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Course Material
Organizational Behavior
Chapter –1
Organization Definition:
Group of people brought together for the purpose of achieving certain
objectives. But tribes, friendship groups, families are not organization because
they do not involve any significant amount of conscious planning or deliberate
structuring. The term organization is used in management literature in two
different senses - Organization as a structure and Organization as a process.
Organization as a structure:
The word organization is originated form the work organism which implies a
structure of interrelated parts. Example- Human, Firm etc. It is a systematic
integration of parts to form a united whole. It is a structure of relationship
among various positions or jobs. It is a framework through which people work
together for the accomplishment of desired results. The components of the
organization structure include, “5M’s - [men, money, method, machinery,
material], functions authority, responsibility. Hence it is called as static or
classical concept.
Organization as a process:
The term organization is also used as a function of management. It involves
putting things and persons in their proper places and in the relation to each
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other. It is the process of structuring or arranging the different parts. Example
- people, work, technology etc.
Koontz O Donnel defines organizing as “the grouping of activities
necessary to attain the objectives, the assigning of each grouping to manager
with authority to supervise it and the provision for coordination horizontally
and vertically in the organization structure.
According to Louis A Allen, organization involves identification and
grouping the activities to be performed and dividing them the individuals and
creating authority and responsibility relationship among them for the
accomplishment of an organizational objective.
This is dynamic or neo-classical concept of the organization because
the emphasis here is on individuals who fill the various positions. Moreover
organizing is viewed as a continuous process where among people are
constantly reviewed and adjusted depending on the requirement of the
situation.
Nature of Organization:
The main characteristics of organizations are:
1. Common purpose: Every organization exists to accomplish common goals. The structure
must reflect these objectives as enterprises activities are derived from them. It
is bound by common purpose.
2. Division of Labour: The total workforce of an organization is divided into functions and sub
functions. It is needed to avoid the waste of time, energy and resources which
arises when people have to constantly change from one work to another.
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3. Authority Structure: There is an arrangement of position into a graded series. The authority
of every position is defined. It is putting subordinate to the position below the
superior. It also focuses on providing each position with adequate authority to
perform the roles described.
4. People: An Organization is basically a group of people that constitutes the
dynamic human elements of an organization. The authority in grouping must
take into account not only the limitations of people, but also the uniqueness
with which the human resources have to be managed when compared to
other resources
5. Communication: Every organization has its own channel of communication. Such
channels are necessary for mutual understanding and cooperation among the
members of an organization. This channel, with all the directions, will be
visible in the organization structure.
6. Co-ordination: Coordinating different activities of an organization is a vital function of
co-operative effort and is a basic feature of an organization.
7. Environment: An organization functions in an environment comprising economic,
social, political and legal factors, the structure must be designed to work
efficiently in changing environment. It cannot be static.
8. Rules and Regulations: Every organization has some rules and regulations for orderly
functioning of people. These rules and regulations may be in writing or implied
from customary behavior.
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Need For Organization:
1. Aid to Management: Organization is the mechanism through which management
coordinates and controls the business. It is the framework through which the
plans are put into action and managerial functions are carried out. If the
organization is ill designed, management is rendered difficult and ineffective.
If it is effective then decisions can be made faster, performance will be
enhanced and order will be ensured within the Organization
2. Facilitates Growth: A well-designed and balanced organization provides for systematic
presentation of work and permits necessary change. It is the framework within
which the organization grows. It enables the organization to enter into new
lines of business, to promote necessary adaptability, to face new challenges,
to increase scope for diversification.
Once the existing system functions independently without any chaos, the
management can utilize its time to build and develop new businesses. If the
existing structure itself encourages confusion, management will have to spend
all of its time on addressing issues pertaining to the existing system only.
Hence an effective organization ensures systematic functioning and paves
way for the management for developing new ventures
3. Ensures Optimum use of resources: A good organizational set-up permits adaptation of new technology. It
helps to avoid duplication of work, overlapping effort and other types of waste.
It facilitates the best possible utilization of human and physical resources.
Effective check can be exercised on work and workers.
4. Stimulates Creativity: Sound organization encourages creative thinking and initiative on the
part of employees. Delegation of authority provides sufficient freedom to lower
level executives for judgment. Clear line of authority and responsibility simplify
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communications. Individual objective can be integrated with the organization
goals. New and improved way of working can be developed.
5. Helps in Co-Ordination: Organization is an important means of integrating individual’s effort. It
helps in putting balanced emphasis on different departments and divisions of
the enterprises. It helps in cooperative and harmony of action.
Types of Organization Structure: Error!
Organization structure marks lines of authority, responsibility and
coordination. The structure of one industrial organization differs from that of
another organization and it (i.e., structure of an organization) depends upon:
i) Size of the organization.
ii) Nature of the product being manufactured.
iii) Complexity of problems being faced.
A few commonly known forms of organization structures or types of
organization are:
a) Line, Military or Scalar Organization.
The line organization represents the structure in a direct vertical
relationship through which authority flows. It is the simplest form of
organization structure and is also known as scalar or military organization.
Under this, line of authority flows vertically downward from top to bottom
through out the organization. The quantum of authority is highest at the top
Types of Organization structure
Line Organization
Line and Staff Organization
Functional Organization
Committee Organization
Matrix Organization
Project Organization
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and reduces at each successive levels down hierarchy. Each person in the
organization is in the direct chain of command.
Advantages of line organization:
It is very easy to establish line organization and it can be easily
understood by the employees. It facilitates unity of command and thus
confirms to the scalar principles of organization. There is clear cut
identification of authority and responsibility relationship. Employees are fully
aware of the boundaries of their jobs.
It ensures excellent discipline in the enterprise because every
individual knows to whom he is responsible. It facilitates prompt decision
making there is definite authority at every level. An executive do not shift his
decision making to others, nor can the blame be shifted.
Disadvantages of line organization:
With growth the line organization makes the superiors too over loaded
with work. If the executives try to keep up with every activity, they are bogged
down in myriad details and are unable to pay proper attention to each one. It
will hamper their effectiveness.
There is concentration of authority at the top. If the top executives are
not capable, the enterprise will not be successful. Line organization is not
suitable to big organization it does not specialist in the structure. Many jobs
require specialize knowledge to perform them. There is practically no
communication from bottom upwards because of concentration of authority at
the higher levels. If superiors take wrong decisions it would be carried out
without anybody having the courage to point out its deficiencies.
b) Line and Staff Organization: Line executives are concerned with the accomplishment of primary
objectives in an organization. Line executives are generalists and do not
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posses specialized knowledge which is a must to tackle complicated
problems. With a view to give specialist aid to line executives, staff positions
are created throughout the structure. Staff elements bring expert and
specialized knowledge to provide advice to line managers so that they may
discharge their responsibilities successfully.
In line and staff organization, the line authority remains the same as it
does in the line organization. Authority flows from top to bottom. The main
difference is that specialists are attached to line managers. The staff officers
do not have any power of command in the organization as they are employed
to provide expert advice to the line officers. Staff executives investigate and
supplies information and recommendations to line managers who make
decisions.
Advantages:
The line and staff organization has the following merits:
• Specialized Knowledge
• Reduction of burden
• Proper weightage
• Better decisions
• Flexibility
• Unity of command
Demerits:
• There is generally conflict between the line and staff executives. There
is a danger that staff men may encroach on the line authority. Line
managers neither feel that staff specialists do not always give right type
of advice, and staff officials generally complain that there advice is nor
properly attended to.
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• The allocation of duties between the line and staff executive is
generally is not clear. This may hamper coordination in the
organization.
• Since staff men are not accountable for the results, they may not be
performing their duties well. There is a wide difference between the
orientation of the line and staff men. Line executives deal with a
problem in a more practical manner. But staff officials who are
specialist in the fields tend to be more theoretical.
c) Functional Organization.
F.W Taylor suggested functional organization because it was difficult to find
all round persons qualified to work at the middle management levels in the
line organization.
Functional organization is also a line type of organization with the
difference that instead of one foreman (which being master or specialist of
FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL
LINE Authority FUNCTIONAL Authority
MD
PRODUCTION DIRECTOR
FIN DIR
MARKETING DIR
PERSONNEL DIR
General Manager
Division X
General Manager
Division y
General Manager
Division z
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everything and therefore hard to find) there are 8 functional foremen : 4 of
them located on the shop floor and remaining 4 in the office, but everyone
having direct and equal authority of the workers.
Each functional foreman who is a specialist in an activity is in charge of
one function, Example:
1) Route clerk was in charge of issuing work orders and routing the jobs.
2) Instruction clerk would issue specifications and instructions related to jobs
to the workers.
3) Time and cost clerk keeps records pertaining to the time (the workers have
spent in doing work) and cost (that is workers wages.)
4) Disciplinarian keeps personal records of the workers and handles cases of
insubordination.
5) Gang boss has the charge of the preparation of all work upto the time that
the work piece is set in the machine.
6) Speed boss insures that proper cutting tools are being used, cut is started
at the right place in the work piece, and the optimum speeds, feeds and
depths of cut are being employed.
7) Repair boss is responsible for adequate repairs and maintenance of
equipment and machinery.
8) Inspector or inspection boss looks after and is responsible for the quality of
the product.
Advantages of functional organization:
1. Since a foreman is responsible for one function, he can perform his
duties in a better manner.
2. Functional organization makes use of specialists to give expert advice
to workers.
3. It relieves line executives of routine specialized decisions.
4. Expert guidance reduces the number of accidents and wastage of
materials, man and machine hours.
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5. It relieves pressure of need to search a large number of all round
executives.
6. Quality of work is improved.
Disadvantages: 1. Coordination of the efforts of various functional foremen is difficult.
2. It is difficult to maintain discipline as each worker is responsible to 8
foremen.
3. It is very difficult to fix up the responsibility to any one foreman in case
something goes wrong.
4. Workers always remain confused about the authority and activity of
each foreman.
5. It makes industrial relationships more complex.
6. Workers are not given opportunity to make use of their ingenuity,
initiative and drive.
7. All round executives cannot be developed.
Applications for these reasons (disadvantages) the functional organizations as
such is obsolete; however in the modified form, employing the principles
explained above, it is frequently used in some most modern and advanced
concerns.
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d) Project Organization.
Project organization is oriented towards the completion of a big project
or a small number of big projects. Project management that is molding the
organization around a specific project has been evolved to deal with situations
where production and marketing strategies do not fit into a purely functional
organization. The project organization is usually structured to facilitate
planning and designing of the project, completion of the assigned task and
phasing out of the project. The project led by the Project Manager consists of
specialists from different departments. The project manager has wide powers
for the execution of the project and he may even engage people from outside.
The need of project organization is felt when an organization is to
execute a project or a program which is subject to high standards of
performance as in case of aircraft companies. If the project organization is
created for one-time project, it will have temporary set up and will be
PROJECT ORGANIZATION
MD
Manager Project
Division I
Manager Project
Division II
Engineering R & D Manager.
Accounting officer
Personnel officer
C L E R K S
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disbanded when the project is completed. However, in practice it takes a
permanent form when the duration of the project is quite long and it may
become a regular autonomous project division, functionally organized.
Advantages of Project Organization:
1. Project Organization facilitates providing the concentrated attention that a
complex project demands. It can be tailored to meet the requirements of a
particular project.
2. Project Management requires specialists in various fields. Specialists get
higher satisfaction while working on complex projects. Thus Project
Organization allows maximum use of specialized knowledge available with the
organization.
3. Project Organization provides flexibility in handing specialized projects. It
adopts a logical approach to any challenge in the form of a project.
Limitations of Project Organization:
1. Uncertainty in project structure arises because the project manager has to
deal with specialists from a number of diverse files. The specialists often
have different types of approaches and interests.
2. The job of a project manager becomes very difficult because of lack of
clearly defined responsibility, lack of clear communication pattern, and lack
of standards of performance for various professionals.
3. Decision making is made very difficult because there are unusual
pressures from specialists from diverse fields. The project manger has to
devise a decision process where information could be monitored quickly
and decisions taken quickly.
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4. Motivation of specialists may pose another problem for the project
manager. Moreover, there may be conflicts among the specialists quite
often because of their different orientations.
e) Committee Organization.
According to Louis A. Allen, “A Committee is a body of persons
appointed or elected to meet on an organized basis for the consideration of
matters brought before it.” A Committee is a group of persons performing a
group task with the object of solving certain problems. The area of operation
of a committee is determined by its constitution. A committee may formulate
plans, make policy decisions or review the performance or certain units.
e) Matrix Organization:
Matrix Organization is used when an organization has to handle a
variety of projects, ranging from small to large. When a pure project structure
is superimposed on a functional structure the result is a matrix structure.
MATRIX ORGANIZATION
DIVISION
Production Engineering Finance Personnel
Production Engineering Finance Personnel Group Group Group Group
Project Manager
I
Production Engineering Finance Personnel Group Group Group Group
Project Manager
II
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In other words the matrix organization is a project organization plus a
functional organization. The project structure provides a horizontal lateral
dimension to the traditional vertical orientation of the functional organization
structure. To conclude, matrix organization is created by merging (two
complementary structures, namely) pure project organization and functional
organization.
