreen
Pra
ctical S
kills –
Pa
tien
t ed
uca
tion
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 65
Table 15. Skin types
Skin types Description
I Always burns, never tans
II Always burns, sometimes tans
III Sometimes burns, always tans
IV Never burns, always tans
Written communication
Writing a referral letter
Important points to include:
● Reason(s) for referral, current presentation, and impact of disease
● Patient’s medical and social background
● Current and previous treatment, length of treatment, and response to
treatment
Writing a discharge letter
Important points to include:
● Reason(s) for admission and current presentation
● Hospital course
● Investigation results
● Diagnostic impression
● Management plan (including treatment and follow-up appointment)
● Content of patient education given
Prescribing skills
Writing a prescription
General tips:
● Include drug name, dose, frequency and an intended duration/review date
● 30 grams of cream/ointment covers the whole adult body area
● 1 fingertip unit covers the area of two palms and equals ½ gram
Pra
ctical S
kills –
Writte
n co
mm
un
icatio
n a
nd
Pre
scribin
g sk
ills
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 66
Prescribing emollients
General tips
● Emollients come in 500 gram tubs
● In general, ointment-based emollients are useful for dry, scaling skin
whereas creams and lotions are for red, inflamed and weeping lesions
Prescribing topical corticosteroids
General tips
● Prescribe the weakest potency corticosteroid that is effective
● Use only for short term
● Need to specify the base i.e. cream, lotion or ointment
Clinical examination and investigations
Taking a skin swab
• Skin swabs can be taken from vesicles, pustules, erosions, ulcers and mucosal
surfaces for microbial culture.
• Surface swabs are generally not encouraged.
Taking a skin scrape
• Skin scrapes are taken by using a scalpel or glass slide from scaly lesions in suspected
fungal infection (e.g. evidence of fungal hyphae and/or spores) and burrows in
scabies (see page 53 & 54).
Measuring ankle-brachial pressure index (ABPI)
• ABPI is used to identify the presence and severity of peripheral arterial insufficiency,
which is important in the management of leg ulcers.
• Measure the cuff pressure of dorsalis pedis or posterior tibial artery using a Doppler
and compare it to the pressure of brachial artery.
• The ABPI is measured by calculating the ratio of highest pressure obtained from the
ankle to highest brachial pressure of the two arms, and is normally >0.8.
• Inappropriately high reading will be obtained in calcified vessels (often in diabetics).
Pra
ctical S
kills –
Clin
ical e
xa
min
atio
n a
nd
inv
estig
atio
ns
Dermatology: Handbook for medical students & junior doctors
British Association of Dermatologists 67
We wish to acknowledge the following contributors:
• Dr Mark Goodfield, President of the British Association of Dermatologists, for writing
the Foreword.
• Dr Niels K. Veien for allowing us to use his photographs. All illustrations in this
handbook were obtained from "D@nderm" with his permission.
• Dr Susan Burge, Consultant Dermatologist, Oxford Radcliffe Hospitals NHS Trust,
Professor Peter Friedmann, Emeritus Professor of Dermatology, Southampton
General Hospital, and Professor Lesley Rhodes, Professor of Experimental
Dermatology, University of Manchester for reviewing and contributing valuable
suggestions.
• Dr Kian Tjon Tan, Academic Foundation Year 2 Doctor, University Hospital of South
Manchester NHS Foundation Trust for contributing the chapter Background
Knowledge.
• Dr Yi Ning Chiang, Foundation Year 1 Doctor, Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust for
contributing the chapter Common Important Problems.
Acknowledgements
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