The project teams are composed of persons drawn from the functions
departments for the duration of the projects. When their assignment is over,
they return to their respective departments. During continuation of the project
such persons have two bosses- one from the functional department and
second of the concerned project.
Advantages of matrix organization:
1) It effectively focuses resources on a single project permitting better
planning and control to meet dead line.
2) It is more flexible than a traditional functional hierarchy.
3) Services of specialists are better utilized as more emphasis is placed
on the authority of knowledge than rank of the individuals in the
organizational hierarchy.
Disadvantages of matrix organization:
1) Matrix organization violates the principle of unity of command as a
person works under two bosses. E.g. project manager and functional boss.
This may give riser to conflicts in the organization.
2) Organization relationships are more complex and they create problems
of coordination.
3) Since persons are drawn temporarily from different departments,
project manager does not have line authority over them.
4) Project group is heterogeneous and due to which morale of the
personnel may be low.
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AUTHORITY:
Authority is defined as, “The Institutionalized right of a superior to command
and compel his sub ordinates to perform certain act”.
Power is “the ability of a person to influence another person to perform an
act”.
Responsibility is the, ”Obligation of a subordinate to obey the command when
a superior assigns some work to a sub ordinate”.
Uses:
According to Herbert A. Simon, three functions of authority deserve
special notice:
1. It enforces obedience to norms: The subordinate who accepts the authority
of the superior is motivated to a very great extent by the fear of sanctions. He
knows that if he disobeys, an elaborate set of sanctions maybe invoked
against him. Hence it ensures discipline in a workplace.
2. It secures expertise in the making of decisions: An extremely important
function of authority is to enable the enforcement and execution of expert
advice given by specialists in the organization. A fundamental device for
securing this is to locate the specialist in a strategic position in the formal
hierarchy of authority, that is, in a position where his decisions will be
accepted as decisional premises by other organizational members.
3. It permits centralization of decision-making by other organization of
activity: By the exercise of authority, it is possible to centralize the function of
decision-making and to force all members to take mutually consistent
decisions.
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Types:
There are two types of authority in most organizations: Line and Staff.
In line authority, a superior exercises direct command over a
subordinate. Line authority is represented by the standard chain of command
that starts with the board of directors and ends down through the various
levels in the hierarchy to the point where the basic activities of the
organization are carried out.
The nature of staff authority is merely advisory literally the word staff
means the stick carried in the hand for support. A staff officer has the
`authority of ideas' only. The information which a staff officer furnishes or the
plans he recommends flow upward to his line superior who decides whether
they are to be transformed into action.
Examples:
A market researcher who gathers and analyses data on marketing
problems and advises the marketing manager on demand for new products; a
personnel officer who advises the personnel manager on all dealings with
unions, are examples of staff authority.
Levels of Authority of a Staff Man:
At the lowest level, consultation of a staff' man for his ideas by the line
head is purely voluntary. The line head may or may not consult him. In fact, at
this level his persuasive ability, status, backing or technical expertises
determine the extent of his influence over hers. At the next higher level,
consultation is made compulsory for each department.
Under this arrangement, the staff man must be consulted before action
is taken. Line people cannot ignore him. The next higher level of staff man's
authority is one where he is granted concurring authority, so that no action
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can be taken by the line people until he agrees to it. Thus, no finished parts
may move to the next stage of production until okayed by the quality control
inspector, no contract may be signed with a third party until approved by the
legal pert, no new employee may be hired by a department head until
approved by the personnel manager, and so on. Under this arrangement, if
the staff and the line people do not agree, an appeal is made the next senior
man in the hierarchy.
The highest level of the staff man’s authority is one where he is granted
functional authority. This means that he can give direct orders to people in
other departments outside his formal chain of command instead of making
recommendations to them.
Examples
In many companies, the personnel manager provides an example of
functional authority. He may have complete control over specific areas such
as recruitment and training in all departments of an organization, besides his
own.
Responsibility:
Authority is the right of a superior to issue commands; responsibility is
the obligation of a subordinate to obey those commands. Thus, when a
superior assigns some work to a subordinate, it becomes his responsibility to
perform it.
Responsibility has two dimensions. One dimension may be expressed
as responsibility for, the other as responsibility for is the obligation of a person
to perform certain duties written in his job description or otherwise accepted
by him. Responsibility is his accountability to his superiors. It is inevitably
associated with check-up, supervision control and punishment.
Responsibility cannot be delegated or transferred. The superior can
delegate to a subordinate the authority to perform and accomplish a specific
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job. But he cannot delegate responsibility in the sense that once duties are
assigned, he is relieved of the responsibility for them. This delegation of tasks
does not absolve the superior from his own responsibility for effective
performance of his subordinate.
Authority Should Equal Responsibility:
This means that the subordinate must have been delegated enough
authority to undertake the duties which have been assigned to him for which
he has accepted responsibility. A subordinate manager cannot be expected to
accept responsibility for activities for which he has no authority.
The advocates of this principle say that authority and responsibility
should be exactly equal. Inequality between the two produces undesirable
results. If authority exceeds responsibility, a misuse of authority can easily
result. On the other hand, if responsibility exceeds authority, the subordinate
may find himself in a very frustrating situation. Not only that, the subordinate
will find it difficult to perform the given responsibility without adequate
authority.
But as Haimann pointed out, that there are some situations where the
strict application of this principle would not be advisable. For example, in
emergency situations, executives often exceed the limits of their authority
without any criticism.
Delegation Of Authority:
Delegation refers to assignment of work to others. Delegation of
Authority refers to decision making to carry out assigned task. According to
Terry, “It is something like imparting knowledge”. According to Louis. A. Allen: “If the manager requests his subordinates to perform the work, he must
entrust him with part of the right and power which he otherwise would have to
exercise himself to get that work done".
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Advantages of Delegation:
1. Basis of effective functioning: Delegation lays the basis for effective functioning of an organization. It
creates the relationship with others and achieves various objectives of the
organization. All the functions in an organization cannot be done by a single
person or by a few persons. Only when the tasks are delegated down the line
in the hierarchy, an organization itself can function smoothly. Otherwise, the
workload will be skewed to one side and a few resources (human resources)
will remain idle without being utilized adequately.
2. Saves time: Delegation of authority enables the superior to allot more time to important
matters like planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, controlling
and decision-making.
3. Reduction of work: Delegation relieves the superior from attending to the routine matters.
Normally the routine matters are allocated to subordinates. It helps the
superior to carry out more responsible work alone.
4. Opportunity for Development: Delegation of authority gives a very good opportunity to the subordinate to
grow. It helps in identifying the best person among the various subordinates
for development. It ensures experiential learning for all the sub-ordinates.
While doing the delegated task, they learn it to do in a better manner. This
system helps in creating future managers from the sub-ordinates side.
5. Benefit of specialized service: Delegation helps the superior to get the benefit of specialized knowledge
of various persons at lower levels. For example, production is delegated to
the production manager, sales to the sales manager, legal matters to the
lawyer and the like.
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6. Delegation of authority enables effective managerial supervision. The subordinates are told what is to be done through delegation. That
becomes their performance standards. Hence the manager can supervise and
monitor the delegated tasks. If something has to be modified, the subordinate
is immediately given the feedback. Hence it ensures close supervision, and
feedback to control the whole system, without wasting managerial time.
7. Efficient running of branches: If the business has any branch, the branch affairs or activities are looked
after by a separate person. He is supposed to be in charge of that branch.
When he can get adequate authority with responsibility he could work for the
smooth and effective functioning of the particular branch.
8. Interest and initiative: Whenever the delegation of authority takes place, the subordinate may do
the work with interest. This is because the subordinate gets the freedom and
autonomy to do a particular task and completion of that will give a great sense
of satisfaction for the subordinate. In certain cases the subordinate by himself
takes initiative to do the work properly.
9. Satisfaction to subordinates: Delegation of authority will satisfy the self-actualization need of the
individuals. It will also act as an intrinsic reward for the subordinate
10. Expansion and diversification of business activity: The subordinates are fully trained in decision-making in various fields of
the business by using the delegation of authority. This type of talents of
subordinates can be used by the top management in the expansion and
diversification of the business activities.
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Chapter –2 Organizational Behavior
Meaning of Organizational Behavior:
It is the study of Human Behavior at Organization. It studies Human
behavior at Individual Levels (and also at group level). Organizational
Behavior is the study and application of knowledge about human behavior
related to other elements of the organization such as structure, technology
and social system. Organizational Behavior is referred widely as O.B. -
(Organizational Behavior), B.S. - (Behavioral Science), O. D. (Organizational
Dynamics).
Definitions:
Fred Luthans has defined Organizational Behavior as, "the study of
human beings and systems as individuals and groups in organization with
application of Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology and Related Sciences".
Stephen. P. Robbins has defined Organizational Behavior as, "the
field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and
structures have on behavior within organizations for the purpose of applying
such knowledge towards improving organization effectiveness".
Aldag has defined Organizational Behavior as, “A branch of social
science that seeks to build theories that can be applied to predicting,
understanding and controlling behavior in work organization."
Overview
Evolution: Early days: No proper recognition given for people working in the
organization. Even though large projects like Egyptian Pyramids, Indian
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Temples involving huge Human resource were organized, human beings were
treated as mere machines and considered only about the output. The earliest
reference about the term "Staff" is found in Bible in the story of mosses
(meaning support). Lots of management principles, psychological, sociological
concepts were found in Mahabharata and Arthasastra. First organized attempt
to deal with people was carried out during Industrial Revolution in the 18th
Century. But people were treated as mere factor of production and were
treated as machines.
Exception was made by Robert Owen, a great industrialist of Scotland.
He laid down important principles about handling people in organization and
relating to Proper work load, Proper wages, Fatigue pauses, Welfare facilities
etc. He is considered as "Worlds first enlightened manager" and "Father of
Personnel management, Organization Behaviour" sciences. Taylor during
19th Century came out with his scientific management principles and did Time
study and Motion study. He concentrated on making people work in the most
efficient manner without regard to thier human aspects, this caused temporary
set back to the human relation movement.
Within few years Fayol's Principles of Comprehensive Management
became popular in Western World. He laid proper emphasis on human
aspects also. During First World War (1914 - 1918) same attempts were made
to understand the psychology of military personnel. At that time Sigmund Freud - "Father of Psychology" published his theories of Man. During 1930's
great depression of many organizations were closed and the sufferings of
labour got highligtened, and led to the formation of Trade Unions.
Next important milestone took place during 1924 - 32, Hawthorne
studies by Elton Mayo and his group. His experiments were the first
organized attempts to study behavior in organization. Soon after this
Personnel department's started to develop in organizations. In India Tata's
are the pioneers in devoting a separate department for personnel functions.
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During Second World War (1939 - 45) study of Psychology of people
with respect to war efforts were carried out. Many important concepts were
discovered and developed relating to understanding of people like Group
dynamics, Leadership, Communication, Motivation, People working in
hierarchy etc. During 1957 Douglas Mc. Gregor Published "The Human side
of enterprise" and came out with his theory of X and Y which became very
popular and was considered as an important milestone in behavioral
applications.
During 1954 Maslow came out with his theory of Motivation by name
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. The subject is growing still, absorbing many
concepts from pure Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, Medicine. Many
new discoveries were being made and 100's of text books are added every
years and lots of research scholars are working in this!
Hawthorne Experiments:
ELTON MAYO (1924 - 32) is called "the father of human relations
movement". These experiments carried out in Hawthorne plant in Western
electric company - Chicago, by group of researchers from Harvard School of
Business Management, U.S.A., headed by E. Mayo. Studies were carried out
during 1924 - 32. Scientific Management Principles were the only principles in
management. According to Scientific Management Principles if you demand
more performance you will get it by tightening timing and movements.
Production can be increased by providing proper tools and by such other aids.
This was an irrevocable law of managing organizations.
Aim of the Study:
Elton Mayo and his team started doing these experiments on the
premises of scientific management principles.
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1. Their aim was to study the impact of the Physical factors, (for
example – Rest, Lighting, Incentives, Refreshment, Working hours etc) on
production. But they ended up with a totally different set of revelations.
2. They found that there is relationship between human behavior,
social factors and production. And all are equally important in organization. A
connection between physical factors and production exists always. The
results are relevant even today. These studies are considered to be the most
important event in the history of Organization Behaviour.
1. Illumination Experiments:
Here the researchers started with a hypothesis that good lighting
condition will increase productivity (Relationship between lighting and
productivity was studied). For this purpose 2 sets of workers were chosen 1st
set to work in the control room with constant and favorable illumination and
2nd set to work in an experimental area outside the control room were the
lighting conditions were continuously changing. The rest of department
worked under standard lighting.
The results were very different in both the areas the productivity was
higher than usual. The products in the experiment room suffered only when
the lighting conditions became so dim that a normal eye cannot see. But
under all other lighting conditions, the production went on increasing. The
production in the standard light room also was increasing. The researchers
could not establish any relationship between lighting and productivity. (The
recognition and the attention given to the groups made them produce more
and more).
2. Relay Assembly Test Room Experiments:
The researchers created a Test room (or) Experimental room for
studying the assembly of telephone relays the work involved assembling
many parts and making a rely. Here the output depended on speed and
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continuity a test room was set up 2 girls was chosen for this experiments.
They were asked to choose 4 more of employees of this choice.
The team of 6 started working in the experimental room's. The
supervisor of this team happened to be very efficient and pleasant person.
(the researchers started varying the physical factors).
The following changes were made-
1. The girls were told that their incentive will be calculated on the basis of the
performance of these 6 girls (earlier it was a large group of 100).
2. Two 5 minutes rest intervals were given - 1 in the morning and 1 in the
afternoon. This was increased to 10 minutes each. (The production
increased).
3. The rest intervals were reduced to 5 minutes. But 4 rest intervals were
given the girls complained of disturbance in their speed and continuity. (slight
fall in production).
4. Rest periods of 10 minutes are given as before.
5. Tea and Snacks were introduced.
6. Working hours were changed; pay was reduced with the condition that the
girls should maintain production.1 day in a week was reduced with the same
condition.
During all these the production went on increasing. Then the
researchers went back to the earlier stage (cancelled all changes) and still
production was high.
The researchers could not establish correlation between working
hours, incentives etc. (The production increased because of the freedom,
[26]
recognition good supervisor, good incentive scheme and good team spirit.
Team was compatible to each other. Girls were consulted and were proud
that they were able to decide their own destiny.
3. Mass Interviewing program:
During these experiments the team conducted 1000s of interviews with
the workmen and officers. They formed the following important conclusions
about behavior at work place. A complaint is not an object statement. A
complaint a best voices the feelings of the organization.
The complaints are not objectively made, it is highly subjective. In
other words the workers make a complaint because his work is distributed by
it. The complaint need not be factually connected. Each worker views all
things in the company with respect to his position. Sentiments, emotions are
as important as facts and figure. Objects and events have social meanings.
Group and Social pressures have considerable influences on individuals.
(Interpersonal relations play a visual role). We assign values and meaning to
a person's words and action based on his status in the org.
4. Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiment:
Here 14 workers were chosen. An observation room was set up to
observe 14 workers which included some weak workman too. The job
involved attaching wires to switches. workers were told that they will be paid
on piece rate basis - every man will earn according to his own production and
the whole group will earn some bonus if the group achieves certain standard
of efficiency.
A minimum time rate was assured and further incentives based on the
group output. The researchers expected that the group will compensate for
the weak workers. The researchers thought that each man will take care of
himself and also help the weaker people to earn group bonus. But the
production went down. The workers produced only at minimum level.
[27]
Reason for it:
1. The factory is not objecting to minimum performance.
2. The group reduced its output to the level of the weak workmen in order to
protect them. (The weaker workman may loose their job).
3. The workmen knew that this was the last experiment (1931 - 32). They
feared that the management will ask them to maintain high level even after
the researchers complete their work, so they produced less.
5. Psychological Testing and Counseling:
During this period the researchers found that it is possible to measure
skills attitude etc accurately if proper tests are developed. Similarly they
discovered the importance of face to face talk in improving performance,
interpersonal relationship etc. (Interviewing or counseling).
Findings of Hawthorne Studies:
1. Importance of people:
The Hawthorne experience started studying physical factors and ended
up in recognizing human factors.
2. Importance of Social factors:
An organization is not only structure and procedure. It also comprises
of people as individual, and as groups. The social factors are very relevant
for each member and for the organization. Thus not only physical factors,
social factors are also important.
3. Informal Groups:
The informal groups can effectively interfere with the formal
organization. (Bank wiring room experiment). Informal groups can support the
[28]
organization (Relay assembly exp) work is influenced by formal and informal
aspects of management.
4. Recognition:
People do work well when they are specially notified. Recognition and
attention act as strong motivators. (Illumination test).
5. Team spirit and morale:
Morale and reasonable degree of freedom can influence work
substantially (Relay assembles).
6. Benefits of Participative management (for relay assembly test)
7. Importance of supervisors (Relay assembly test).
8. Necessity for grievance procedure (mass interview counseling programs).
9. Groups can create conflicting interest. Understanding and working with
informal group is important (Bank wiring exp).
10. Importance of Communication. (Relay assembly)
11. Group pressure and group dynamics exists is organization. (Relay
assembly and Bank wiring).
12. Group may act differently than the individuals.
13. Social factors, cliques (Parties / group of people with difference) and
status systems are important in organization.
Are the findings of Hawthorne experiments relevant today?
In modern world a real importance is being given to technology, the
importance of human aspects are being forgotten very often, therefore the
Hawthorne experiments are more relevant today and the important findings of
these experiments will continue to be relevant even tomorrow.
1. In today’s industrial undertakings, more and more attention is being paid to
technology, finance and marketing matters. The personnel matters are not
attended to in equal degree.
[29]
2. In the current environment it is just not possible to extract work through
pressure and threat. Greater understanding of human behavior is required.
3. Today’s organizations are more complex more impersonal than Hawthorne
days.
4. Today’s workmen are better protected by law and better educated.
In view of the above factors it has become more necessary to
understand and interpret human behavior than the olden days. Therefore the
finding of Hawthorne experiments emphasizing the importance of behavioral
factors is all the more relevant today.
Findings:
Importance of the following -
1. Role of Leadership,
2. Communication,
3. Proper pay and Incentive schemes,
4. Informal group and Social pressure,
5. Providing right atmosphere for work,
6. Participative Management,
7. Supervision,
8. Recognition and Freedom,
9. Team spirit,
10. Importance of Psychological testing,
11. Counseling.
Nature and Scope:
1. It studies Individuals.
2. It studies Groups.
3. It studies Organization itself.
[30]
4. It studies Different Levels of people in the Organization.
5. It studies real life situation.
6. It studies Dynamic Situation.
7. It is both Art and Science.
8. It is Interdisciplinary study.
9. It aids rational study. Not a Black magic, Not a Rule of Thumb, Not an
Unscientific rule.
10. Studies both formal and informal relationships in practical situations.
11. Oriented towards objectives - both Individual and Organizational objective.
12. It is developmental in Nature.
Importance of Organizational Behavior
1. To extract performance from people now a days understanding of people is
required.
2. Only with understanding of people we can get high levels of performance.
3. If we can't understand people an alternative is to get rid of them. But that is
not a wise alternative because the problem will exist even after sending them
out. The new employees who join also may bring such similar problems. It is
also not possible to terminate people just like that because getting
replacement is costly and expensive. Therefore understanding people
through O.B concepts is essential.
4. Psychological foundation of human behavior is
a. All behavior is caused (their is External and Internal cause.)
b. Individuals behavior differs,
c. No two Individuals are totally alike,
d. Behavior is Complex and Dynamic,
e. Wholeman concept - man comes to work not only with two hands but also
with his whole personality, past experience, family background, ambition,
frustration etc.,
[31]
5. Dignity - While handling people human dignity is a very important factor.
6. Organizations have 2 conflicting interest - Management's interest for more
productivity and more profit. People (Employees) interest for more benefits.
Only a person with proper understanding of people can reconciles this
conflict.
7. Government interference and Laws.
8. It is an art to work with people.
Contributing Disciplines to Organizational Behavior:
Organizational Behavior is not a discipline in itself but it uses
knowledge developed in the relevant disciplines. It draws concepts and
principles from behavioral sciences and other core disciplines. The
contributions of these core disciplines to Organizational Behavior are as
follows:
1. Psychology:
It is a subject of study of the mind and its functions. Organizational
Behavior is a specialized branch of Psychology. Many topics from pure
Psychology have been taken to Organizational Behavior like Motivation ,
Work stress, Personality, Job satisfaction, Attitude, Performance Appraisal,
Communication, Leadership, Training, Employee selection, etc.,
2. Sociology:
It is the study of large group, behavior of large group and large
communities and societies. It contributes areas like Group Dynamics, Morale,
Roles, Power, Conflict, Inter group behavior, Organizational Change,
Organizational culture, etc.,
[32]
3. Anthropology:
It is the study of evolution of mankind (history of man) over a very long
period. Its contribution areas like Leadership, Sentiments, Effect of value
system, Interaction, etc.,
4. Political Science:
It is governance by the state through political parties. It has contributed
in areas like Power, Emotional aspects of organization, Authority, Conflict,
group dynamics, politicking behaviour, Clique, Intra organizational politics,
etc.,
5. Economics:
It is the study of application of resources to satisfy Human wants.
Economics Laws on production, consumption... are very relevant for
Organization. It has contributed in areas like Labour Economics, Interaction
of people with finance, etc.,
6. Medical Sciences:
It contributes to areas like Health, Welfare, Safety, Stress etc.,
Reason for failure of the Theories:
1. Lack of proper understanding of Theory:
Lack of Proper understanding of the theory means most of the
individuals are not understanding the theory fully and mainly the context in
which the theory was developed. Individuals apply other than the theory,
Applying the theory in an inappropriate situations.
[33]
2. Lack of Specific Applicability of a Theory:
Theories are developed using scientific methods on relatively large
number of observations. Theories developed tend to apply to individuals
collectively but not to any one specific person. Manager may try to apply the
theory to specific situation that does not fit the general requirements of the
theory. e.g.: Money - Motivator.
3. Lack of Universal Applicability:
Characteristics of Human beings differ from place to place. Theory
developed in one situation may not be applicable in another situation, since
the variables involved in it differs. Indian managers should be clear with this
concept (applicability) when they apply the theories developed abroad for
managing Indian Organization.
4. No Consideration given for Systems effect:
Managers trying new theories to solve the original existing problem
occasionally end up with new problems created as a result of the action. It is
because theoretical models tend to neglect the systems effect of introducing
change into an organization.
5. Wrong Theory:
Wrong theory may be created. Reason for it may be change of
environmental conditions under which the theory was created, Incorrect
conclusions have been drawn from right data, correct conclusions have been
drawn from poor data.
Individual Differences:
The nature of human behavior is complex. In understanding the
behavior of people, they should be studied in their totality by taking a
[34]
'wholeman concept’. This concept is essentially a combination of all factors
affecting human behavior.
Nature of Individual Differences:
People have much in common but each person in the world is also
individually different. Each one is unique probably in millions of ways, just as
each of their finger print is different. Each person is unique and individual
differences tend to make people even more different.
Individuals differ in work in the following respects:
1. People differ in the importance that they attach to intrinsic rewards. In
other words, different people attach different degrees of importance to
rewards and kinds of job they would like to perform.
2. People differ in the type of compensation plan they want to desire. Some
may prefer time rate system. Some others may prefer piece-rate system.
3. People differ in the style of supervision. Some people may prefer to work
under autocratic style while others work more effectively under democratic
style.
4. People differ in their preferred schedules of work hour.
5. People differ in their tolerance for stress and ambiguity.
Causes of Individual Differences: Differences in the behavior of individuals is a consequence of a
combination of different factors. They are as follows:
(I). Individual variables:
[35]
The behavior of an individual is affected by physiological, psychological
and socio-cultural variables. They are as follows:
1. Physiological Variables:
Human beings possess certain biological characteristics which are vital
to his behavior. Physiological characteristics such as heredity, sensory
organs, physical build-up, and nervous system determine the outcome of the
behavior of an individual.
2. Psychological Variables:
Psychological factors are more important in shaping the behavior of a
person. Psychological processes such as intelligence, learning, perception,
personality, motivation are integral part of human behavior.
3. Socio -Cultural Variables:
An individual learns many behaviors from his society and cultural
background. So, the socio-cultural variables affect the behavior of a person.
All these kinds of variables together make an individual unique and different
from others.
(II). Situational Variables:
The situational variables affect the behavior of human beings. They may
be organizational variable or physical and job variables. They are as follows:
1. Organizational Variables:
Organizational factors such as nature and form of organization, polices
prevailing, leadership existing, group dynamics, culture prevailing, type of
supervision, training, incentives and social environment at work place
influence the behavior of individuals.
[36]
2. Physical and Job Variables:
Physical and job variables like methods of work, design of work
condition of work, equipment and physical environment of work, affect the
behavior of individuals.
Management can achieve the desired behavior from individuals by treating
them differently. Individual differences have great importance in the
organizations. Different individuals with different qualities and capacities are
required to perform various functions. The understanding of individual
differences helps to assign duties and motivate people.
[37]
Chapter - 3 Group
Definition: Shaw has defined Group as, “Two or more persons who are interacting
with one another in such a way that each person influences the group and is
influenced by the group".
Stephen P. Robbins has defined Group, "Two or more persons
independent and interacting who came together to achieve a particular
objective".
Essential features of a group: (1) Two or more persons
(2) Common objective
(3) Interaction with one another.
Informal and Formal Groups: Formal group is the official relationship. Informal group refers to the
friendly relationships between people in an origin.
Difference between formal and informal groups:
S.no Formal Informal
1 Created by organization Created by itself
2 Purpose is for achieving the
legitimate objectives of
organization
Purpose keeps changing and
created by their own and
purpose is fixed for social and
psychological satisfaction
3 Authoritative voluntary and friendly
4 Leader is appointed and are
managers
Leader is elected
[38]
5 The number of members,
objectives, position of leader
relatively stable
All flexible
6 Formal groups may be quite large
in size because they give
representation to various interest
groups in the organization.
Tend to be small in size so as
to maintain group cohesive
7 Formal groups are stable and
continuous for a long period
Informal groups are unstable
and may disappear very quickly
8 Formal groups derive authority
through the formal source (i.e.)
through the process of delegation
and re-delegation.
Authority is commanded and
voluntary
9 Communication is fixed Communication keeps on
changing
10 Formal channel of communication
structure and lines of
communication are fixed.
Channel of communication are
Flexible
11 Leader is appointed It is voluntary and keeps on
changing
12 Expression is limited Freedom of expression
13 Role of members are fixed in
formal groups
Member’s roles are over
lapping.
14 Behavior of members is governed
by formal rules of the organization
The behavior is governed by
norms beliefs and values of the
group.
15 Formal groups can be abolished at
any time since these are created
by organization process. They can
be abolished over specific purpose
or period is over
They are difficult to abolish by
the organization process
[39]
How to handle informal groups?
• Recognize their existence - understand that they will be there in any
case.
• Try to work along with informal groups to the extent possible – do not
threaten them.
• Before making any major changes the management must study the
possible reaction of informal group.
• Allow participation of the informal group
• Provide proper environment for the informal groups to have healthy
competition
• Understand the inner connections of informal relationships.
• Understanding the dynamics of informal groups
• Identifying the informal group leaders and their influence on group
members
• Understanding the power dynamics of informal groups
Merits: 1) Informal groups supplement and support formal functions
2) They are the reservoirs of motivation and morale, friendliness, team spirit,
etc.
3) They are the customers of the standards and norms of group behavior.
4) The informal groups are great communications. They can spread
messages very fast (but they produce rumor which is dangerous).
Types Of Groups:
1) Task groups (people on a common job)
2) Command groups (boss - subordinate relationship)
3) Friendship groups (bound by common characteristics, like age)
4) Interest groups (have same interests, e.g., unions)
[40]
5) Reference groups (wanting to be a foot ball players - all people and events
connected to football become my frame of reference, refer with his activity)
6) Membership groups (age limit)
7. Primary group: (Face to face)
8. Secondary group. (opposite to first one) (Hi Bye)
9. Professional groups (Doctor's association lawyers).
10. In groups (major position in society)
11. Outgroups (low level, illegal)
12. Formal and Informal groups
13) Religious, social, cultural groups.
Why people join groups?
People join groups:
*for strength
* for bargaining power
* for affiliation
* for practical reasons
* for security
* for identity
* for goal achievement
* for self esteem
Elements of the group:
(1) The leader
(2) Members
(3) The norms
(4) The processes and structures
[41]
The Five-Stage Model
The five stage group-development model characterizes group as proceeding
through five distinct stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and
adjourning.
(i) Forming: This stage is characterized by great deal of uncertainty about the
group’s purpose, structure and leadership. This stage is complete when
members have begun to think of themselves as part of the group.
(ii) Storming: This stage is characterized by intra group conflicts. Member's accept
the existence of the group but resists the constraints the group imposes on
individual, further there will be a conflict on who will control the group. When
this stage is complete there will be a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership
within the group.
(iii) Norming: This is one in which close relationships develop and group
demonstrates cohesiveness. This norming stage is complete when the group
structure solidifies and the group has a common set of expectation of what
defines correct member behavior.
(iv) Performing: The structure at this point of fourth stage to fully functional and
accepted group energy has moved from getting to know and understand each
other to performing the task at hand.
(v) Adjusting: The final stage in group development for temporary groups,
characterized by concerned with rapping up activities rather than task
performance.
[42]
Many interpreters of the five-stage models have assumed that a group
becomes more effective as it progresses through the first four stages. While
this assumption may be generally true, what makes a group effective is more
complex than this model acknowledges. Under some conditions, high levels of
conflict are conducive to high group performance. So we might expect to find
situations in which groups in stage II outperform those in stage III or IV.
Similarly, groups do not always proceed clearly from one stage to the next.
Sometimes, in fact, several stages go on simultaneously, as when groups are
storming and performing at the same time. Groups even occasionally regress
to previous stage. Therefore, even the strongest proponents of this model do
not assume that all groups follow its five-stage process precisely or that stage
IV is always the most preferable.
Another problem with the five-stage models, in teams of understanding
work related behavior, is that it ignores organizational context. For instance, a
study of a cockpit crew in an airliner found that, within 10 minutes, three
strangers as signed to fly together for the first time had become a high-
performing group. What allowed for this speedy group development was
strong organizational context surrounding the task of the cockpit crew. This
context provided the rules, task definitions, information, and resources
needed for the group to perform. They didn’t need to develop plans, assign
roles, determine and allocate resources, resolve conflicts and set norms the
way the five-stage model predicts.
Theories of Group Formation:
People who work in a close geographical area or close proximity with
each other tend to form groups. There are various theories of group formation.
Homan's Theory:
Groups are formed because of common activities, interactions and
sentiments between members.
[43]
Balance Theory: by Theodom Newcomb: Peoples are attracted to each on the basis of similar attitudes towards
common goals / objectives. Once a relationship is established, if there are
imbalances, the group tries to restore the balance - otherwise, the group is
dissolved.
Exchange Theory: People join groups because they think what they will get in exchange
for joining the group. This theory covers the principles of all earlier theories.
Group Effectiveness:
1) Qualities of the leader
2) Members
3) The composition of the group age, skills, etc.
4) Motivation and morale levels
5) Nature of the task
6) Possibility of achieving the task
7) Reward /punishment systems
8) Conflicts in the group
9) Processes and structures
10) Role identity, perception, etc.
11) Severity of admission/exit procedures
12) External threats
13) Unique rituals and practices
14) Some organizational factors
a) The image of the origin.
b) Its record of success
c) Its management style
d) Its attitude towards people
e) Policies and practices with regard to people
[44]
f) Financial / reward policies - particularly the link
between performance and reward.
CLIQUE:
It is a small group - closely knit who have frequent interactions and
observe certain common norms and standards. Their aim is to gain power and
control over the boss and other members.
SYNERGY:
The result of a group's performance will be larger than the sum total of
the collective efforts of the individual members of the same group.
SOCIOMETRY:
It is a process of measuring the group's effectiveness by studying the
patterns of interactions between the members of the group. Bale's Interactive
process analysis is an important tool of sociometry. Here imaginary lines are
drawn to plot the interactions between the members of the group. At the end
some patterns of behavior are clearly visible.
GROUP THINK:
The group think is a situation where the members of the group tend to
agree to a uniform view mostly with the leader or with a powerful member of
the group. They do not want to express a differing view point. This is certainly
bad for the group's efficiency.
Avoiding Group Think Tendency:
1) Remove fear complex
2) Promote participative style of management
3) Theory "Y" attitudes
[45]
4) Ask for everybody's opinion starting from the junior most.
5) Assure everyone that he will not be criticized for giving his original
opinion and demonstrate it in reality.
6) Promote the habit of speaking with facts and figures and not just
opinions.
Group Dynamics:
Definition:
Kurt Lewin and Joe Kelly defined group dynamics as, "Internal nature
of groups, how they perform, their structure and processes, how they function,
how they affect the individual members, other groups and the organization as
a whole".
In simple words, group dynamics means whatever the group does.
Snaw defined group dynamics as, "two or more persons interacting
with one another in such a manner that each person influences the group and
in turn is influenced by the group.
Features:
• Two or more persons to form.
• Collective identity. (each member must be aware of each other)
• Interaction.
• Goal interest.
Group Behavior:
External conditions purposed on the group:
• Organizational strategy.
[46]
• Authoritative structures. (Determines the leader for group defines
where the group will be (Determines act, power) in overall structure).
• Resource allocation (wards groups)
• Personal selection process. (Selection of employees, if they are
effective group works well)
• Performance Evaluation and reward system (methods)
• Physical work setting. (Layout of work)
• Formal regulations. (Sets up rules group has to follow).
Group structure:
1. Formal leadership.
2. Role (part played by individual) "Role is a set of expected behavior patterns
attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit."
"Role perception, is an individuals view of how she is supposed to act in a
given situation".
"Role expectations, is how others believe a person should act in a given
situation".
3. Norms. (Standard Behavior)
4. Size of the group.
5. Composition of the group.
Group Decision Making :
Advantages :
1. More complete information and knowledge
2. Increased diversity of views.
3. Increased acceptance of solution.
4. Provides personal satisfaction
5. Increased legitimacy.
[47]
Disadvantages :
1. It will lead to conflicts.
2. It is a time consuming process.
3. Ambiguous responsibility.
4. Pressures to confirm or group think.
5. Domination by few.
Whether groups are more effective than individuals depends on the criteria we
use for defining effectiveness such as the following-
(a) Accuracy: Group decisions tend to be more accurate than individuals.
(b) Speed: Individuals are superior and faster than the groups.
(c) Creativity: groups have more than individual.
(d) Degree of acceptance Groups have more acceptance.
(e) Efficiency: Individuals more efficient than group.
But to conclude, this judgment purely depends on the dynamics of the group
Group Cohesiveness
Groups differ in their cohesiveness, that is, the degree to which
members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group.
For instance, some work groups are cohesive because the members have
spent a great deal of time together, or the group’s small size facilitates high
interaction, or the group has experienced external threats that have brought
members close together. Cohesiveness is important because it has been
found to be related to the group’s productivity.
Studies consistently show that the relationship of cohesiveness and
productivity depends on the performance-related norms established by the
group if performance-related norms are high (e.g., high output, quality work,
and cooperation with individual outside the groups), a cohesive group will be
more productive than will a less cohesive group. But if cohesiveness is high
[48]
and performance norms are low, productivity will be low. If cohesiveness is
low and performance norms are high, productivity increase but less than in
the high cohesiveness-high norms are both low, productivity will tend to fall
into the low to moderate range. These conclusions are summarized in the
following exhibit.
To encourage group cohesiveness:
(1) Make the group smaller.
(2) Encourage agreement with group goals.
(3) Increase the time members spend together,
(4) Increase the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of attaining
membership in the group.
(5) Stimulate competition with other groups.
(6) Give rewards to the group rather than to individual members.
(7) Physically isolate the group.
High Productivity
Moderate Productivity
Moderate to low Productivity
Low Productivity
High Low
Low
High
Performance norms
Relationship between Group Cohesiveness, Performance Norms, and Productivity
Cohesiveness
[50]
Chapter – 4
PERCEPTION Definition
Perception may be defined as the process of selecting, organizing and
interpreting or attaching meaning to events happening in environment.
Perception is the mental process used to select, organize and evaluate
stimuli from the external environment to mold it into a meaningful experience.
Perception is both physical and psychological. It is the processes by
which the inputs are received from the environment (stimuli) are selected,
analyzed, organized and interpreted and recorded (the recordings can be kept
for future use).
Features of Perception
1. Perception is the intellectual process through which a person selects the
data from the environment, organizes, and obtains meaning from it.
2. Perception is distinct from Sensation. Physical process of obtaining data
from environment is known as sensation.
3. Perception is the basic psychological process.
The manner in which a person perceives the environment affects his behavior. Thus people's actions, emotions, thoughts or feelings are trigged by the perception of the surroundings. 4. Perception being an intellectual and psychological process becomes a subjective process.
Different people may perceive the same environmental event differently based on what particular aspect of the situation they choose to absorb, how they organize this information and the manner in which they interpret the situation. Thus, the subjectively perceived ' reality' in any given setting may be different for different people.
PERCEPTION SENSATION It is both physical and Psychological. It is a physical process It is a process by which inputs that It is a process by which data are received from the environment received through sensory organs (stimulus) are selected, analyzed , like hearing , testing, seeing , organized, interpreted and recorded touching etc…. The recordings are kept ready for The recordings are for immediately future use. use. More Broader and Complex than Less Broader and Complex than Sensation. Perception
[51]
3. Perception is the basic psychological process.
The manner in which a person perceives the environment affects his
behavior. Thus people's actions, emotions, thoughts or feelings are trigged by
the perception of the surroundings.
4. Perception being an intellectual and psychological process becomes a
subjective process.
Different people may perceive the same environmental event differently
based on what particular aspect of the situation they choose to absorb, how
they organize this information and the manner in which they interpret the
situation. Thus, the subjectively perceived ' reality' in any given setting may be
different for different people.
Factors that influence Perception
1. Factors in the situation
• Time
• Work setting
• Social setting
2. Factors in the perceiver
• Attitudes
• Motives
• Interests
• Experience
• Expectations
3. Factors in the target
• Novelty
• Motion
• Sounds
• Size
[52]
• Background
• Proximity
PERCEPTION PROCESS
PERCEPTION PROCESS
1. Stimuli (perceptional input)
Everything which contributes to the occurrence of events can be
termed as stimuli (inputs).
i) Stimuli is the first step in perceptual process.
ii) Stimuli may be in the from of people, objects, events, Information,
conversation. The perceptual process can't start in the absence of stimuli.
2. Receiving Stimuli
Perception Perceptual Process
Input – Throughput – Output
Stimuli
Recording Stimuli
Selection of Stimuli
Organization of Stimuli
Interpretation
Action
Perceptual Input
Perceptual throughputs
Perceptual output
[53]
The actual perception process starts with the receipt of the stimuli or
data from various sources. Most data is received through the 5 organs (Ears -
hear, Nose-Smells, Tongue-Tastes, Body-Touches, Eye – Sight). Reception
of Stimuli is the Physiological aspect of perception process.
3. Selection of Stimuli
After receiving the stimuli or data, some are selected for further
processing while others are screened out because it is not possible for a
person to select all stimuli for processing to attach meaning which he receives
from the environment. Two factors that affect the selection of stimuli for
processing are -
(i) External factors
Important external factors are intensity of stimuli, its size, contrast,
movement, repetition, familiarity, strange characteristics, etc., Such features
of stimuli attracts the attention of perceiver more when compared to the other
stimuli.
(ii) Internal factors (Or factors related to the perceiver)
Most important Internal factor to selection of stimuli are the perceivers
self acceptance. Such factors of the perceiver influence his interest or
indifference in the object being received for perception. Normally he will select
the objects which interest him and will avoid that for which he is indifferent.
The past experience may not be relevant to the present situation; it is
nevertheless used by the perceiver
4. Organization of stimuli
[54]
After selecting the data, they are organized to make sense out of them. Such
organization of stimuli may take the form of figure–ground, grouping,
simplification and closure.
Figure – ground
In perceiving stimuli there is a tendency to keep certain phenomena in
focus and other in background. More attention is paid to phenomena which
have been kept as figure and less attention to phenomena kept in
background. e.g.1: While reading a book – letters, figure page on which it is
presented, background (See figure- 1). Perception way change if certain
stimuli are changed form figure to background. e.g.2: In certain organization,
good performance (a figure promotion in normal case) may be taken as
background and maintaining good relations with boss for promotion (ground in
general cases) may be taken as figure.
Figure- 1 Depicting the Figure and Ground concept-
[55]
Figure- 2
Simplification
Whenever people are over loaded with information, they try to simplify
it to make it more meaningful and understandable. In simplification process,
the perceiver subtracts less salient information and concentrates on important
one. Simplification helps to make things more understandable because the
perceiver has been able to reduce the complexity by eliminating some of the
things which are less important.
Closure
When faced with incomplete information, people fill up the Gaps
themselves to make the information meaningful. This may be done on the
basis of past experience, past data or hunches.
Interpretations
[56]
Perceptual inputs that have been organized will have to be interpreted
by the perceiver so that he can sense and extract some meaning of what is
going on in the situation. People interpret the meaning of what they have
selectively perceived and organized in terms of their own assumptions of
people, things, and situations. They also become judgmental as well and tend
to interpret things as good or bad, beautiful or ugly and so on which are quite
relative terms.
In such process there are chances of misinterpretation. Interpretation of
stimuli is affected by -
• Characteristics of stimuli,
• Situations under which perception takes place,
• Characteristics of the perceiver,
• These factor also affect their selection for perception and also the
interpretation,
• Similarly the physical, social and organizational stimuli in which an
object is perceived also affect the interpretation.
Action
The last phase of the perceptual process is that of acting in relation to
what has been perceived. This is the output aspect of perception process.
The action may be covert, or overt.
• Covert – the covert actions may be in the form of change in attitude,
opinions, feelings, values and impression formation resulting form the
perceptual input and through puts.
• Overt – the overt action may be in the form of behavior easily visible
PERCEPTUAL DISTORTION The following are the factors distorting perception
1. SELECTIVE PERCEPTIONS
[57]
Some times people hear what they want to hear. Their expectations
modify their perception and they are selective in perception. They will ignore
certain facts which are important but which are not preferred by them which is
dangerous.
2. PROJECTIONS
A person attributes his own qualities on others (affecting).
3. ATTRIBUTIONS
Tendency to find a logic for each and every action or behavior by
interpreting them as caused by certain factors.
4. PERCEPTUAL SET
The effect of earlier perception influences the present perception.
5. PERCEPTUAL DEFENCE
The people have discomfort to receive stimuli which are unpleasant to
them hence they adopt defensive posture.
6. HALO EFFECT (1920)
Process in which a favorable or unfavorable general impression is used
to judge / evaluate several specific trait. Halo serves as a screen in keeping
the perceiver away from actually seeing the reality in judging. e.g.: It means
Mr. X is good at one thing (fact) thus he is good at many other things
(perception).
7. STEREO TYPING
[58]
First used by WALTER LIPPMAN in 1922, used to describe bias in
perceiving people. He belongs to a particular “group of profession” therefore
he is like that. Bruner and Perl muffer indicated that there is an international
stereo typing for businessmen and teachers.
8. FIRST IMPRESSION
People evaluate others on the basis of first impression. It may be
correct if it is based on adequate and significant evidence otherwise it is
incorrect.
9. MENTAL SET
Mental set is the tendency one has to react in a certain way in a given
situation. In the same manner in an organization wrongful perception may
arise because of mental set.
10. PERSONALITY
Personality of the perceiver greatly influences the perception of the
person. Researches suggest that (i) secure people perceive others as warm
individuals rather than cold and indifferent; (ii) self-accepting people perceive
others as liking and accepting people; (iii) people tend to perceive others
more accurately when they are more like the ones that they are perceiving
than if they are different from those who are being perceived. These imply that
insecure, thoughtless, or non-self-accepting persons are less likely to
perceive themselves and those around them accurately. They will, in all
likelihood, distrust, misrepresent, or in other ways defensively perceive
situations. This will influence the resultant behavior of the person concerned.
11. PERSON PERCEIVED There are certain characteristics of person being perceived which also
influence the perception-
[59]
• The first factor is status of the person. A person is perceived not by his
actual traits but by the status he has. Thus a person having high status
may be perceived to have many desirable qualities.
• The second factor is the visibility of traits. There are many traits which
are not visible on surface, such as, honestly, loyalty, etc. In such
cases, evaluation is to be made on the basis of one’s own experience
which may not be correct. The closeness among people provides
opportunities to perceive the traits correctly which, however, are not
always available.
12. Situational Factors
Situational factors also affect the perception. There may be structural
characteristics of the place indicating the characteristics of person occupying
it. Thus a person is likely to be perceived by a place. For example, a person
is perceived differently if he meets with other in a five star hotel as compared
to an ordinary place. This may be the main reason for having lavishly
furnished offices or showrooms. In many cases, these may not reflect the
true value but may only distort people’s perception who might be dealing with
them. And it would affect the way they behave with one another.
Attribution Theory
Observation Interpretation Attribution of
cause
[60]
Attribution theory has been proposed to develop explanations of the
ways in which we judge people differently, depending on what meaning we
attribute to a given behavior.
Basically, the theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s
behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally
caused. That determination, however, depends largely on three factors: (1)
distinctiveness, (2) consensus, and (3) consistency.
First, let’s clarify the difference between internal and external causation
and then we will elaborate on each of the three determining factors.
• Internally caused behaviors are those that are believed to be under the
personal control of the individual.
• Externally caused behavior is seen as resulting from outside causes;
that is, the person is seen as having been forced into the behavior by
the situation.
E.g. - If one of your employees is late for work, you might attribute his
lateness to his partying into the wee hours of the morning and then
oversleeping. This would be an internal attribution. But if you attribution his
arriving late to a major automobile accident that tide up traffic on the road that
Individual behavior
Distinctiveness
Consensus
Consistency
External
Internal
High
Low
External
Internal
High
Low
Internal
External
High
Low
[61]
this employee regularly uses, then you would be making an external
attribution.
Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different
behavior in different situations.
E.g.: Is the employee who arrives late today also the source of
complaints by co-workers for being a “goof-off”? What we want to know is
whether this behavior is unusual. If it is, the observer is likely to give the
behavior an external attribution. If this action is not unusual, it will probably be
judged as internal.
Consensus - If everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds
in the same way, we can say the behavior shows consensus.
E.g.: Our late employee’s behavior would meet this criterion if all
employees who took the some route to work were also late. From an
attribution perspective, if consensus is high, you would be expected to give an
external attribution to the employee’s tardiness, whereas is other employees
who took the same route made it to work on time, your conclusion as to
causation would be internal.
Consistency - Finally, an observer looks for consistency in a person’s
actions.
E.g.: Does the person respond the same way over time? Coming in 10
minutes late for work is not perceived in the same way for the employee for
whom it is an unusual case (she hasn’t been late for several months) as it is
for the employee for whom it is part of a routine pattern (she is regularly late
two or three times a week). The more consistent the behavior, the more the
observer is inclined to attribution it to internal causes.
[62]
Errors / Bias
• Fundamental attribution error- The tendency to underestimate the
influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal
factors when making judgments about the behavior of others.
• Attribution theory was developed largely based on experiments on
Americans and western Europeans.
• Self- serving bias- The tendency for individuals to attribute their own
successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on
external factors.
Specific Applications in Organizations
As a Manager one must appraise their employee’s performances,
evaluate how much effort co-workers are putting into their jobs. When a new
person joins a work team, he or she is immediately “sized up” by the other
team members. In many cases, these judgments have important
consequences for organization. Let’s briefly look at a few of the more obvious
applications.
Employment Interview
A major input into who is hired and who is rejected in any organization
is the employment interview. It’s fair to say that few people are hired without
an interview. But the evidence indicates that interviewers make perceptual
judgment among interviewers is often poor; that is, different interviewers see
different things in the same candidate and thus arrive at different conclusions
about the applicant.
Interviewers generally draw early impressions that become very quickly
entrenched. If negative information is exposed early in the interview, it tends
to be more heavily weighted than if that same information comes out later.
Studies indicate that most interviewers’ decisions change very little after the
first four or five minutes of the interview. As a result, information elicited early
[63]
in the interview carries greater weight than dose information elicited later, and
a “good applicant” is probably characterized more by the absence of
unfavorable characteristics than by the presence of favorable characteristics.
Importantly, who you think is a good candidate and who I think is one may
differ markedly. Because interviews usually have so little consistent structure
and interviewers vary in terms of what they are looking for in a candidate,
judgments of the same candidate can vary widely. If the employment interview
is an important input into the hiring decision-and it usually is-you should
recognize that PERCEPTUAL factors influence who is hired and eventually the
quality of an organization’s labor force.
Performance Expectations There is an impressive amount of evidence that demonstrates that
people will attempt to validate their perceptions of reality, even when those
perceptions are faulty. This characteristic is particularly relevant when we
consider performance expectations on the job.
The terms self-fulfilling prophecy or Pygmalion effect have evolved to
characterize the fact that people’s expectations determine their behavior. In
other words, if a manager expects big things from his people, and when he
conveys that he perceives them to be more capable, they’re not likely to let
him down because of the trust the manager has shown. Similarly, if a
manager expects people to perform minimally, they’ll tend to behave so as to
meet those low expectations. The result then is that the expectations become
reality.
An interesting illustration of the self-fulfilling prophecy is a study
undertaken with 105 soldiers in the Israeli defense force who were taking a
156-week combat command course. The four course instructors were told that
one-third of the specific incoming trainees had high potential, one-third had
normal potential, and the potential of the rest was unknown. The results
confirmed the existence of a self-fulfilling prophecy. Those trainees whom
instructors were told had high potential scored significantly higher on objective
[64]
achievement tests, exhibited more positive attitudes, and held their leader in
higher regard than did the other two groups. The instructors of the supposedly
high-potential trainees got better result from them because the instructors
expected it!
Performance Evaluation
Although the impact of performance evaluation on behavior will be
discussed fully in chapter 16, it should be pointed out here that an employee’s
performance appraisal is very much dependent on the perceptual process. An
employee’s future is closely tied to his or her appraisal-promotions, pay
raises, and continuation of employment is among the most obvious work.
Although the appraisal can be objective (e.g., a salesperson is appraised on
how many dollars of sales she generates in her territory), many jobs are
evaluated in subjective terms. Subjective measures are easier to implement,
they provide managers with greater discretion, and many jobs do not readily
lend themselves to objective measures. But subjective measures are, by
definition, judgmental the evaluator forms a general impression of an
employee’s work. To the degree that managers use subjective measures in
appraising employees, what the evaluator perceives to be good or bad
employee characteristics or behaviors will significantly influence the outcome
of the appraisal.
Employee Effort
A individual’s future in an organizational is usually not dependent on
performance alone. In many organizations, the levels of an employee’s effort
are given high importance. Just as teachers frequently consider how hard you
try in a course as well as how you perform on examinations, so often do
managers. An assessment of an individual’s effort is a subjective judgment
susceptible to perceptual distortions and bias. If it is true, as some claim, that”
more workers are fired for poor attitudes and lack of discipline than for lack of
ability,” then appraisal of an employee’s effort may be a primary influence on
his or her future in the organization.
[65]
Employee Loyalty
Another important judgment that managers make about employee is
whether or not they are loyal to the organization. Despite the general decline
in employee loyalty noted in chapter 1, few organizational appreciate it when
employees, especially those in the managerial ranks, openly disparage the
firm. Furthermore, in some organizational if the word gets around that an
employee is looking at other employment opportunities outside the firm, that
employee may be labeled as disloyal and so may be cut off from all future
advancement opportunities. The issue is not whether organization are right in
demanding loyalty, the issue is that many do, and that assessment of an
employee’s loyalty or commitment is highly judgmental. What is perceived as
an employee who questions a top-management decision may be seen as
disloyal by some yet caring and concerned by other. As a case in point,
whistleblowers- individuals who report unethical practices by their employer
to outsider typically act out of loyalty to their organizational but are perceived
by management as troublemakers.
[66]
Chapter-5
PERSONALITY
Definition Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and
interacts with others. According to JAMES, "It is better to consider individual aspects of
personality as bricks and the total personality as a house made up of bricks”.
Gordon Allport (1897-1967) - “Father of Personality Theory”, was very
much a trait theorist and believed in the individuality and uniqueness of the
person and that people have consistent personalities. Allport believed that
through autobiographies, letters and diaries an understanding of an
individual’s personality could be gained.
Allport believed that each person had traits of various types:
• Individual: traits possessed by one person
• Common: traits possessed by many people
• Cardinal traits: One trait that dominates the person
• Central traits: small number of traits important traits that may affect
many behaviors
• Secondary traits: many consistent traits which are not often exhibited
• Motivational traits: Very strongly felt traits
• Stylistic traits: Less strongly felt traits.
According to Allport any definition of Personality should take into
account the following -
1. Omnibus (should cover very diverse aspects),
[67]
2. Integrative and Configurational,
3. Hierarchical aspects,
4. Distinctiveness,
5. Adjustment aspects,
DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
1) Biological
• hereditary factors
• physical attributes
• emotional attributes
• intellectual attributes
• inner thinking
processes
2) Family
• early up bringing
• family members
• Immediate
Neighborhood
3) Institutions
• School
• Religion
• Professional and
academic
associations
• Place of work
4) Social Factors
• friends
• colleagues at work
• reference groups
• social groups
• ethical values
• cultural factors -
community, culture
and traditions,
sentiments and
superstitions.
5) Situational factors.
• media
• practical environment
• turning points in life
• economic factors
6) Personal factors.
• Close friends
• enemies
• bosses
• religious leaders
• society leaders
• mentors
Determinants of Personality The study of determination of personality forms an empirical approach
to personality development. Various determinants of personality have been
characterized in several ways. McClelland has characterized them into four
fundamental theories – traits (acquired propensity to respond) , Schema
[68]
(beliefs, frame of reference, major orientations, ideas, and values), motives
(inner drives), and self Schema (observation of one’s own behavior).Similarly,
Scott and Mitchell have classified various determinants into hereditary, groups
and cultural factors, both physiological and psychological which play important
role in human personality. These factors are interrelated and interdependent.
However, for the purpose of analysis, these can be classified into four broad
categories- biological, family, cultural and situational. Such classification is
extremely helpful in understanding personality of people and their behavior in
the organizations.
1. Biological Factors
The general biological characteristics of human biological system
influence the way in which human being tends to sense external event data.
Interpret, and respond to them. The study of the biological contribution to
personality can be divided into three major categories – heredity, brain and
physical stature.
(i) Heredity. Heredity is transmission of the qualities from ancestors to descendents
through a mechanism lying primarily in the chromosomes of the germ
cells. Heredity predisposes to certain physical, mental, and emotional
states. It has been established through research on animals that
physical and psychological characteristics can be transmitted through
heredity. However such a conclusive proof is not available for human
beings, though psychologists and geneticists have drawn the
conclusion that heredity plays an important role in personality.
(ii) Brain The second biological factor is brain which is supposed to play role in
personality. The structure of brain determines personality, though no
conclusive proof is available so far about the role of brain in personality
formation.
[69]
(iii) Physical features The third biological factor determining personality formation is physical
characteristics and the rate of maturation. An individual’s external
appearance, which is biologically determined, is an important
ingredient of personality. In a narrow sense, personality is referred to
physical features of a person. However, it is not true if we take a
comprehensive view of personality. A person’s physical features have
some influence on his personality because he will affect influence on
others and in turn, will affect his self-concept. Mussen observes that ‘a
child’s physical characteristics may be related to his approach to the
social environment, to the expectancies of others, and to their reactions
to him. These, in turn, may have impacts on personality development.
Similarly, the rate of maturation also affects personality because
persons of varying maturity are exposed to different physical and social
situations and activities differently.
2. Family and Social Factors:
The development of the individual proceeds under the influence of
many socializing forces and agencies, from nuclear family to more
distant or global groupings. Family and social groups have most
significant impact on personality development. These groups have their
impact through socialization and identification processes.
(i) Socialization Process:
Socialization is a process by which an individual infant acquires, from
the enormously wide range of behavioral potentialities that are open to
him at birth. Those behaviors that are customary and are acceptable
according to the standards of his family and the social groups
Socialization process starts with initial contact between mother and her
[70]
new infant. Later on other members of the family and the social groups
influence the socialization process.
(ii) Identification Process : The Identification Process occurs when a person tries to identify
himself with some person whom he feels ideal in the family. Generally
a child in the family tries to behave like his father or mother. The
identification process can be examined from three different
perspectives First; Identification can be viewed as the similarity of
behavior (including feelings and attitudes) between child and the
model. Second Identification can be looked as the child’s motives or
desires to be like the model. Third it can be viewed as the process by
which the child actually takes on the attributes of the model.
Socialization and identification process is influenced by home
environment, family members and social groups.
(iii) Home environment:
Total Home environment is a critical factor in personality development.
For example children will markedly institutional upbringing or children in
a cold, unstimulating have a much greater potential to be emotionally
maladjusted that children rose by parents in a warm, loving, and
stimulating environment. The key variable is not the parents but rather
the type of environment that is generated by the child.
Family Members:
Parents and other family members have a strong influence on the
personality development of the child. Parents have more effect on the
personality development than other members of the family. The study
by Newcomb showed the high correlation between attitudes of parents
and children with a further consistency patterns. The relationship
between parents and children was higher than that between the
[71]
children and their teachers. Besides parents, siblings (brothers and
sisters) also contribute to personality.
Social Groups: Besides a person’s home environment and family members, there are
other influences arising from the social placement of the family as the
person is exposed to agencies outside the home, particularly the
school, friendship, and other work groups. Similarly, socio- economic
factors also affect personality development.
3. Cultural Factors Culture is the underlying determinant of human decision –making. It
generally determines attitudes towards independence, aggression,
competition, and co- operation. Each culture expects and trains its
members to behave in the ways that are acceptable to the group. To a
marked degree, the child’s cultural group defines the range of
experiences and situations he is likely to encounter and the values and
personality characteristics that will be reinforced and hence learned.
Despite the importance of cultural contribution to the personality, a
linear relationship cannot be established between personality and a
given culture. One problem stems from the existence of numerous
subcultures within a given culture. Thus workers are not influenced by
the same culture as managers are.
4. Situational Factors:
Apart from the biological, sociological, and the cultural factors, situational
factors also determine personality development. The S-O-B model of
human behavior considers the situations under which the behavior is
occurring. Migram’s research study suggests very powerful role the
situation may play in human personality. On the basis of his research
study, he states that ‘a situation exerts an important press on the
individual. It exercises constraints and may provide much the kind of
[72]
person a man is, as the kind of situation in which he is placed, that
determines his actions. For example a worker whose personality
history suggests that he had need of power and achievement, may
become frustrated and react apathetically if he is put in a
bureaucratized work situation. Thus he may appear lazy and trouble
maker though his personality history may suggest that he is very hard
working and striving to get ahead. Thus because of changed situation,
his personality composition changes. This aspect is very important for
organizational behavior because a manager has control over the
organizations situation.
THEORY X and Y Douglas Mc Gregor came out with his boss-subordinate relationship, in
his classic book "The Human Side of Enterprise", which is a milestone in the
history of Organization Behavior that was published in 1957. He established
that the set of attitude the boss holds about the subordinate effectively
influences and molds the performance of the subordinate. Whatever the boss
thinks that the subordinate is, the subordinate becomes like that. To illustrate
his theory, he characterized two sets of bosses with two set of attitudes. First
set having mistrust on subordinates and expecting that they would not work
unless they are cornered. He called this as the boss with Theory X attitudes.
Second Set-Theory bosses who believed that the subordinates are normal
people who will work if they are enabled. Theory X bosses tend to affect their
subordinates performance in theory X ways. But the subordinates of Theory Y
boss tend to be high performers with healthy attitude towards their work and
the organization.
X set of Attitudes
• An average person is idle by nature and works as little as possible.
• People lack ambition and will not work unless they are cornered.
• People are passive and resist any Change.
[73]
• People normally avoid responsibility.
• People are incapable and will have to be guided very closely.
• People are self centered and indifferent to organizational goals.
• Suspicious
• External control.
• Directing and controlling types of boss.
• The boss is only task oriented.
Y set of Attitudes
• Work is a natural expenditure of energy like playing.
• People have normal ambition and have normal degree of motivation for
work.
• People are active and (with proper Change) accept change.
• If right conditions are created they will accept and even seek
responsibility.
• Skills are widely distributed amongst any population and people are
happy to exercise their skills.
• Perhaps it is because of past experience.
• If the proper conditions exist people will trust
• Internal (or) self control
• Supportive style.
• Has Concern for both task and people.
[74]
Theory Z Shall we have an introduction about Theory Z before presenting
the tabular content?
Characteristics Theory A (American)
Theory J (Japanese)
Theory Z (Modified)
Evaluation and
promotion of the
personnel
Very fast; individuals
who are not
promoted rapidly
often seek
employment
elsewhere.
Very slow; big
promotions are
generally not given
out for years.
Slower; more
emphasis is given
to training and
evaluations then to
promotion.
Career paths Very specialized;
people tend to stay in
one area
(accounting, finance,
sales, etc.) for their
entire career.
Very general;
personnel are
rotated from one
area to another and
become familiar
with all areas of
operations.
More general;
emphasis is on job
rotation and more
broadly based
training in order to
give the person a
better feel for the
entire organization.
Decision making Carried out by the
individual manager.
Carried out via
group decision
making.
Carried out with
more emphasis on
group participation
and consensus.
[75]
Control Very explicit; people
know exactly what to
control and how to do
it.
Very implicit and
informal; people rely
heavily on trust and
goodwill.
More attention to
informal control
procedures
coupled with
explicit
performance
measures.
Responsibility Assigned on an
individual basis.
Shared collectively by
the group.
Assigned on an
individual basis.
Concern for the
personnel
Organization is
concerned primarily
with the worker’s work
life only.
Organization is
concerned with the
whole life of the
worker, business and
social.
Organization’s
Concerned is
expanded to
include more
aspects of the
worker’s whole life.
Application in Organization
Knowledge of emotions / personality can help in better understanding
of –
• Ability and selection
• Decision making
• Motivation
• Leadership
• Interpersonal conflict and
• Deviant workplace behavior
• Suitability of one’s personality to the organization’s culture
Ability and selection
Ability and selection people who know their own personality and are
good at reading others’ emotions may be more effective in their jobs. That, in
[76]
essence, is the theme underlying recent research on emotional intelligence.
Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to an assortment of non cognitive skills,
capabilities, and competencies that influence a person’s ability to succeed in
coping with environmental demands and pressures.
It’s composed of five dimensions:
• Self-awareness- The ability to be aware of what you’re feeling.
• Self-management- The ability to manage one’s own emotion and
impulses.
• Self-motivation- The ability y to persist in the face of setbacks and
failures.
• Empathy- The ability to sense how other is feeling.
• Social skills- The ability to handle the emotion of others.
Several studies suggest EI may play an important role in job
performance. For instance, one study looked at the characteristics of Bell lab
engineers who were rated as stars by their peers. The scientists concluded
that stars were better at relating to others. That is, it was EI, not academic IQ
that characterized high performers. The implications from the initial evidence
on EI are that employers should consider it as a factor in selection, especially
in jobs that demand a high degree of social interaction.
Decision making
Decision Making have downplayed, or even ignored, the role of
anxiety, fear, frustration, doubt, happiness, excitement, and similar emotions.
Yet it’s naïve to assume that decision choices aren’t influenced by one’s
feeling at a particular moment. Given the same objective data, we should
expect that people may make different choices when they’re angry and
stressed out than when they’re calm and collected. Negative personality can
result in a limited search for new alternatives and a less vigilant use of
information. On the other hand, positive emotion can increase problem solving
and facilitate the integration of information.
[77]
You can improve your understanding of decision making by
considering “the heart” as well as “the head.” People use emotion as well as
rational and intuitive processes in making decisions. Failure to incorporate
personality in to the study of decision processes will result in an incomplete
(and often inaccurate) view of the process.
Motivation Motivation theories basically propose that individuals are motivated to
the extent that their behavior is expected to lead to desired outcomes. The
image is that of rational exchange: the employee essentially trades effort for
pay, security, promotions, and so forth.” But people aren’t cold, unfeeling
machines. Their perceptions and calculations of situations are filled with
emotional content that significantly influences how much effort they exert.
Moreover, when you see people who are highly motivated in their jobs, they
are emotionally committed people who are engaged in their work “become
physically, cognitively, and emotionally immersed in the experience of activity,
in the pursuit of a goal.” If we focus only on rational calculations of
inducement and contributions, we fail to be able to explain behavior such as
the individual who forgets to have dinner and work late into the night, lost in
the thrill of her work.
Leadership
Leadership the ability to lead other is a fundamental quality sought by
organizations. Effective leaders almost all rely on the expression of feelings to
help convey their messages. In fact, the expression of emotional in speeches
is often the critical elements that result in individuals accepting or rejecting a
leader’s message. “When leaders feel excited, enthusiastic, and active, they
may be more likely to energize their subordinates and convey a sense of
efficacy, competence, optimism, and enjoyment.” Politicians have learned to
show enthusiasm when talking about their chances for winning an election,
even when polls suggest otherwise.
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Corporate executives know that emotional content is critical if
employees are to buy into their vision of their company’s future and accept
change. When new visions are offered, especially when they contain distant
or vague goals, change is often difficult to accept. So when effective leaders
want to implement significant change, they rely on “the evocation, framing,
and mobilization of personality. By arousing emotion and linking them to an
appealing vision, leaders increase the likelihood that managers and
employees alike will accept change.
Interpersonal conflict
Few issues are more interwined with personality than the topic of
interpersonal conflict. Whenever conflicts arise, you can be fairly certain that
personalities are also surfacing. A manager’s success in trying to resolve a
conflict, in fact, is often largely due to his or her ability to identify the emotional
elements in the conflict and to get the conflicting parties to work through their
personality. And the manager, who ignores the emotional element in conflicts,
focusing singularly on rational and task concerns, is unlikely to be very
effective in resolving those conflicts.
Deviant workplace behaviors
Negative personality can lead to a number of deviant workplace
behaviors. Anyone who has spent much time in an organization realizes that
people often engage in voluntary actions that violate established norms and
that threaten the organizational, its members, or both. These actions are
called employee deviance. They fall into categories such as production (e.g.,
leaving early, intentionally working slowly); property (e.g., stealing, sabotage);
political (e.g., gossiping, blaming co-workers); and personal aggression (e.g.,
sexual harassment, verbal abuse). Many of these deviant behaviors can be
traced to negative personality.
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For instance, envy is an emotion that occurs when you resent someone
for having something that you don’t which you strongly desire. It can lead to
malicious deviant behaviors. Envy, for example, has been found to be
associated with hostility, backstabbing and other forms of political behavior,
negatively distorting others’ successes, and positively distorting one’s own
accomplishments.
Hence to conclude, studying about personality helps us understand the employees’
behaviour and the relationship it has with their personality attributes. An employee’s
personality must fit the organizational environment, otherwise, hiring an employee
who has a negative personality will not only affect him/her, but also others in the
team/department, the external stakeholders like customers, suppliers, etc, depending
upon the nature of the job, and the organization as a whole.
[80]
CHAPTER 6
ATTITUDES
Values
Values are basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-
state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. E.g. Is capital
punishment right or wrong? If a person likes power is it good or bad? Answers
to these questions are based on the values.
Importance of Values
Values are important to
• the study of organizational behavior
• for understanding of attitudes
• for understanding motivation and
• Because they influence our perceptions.
• And they influence once behaviour
Values generally influence attitudes and behavior. Suppose that you
enter an organization with the view that allocating pay on the basis of
performance is right, while allocating pay on the basis of seniority is wrong or
inferior. How are you going to react if you find that the organization you have
just joined rewards seniority and not performance? You’re likely to be
disappointed and this can lead to job dissatisfaction and the decision not to
exert a high level of effort since “it’s probably not going to lead to more
money, anyway.”
Would your attitudes and behavior be different if your values aligned
with the organization’s pay policies? Hence the value system an individual
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possesses and the practices prevailing in the workplace definitely are 2
factors which will affect any employee’s behaviour.
Types of Values
• Terminal values are desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a
person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime. (Prosperous life)
• Instrumental values are preferable modes of behavior or means of
achieving one’s terminal values.(Hardworking)
ATTITUDES- Definition Attitudes are, “Beliefs /feelings/action tendencies of an individual or
group towards objects, ideas and people”- Stephen P. Robbins. Attitudes are, "Evaluative judgments or opinions concerning objects /
people / events" - Blum and Naylor.
Components of Attitude All attitudes have 3 components –
1) The Cognitive element (belief) - high belief for example, considering
thieving as bad act.
2) Affective (feeling) component – one dislikes Mr. X who is a thief.
3) Behavioral component (action) - therefore I will avoid interacting with Mr. X.
Features of Attitude
1) Predisposition to respond in a particular manner.
2) Attitude may be acquired by birth or learnt with experience.
3) The acquiring process is so subtle that the individual may not know it.
4) High intelligence does not ensure correct attitude.
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5) Attitudes may be rational or irrational.
6) Prejudices are attitudes - strong likes are attitudes - opinions are attitudes.
7) Attitudes may change.
8) Attitudes tend to result in behavior or action.
9) Irrespective of status, all people hold attitude.
10) Attitudes can fall anywhere from very favorable to very unfavorable.
Determinants of Attitude
1) Biological
• hereditary factors
• physical attributes
• emotional attributes
• intellectual attributes
• inner thinking
processes
2) Family
• early up bringing
• family members
• Immediate
neighbourhood
3) Institutions
• School
• Religion
• Professional and
academic
associations
• Place of work
4) Social Factors
• friends
• colleagues at work
• reference groups
• social groups
• ethical values
• cultural factors -
community, culture
and traditions,
sentiments and
superstitions.
5) Situational factors.
• media
• practical environment
• turning points in life
• economic factors
6) Personal factors.
• Close friends
• enemies
• bosses
• religious leaders
• society leaders
• mentors
Attitude Change (Factors influencing Change of attitudes by Howeland)
1) How strong and deep is the attitude - Centrality of attitude.
2) How well is it related to other attitude?
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3) The subject Matter of Attitude-some subjects are difficult to change like
religion.
4) Situational factors
5) Utility Aspects
6) How much attitude is publicized - If it is well publicized it is difficult to
change.
7) Characteristics of change agent - A boss wants to correct an attitude of a
subordinate. If a boss is genuine type the subordinate will agree to change.
Otherwise he will justify his existing attitude.
8) Influence of friends.
9) Use of fear.
10) Providing new information.
Measurement of Attitudes
1) The widely used scale was developed by Likert Five point scale ranging
from outstanding, very good, good, average, bad. A person has to give his
rating each question by ticking any one of the five points. By totalling up all
the responses it is possible to get a fair idea. It is easy to use and easy to
evaluate.
2) Thrustones Piles Scheme Piles means a group of statements. Thurstones
provided group of statements as possible responses to each question. The
advantage here is a person can express himself in greater detail. But it is very
tedious and could be confusing at times.
3) Patrick Smith Developed some special scales for measuring job related
attitude (the earlier to apply to many general situation also). Smith developed
JDI (Job Descriptive Index) which is exclusively used to measure attitudes like
job satisfaction, job performance, etc
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Job satisfaction Definition
Job Satisfaction has been variously defined, but the simple meaning of
the concept denotes employee's attitude towards his job. (Work attitude)
What is Job Satisfaction?
1. Job satisfaction is favorableness or unfavorableness with which employees
view their work.
2. A worker is not dissatisfied with his job, it does not mean that he is fully
satisfied.
3. He may be satisfied with his work, but may be dissatisfied with the work
environment.
4. Job satisfaction is the result of so many attributes.
5. Job satisfaction may refer to a person or a group.
6. There is correlation between job satisfaction and life satisfaction at home
and in the community. They may be positive or negative.
7. Job satisfaction and Morale - some consider both as same and some not.
Main Characteristics of Job satisfaction
1. Job satisfaction is conditioned by the emotional tone of the employees.
2. Job satisfaction is closely related to home and community life which is
known as 'spill over effect' meaning that one spills over the other.
3. Employees may compensate low job satisfaction by attempting to increase
high life satisfaction and this is known as 'compensatory effect'.
4. Job satisfaction is measurable by determining employees sense of
importance i.e., of some of his important job variables.
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Determinants of Job satisfaction
1. Characteristics of the Individual
* Individual Differences
* Age
* Educational level and Intelligence
* Sex/Gender.
2. Characteristics of Job
* Occupational level
* Job content
* Leadership
* Pay and Promotional opportunities
* Social interaction and working in a group
* Security of the job.
Job satisfaction and other variables
1. Job satisfaction and turnover
2. Job satisfaction and absenteeism
3. Job satisfaction and productivity
Measurement of Job satisfaction
1. Job satisfaction is a generalized attitude of three areas such as specific job
satisfaction, individual adjustment and group relationships.
2. To measure job satisfaction, the techniques of attitude measurement can
be applied.
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3. Some have tried to measure job satisfaction through production,
hypothesizing positive relationship between the production and job
satisfaction.
4. But production cannot in all cases be the index of job satisfaction.
5. In order to measure job satisfaction the ground level of satisfaction of the
worker in his life should be measured first.
6. In order to study job satisfaction scientifically and to determine the factors
influencing it, it is essential to first determine the general indices of job
satisfaction.
7. Job satisfaction of a person can be measured by considering the factors
related to work and secondly by analyzing the factors which give satisfaction
in life as a whole.
An Application: Attitude Surveys
The preceding section indicates that knowledge of employee attitude
can be helpful to managers in attempting to predict employee behavior. But
how does management get information about employee attitude? The most
popular method is through the use of attitude surveys. Typically, attitude surveys present the employee with a set of
statement or questions. Ideally, the items are tailored to obtain the specific
information that management desires. An attitude score is achieved by
summing up responses to individual questionnaire items. These score can
then be averaged for job groups, departments, divisions, or the organization
as a whole.
Result form attitude surveys can frequently surprise management. For
instance, managers at the heavy-duty division of ABC remanufacturing
thought everything was great. Since employees were actively involved in
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division decisions and profitability was high within the entire company,
management assumed morale was high. To confirm their beliefs, they
conducted a short attitude survey. Employees were asked if they agreed or
disagreed with the following statement: (1) At work, your opinions count; (2)
those of you who want to be a leader in this company have the opportunity to
become one; and (3) in the past six months someone has talked to you about
your personal development.
In the survey, 43 percent disagreed with the first statement was
astounded. How could this be? The division had been holding shop floor
meeting to review the number every week for more than 12 years. And most
of the managers had come up through the ranks. Management responded by
creating a committee made up of representatives from every department in
the division and all three shifts. The committee quickly found that there were
lots of little things the division was doing that were alienating employees. Out
of this committee came a large number of suggestions that, after
implementation, significantly improved employee’s perception of their
decision-making influence and their career opportunities in the division.
Using attitude surveys on a regular basis provides managers with
valuable feedback on how employees perceive their working conditions.
Policies and practices that management views as objective and fair may be
seen as inequitable by employees in general or by certain groups of
employees. That these distorted perceptions have led to negative attitude
about the job and organization should be important to management. This is
because employee behaviors are based on perceptions, not reality.
Remember, the employee who quits because she believes she is underpaid-
when, in fact, management has objective data to support that her salary is
highly competitive-is just as gone as if she had actually been underpaid the
use of regular attitude surveys can alert management to potential problems
and employee’ intentions early so that action can be taken to prevent
repercussions.
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Attitude and Workforce Diversity
Managers are increasingly concerned with changing employee attitude
to reflect shifting perspectives on racial, gender, and other diversity issues. A
comment to a co-worker of the opposite sex, which 20 years ago might have
been taken as a compliment, can today become a career-limiting episode. As
such, organizations are investing in training to help reshape attitude of
employees.
A survey of U.S organizations with 100 or more employee found that
47 percent of them sponsored some sort of diversity training. Some examples:
Police officers in Escondido, California, receive 36 hours of diversity training
each year. Pacific Gas and Electric co. requires a minimum of four hours of
training for its 12,000 employees. The federal aviation administration
sponsors a mandatory eight-hour diversity seminar for employee of its
western pacific region.
What do these diversity programs look like and how do they address
attitude change? They almost all include a self-evaluation phase. People are
pressed to examine themselves and to confront ethnic and cultural
stereotypes they might hold. Then participants typically take part in group
discussions or panels with representative from diverse groups.
Additional activities designed to change attitude include arranging for
people to do volunteer work in community or social service centers in order to
meet face-to-face with individual and groups from diverse backgrounds and
using exercises that let participants feel what it’s like to be different. For
example, when participants see the film eye of the Beholder, in which people
are segregated and stereotyped according to their eye colour, participants see
what it’s like to be judged by something over which they have no control.
[89]
Chapter 7 MOTIVATION
Definition Koontz defined Motivation as, “Anything that induces a person to act in
a desired manner”.
Stephen P. Robbins defined Motivation as, “Willingness to exert high
level of performance to reach organizational goal conditioned by the ability of
such efforts to satisfy personal needs”.
Fred Luthans defined Motivation as, “Motivation is a process that
starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates a
behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive”.
Motivation is the process of channelling a person's inner drivers so that
he wants to accomplish the goals of the organization.
Importance of Motivation
1) High Performance Level
2) Low Employee Turnover, Absenteeism
3) Acceptance of Organizational changes
Determinants of Motivation
1) The Individual (Aim, Need, Values)
2) Organizational Climate (Economic conditions, Position, Structures, Conflict,
Hawthorn experience)
3) Exogenous Variables (Inside/Outside Factory. Culture, Customers, images,
Society induce a person to perform a work in an expected Manner.).
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Theories: The theoretical development of work motivation
Theories:
Maslows Need Hierachy Theory (Contribution of Abraham Maslow):
Abraham Maslow outlined the elements of an over all theory of
motivation. He identified that a person's motivational needs could be arranged
in a hierarchical manner. In essence, he believed that once a given level of
need is satisfied, it no longer motivates an individual.
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Of Needs:
CONTENT THEORIES PROCESS THEORIES CONTEMPORARY THEORIES
WORK MOTIVATION
Human Relations
Maslow
Hertzberg
Alderfer
Lawin and Tolman
Vroom
Porter and lawler
lawler
Festinger and Homans
Adams
Heider, de charmes, and Bem
Kelley and Rotter
Scientific Management 1900
Present
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Maslow identified five levels in his need hierarchy. They are as follows:
1. Physiological Needs:
These are the primary needs of individuals, such as the need for food,
drink, shelter and the relief from or avoidance of pain. In the work place, such
needs are represented by concern for salary and basic working conditions like
heat, air conditioning and eating facilities.
2. Safety and Security:
When physiological needs are satisfied minimally, the next higher level
of needs safety and security needs assume importance as motivators. These
are reflected in the need for freedom from threat protection against danger
and accidents, and the security of the surroundings. In a work place, the
individuals expect safe working conditions, salary increase, and job security,
fringe benefits like health and retirement benefits.
3. Social Needs:
After the minimum satisfaction of physiological needs, social needs
become prominent. This is concerned with needs like friendship, affiliation,
ESTEEM NEED
SOCIAL NEED
SELF-ACTUALISATION NEED
SECURITY NEED
BASIC NEED
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and interaction with other people. In organizations, these are available by
interaction with fellow workers, employee - centered supervision and an
acceptance by others.
4. Esteem Needs:
The next level, focus on the need for self-respect, respect from others
for one's accomplishments and a need to develop a feeling of self-confidence
and prestige. The successful attainment or accomplishment of a particular
task, recognition by others of the person's skills and abilities to do effective
work and the use of organizational titles are examples.
5. Self- actualization:
It is the highest level of the need hierarchy. It is concerned with the
fulfilling one self by maximizing the use of abilities, skills and potential.
People with dominant self-actualization seek work assignments that challenge
their skills and abilities permit them to develop and to use creative or
innovative approaches and provide for general advancement and personal
growth.
Contribution of Abraham Maslow
1. Maslow identified the above 5 levels of needs.
2. He said that they arise to motivate one after the other as per the order
identified by him.
3. Lower needs motivate a person in the first stage. When that is satisfied it
gives rise to the next higher needs and so on.
4. A need which is satisfied is not a motivation (Till it arises next).
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A Hierarchy of Work Motivation:
Merits:
1. Maslow identified the levels correctly.
2. He was also right in classifying them as lower to higher needs.
3. He also identified the temporary nature of motivation
4. He recognized need-action-satisfaction in his theory.
ESTEEM NEED Titles, status symbols, promotions
SOCIAL NEED Formal and informal work groups or teams
SELF-ACTUALISATION NEED Personal growth, realization of
potential
SECURITY NEED Seniority plans, union, health insurance, employee
assistance, plans, pension
BASIC NEED Pay
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Demerits:
1. Needs do not arise in that order. E.g. Rich man goes in search of
food when he becomes hungry.
2. He did not consider individual differences. E.g. Artists give low
preference to Lower Need.
Herzberg 2 Factor Theory of Motivation (or) Motivation Hygiene Theory:
Fredrick Herzberg extended the work of Maslow and developed a
specific content theory of work motivation. He and his associates conducted a
widely reported motivational study on about 200 accountants and Engineers
employed by firm in and around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Study - 2 Questions:-
(1) When did you feel particularly good about your job - What turned you on?
(2) When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job - What turned you off?
The responses obtained from this critical incident method were
interesting and fairly consistent. Tabulating the good and bad feelings
Herzberg concluded that there were 2 categories of needs essentially
independent of each other affecting behavior in different ways.
According to Herzberg the 2 categories of factors are-
Set-1
Hygiene Factors (or)
Set - 2
Motivation Factor (or)
Maintenance Factors (or) Satisfiers (or)
Dissatisfies
Hygiene Factors: If they are provided no improvement in performance. If they are
withdrawn, they demotivate performance. These factors are related to the
periphery of the job. Therefore they are called contexted factors. E.g.: Welfare
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facilities, Job security, Company rules, Working conditions, pay, Supervisors
quality, interpersonal relationship.
Motivation Factors: If they are present, performance improves. If they are not present,
performance is negatively affected. Since these are connected to a job, these
are called content factors. E.g.: Achievement, Recognition Possibility of
growth, challenges.
Merits:
• He identified the 2 sets of factors which are very valuable.
• He linked productivity to Motivation.
• Practical and Easy to understand.
• Not a pure psychology theory.
• Applicable to modern organizations.
Demerits:
• Difficult to identify the factors in various types of organizations.
• Herzberg himself has classified pay, status and interpersonal
relationships as maintenance factors. Whereas they are important
motivators.
• His classification of the factors is wrong. E.g. Supervisors quality is a
motivation factor.
• The whole of motivation cannot be explained in 2 sets of factors.
Compare and Contrast: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- MASLOW HERZBERG ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. Descriptive Prescriptive 2. Highly Conceptual Practical applicability 3. 5 Layers/Levels 2 set of factors
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4. pay is a motivator No. it is a Hygiene factor (It satisfies 1st 4 need) 5. Need which is satisfied Some needs continue to -not a motivator motivation, though satisfied 6. All needs are motivation at times. Not so. 7. Relevant of all. More for managers. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ERG Theory
Clayton Alderfer of Yale University has reworked Maslow’s need
hierarchy to align it more closely with the empirical research. His revised need
hierarchy is labelled ERG THEORY.
Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs-
existence, relatedness, and growth-chance, the label: ERG theory.
• The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material
existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow
considered to be physiological and safety needs.
• The second group of need are those of relationship. These social and
status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied,
and they align with maslow’s social need and the external component
of maslow’s esteem classification.
• Finally, Alderfer isolates growth need -an intrinsic component from
Maslow’s esteem category and the characteristics included under self-
actualization.
• More than 1 need may be operative.
• All 3 need categories could be operating at the same time.
• If gratification of the higher need is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower
level need increases.
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• Variables such as age, gender, family background, cultural
environment can alter the importance or driving force that a group of
needs holds for a particular individual. E.g.- Japan, Spain place social
need before their physiological requirement
The Vroom expectancy, or VIE, Theory of Work Motivation:
Vrooms Valence Expectancy Theory (Desire) (Action): Victor Vroom was the first to formulate an expectancy theory
directly aimed at work motivation. Vrooms model is built around the concepts
of Valence, Expectancy. Valence means the strength of an individual’s
preference for a particular outcome (Desire). Expectancy means the
probability that a particular action will lead to that outcome (Action). According
to Vroom Motivation = V X ∑. Valence that does not lead to action is not a
motivator. Example - A college student has a strong desire to fight in the war
front (valance). For this he should take a series of steps starting with entering
for the army (Expectancy). If he is not taking the action, only thinking about
fighting it is valence without expectancy, it does not constitute sound
motivation.
Importance of the Vroom Model
• It recognizes individual differences in work motivation.
INDIVIDUAL EFFORT
INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE
ORGANIZATIONAL REWARDS
PERSONAL GOALS
1 2 3
1- EFFORT- PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP,
2- PERFORMANCE- REWARD RELATIONSHIP,
3- REWARD-PERSONAL GOAL RELATIONSHIP.
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• It suggests that motivation is a complex process as compared to
Maslow's or Herzberg's simplistic models.
• It clarifies the relationship between individuals and organizational
goals.
• It is consistent with M.B.O.
• It is of value in understanding organizational behavior.
• From theoretical stand point, this model seems to help managers
appreciate the complexities of motivation.
Criticisms: 1. It does not attempt to describe what individual differences are.
2. It does not provide specific suggestion on what motivates Organizational
Behaviour.
3. It does not provide specific solutions to motivational problems.
4. It has an assumption that people are rational and logically calculation which
may be too idealistic.
5. It is difficult (not so easy) to understand.
6. It does not attempt to describe how motivational decisions are actually
made.
Equity Theory of Work Motivation: Social psychologist J. Stacy Adams. Simply put, the theory argues that
a major input job performance and satisfaction is the degree of equality (or)
inequality that people perceive in their work situation. In other words, it is
another cognitively based motivation theory, and Adams depicts how this
motivation occurs. Inequality occurs when a person perceives that the ratio of his or her
outcomes to input and the ratio of a relevant other’s outcomes to inputs are
unequal Schematically, this is represented as follows:
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Both the inputs and the outputs of the person and the other are based
upon the person’s perceptions. Age, sex, education, social status,
organizational position, qualifications, and how hard the person works are
examples of perceived input variables. Outcomes consist primarily of reward
such as pay, status, promotion, and intrinsic interest in the job. In essence,
the ratio is based upon the person’s perception of what the person is giving
(inputs) and receiving (outcomes) versus the ratio of what the relevant other is
giving and receiving. This cognition may or may not be the same as someone
else’s observation of the ratio or the same as the actual reality.
Equity theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others
and then respond so as to eliminate any inequalities.
Based on equity theory, when employees perceive an inequity, they
can be predicted to make one of six choices-
1. Change their inputs (e.g.- don’t exert much effort),
2. Change their outcomes (e.g.-individuals paid on a piece-rate basis can
increase their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower
quality),
Person’s outcomes Person’s inputs
Other’s outcomes Other’s inputs
Person’s outcomes Person’s inputs
Other’s outcomes Other’s inputs
Equality occurs when
Person’s outcomes Person’s inputs
Other’s outcomes Other’s inputs
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3. Distort perceptions of self (e.g.- I used to think I worked at a moderate
rate but now I realize that I work a lot harder than everyone else),
4. Distort perceptions of others (e.g.- Mr .X ‘s job is not as desirable as I
previously thought it was),
5. Choose a different referent (e.g.- I may not make as much as my
brother-in-law, but am doing a lot better than my dad did when he was
my age),
6. Leave the field (e.g. - quit the job).
Demerits: • Unclear – how do employees handle conflicting equity signals?
• How do employees define input output?
• When and how do factors change over time?
Merits: • Continues to offer us some important insights into employee motivation
INCENTIVES
Financial Non-Financial Incentives Incentives
• Wages based on ability
• Pension Plan. • Production
bonus. • Profit sharing. • Co-Partnership.
• Status • Promotion • Responsibility • Pleasant and
interesting Job. • Recognition of
work • Job security • Team spirit • Competition • Informal Groups • Social importance
of work.
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INCENTIVES
The needs of individual serve as a driving force in human behavior. In
the context of these needs, management rise to govern the behavior of
employees in satisfying their needs. The objects which are perceived to
satisfy their needs are called incentives. Incentive may be either positive or
negative. Positive incentive attracts people and when they obtain these
incentives they feel satisfied. Examples of positive incentives are increase in
pay, performance, etc. Employee will try to achieve these. Negative
incentives are those which motivate an individual to abstain from doing
something. For example, demotion for not maintaining particular efficiency,
etc. Sometimes, substitute incentives are also applied. These are artificial and
are used as substitute for normal incentive. For example, an employee may
be given extra rise in pay instead of promotional.
Individual have varied types of needs. Some of them can be satisfied
by money, while some cannot be satisfied by money alone. On the basis of
this the various-incentive which may be used by the organizations may be
classified into two parts, viz, financial incentives and non-financial incentive.
Financial Incentive
In the context of existing economic system, money has become a
means not only to satisfy the physical needs of daily life, but also of obtaining
social position and power. Human being if take care of their primary needs of
food, shelter, etc. since money has the exchange value, money becomes a
basic incentive for individual. The organizations offer wages which become
incentive for individual to join the organization. The wage structure should be
such that it motivates the present and prospective employees of the
organization. The traditional management thinkers have emphasized financial
incentive to get out of an individual, but modern theories do not emphasise
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the role of money. Theories, particularly those by Maslow and Herzberg, place
the role of money at quite low level.
Economists and more managers tend to put the special emphasis on
money as motivator while behavioural scientists do not recognize this. From
organization’s point of view, the fact may be in between, that is, the role of
money was a motivating force must be seen in organizational context.
Following points are important for analyzing the role as motivator.
1. Economic conditions necessarily affect the importance of money as a
motivator. Money is an urgent means of achieving a minimum standard of
living, although this minimum has a way of expanding upward as people
become more affluent. However, this cannot be taken as generalization
because for some people, money will remain important irrespective of their
economic conditions, while for others, it is not important after a certain level.
2. The type of organization also determines the importance of money to the
people. For example, Geilerman point out that in most kinds of business
organizations, money is actually used as a means of keeping an organisation
adequately staffed and not as a motivator. This can be seen in the practice of
making wages and salaries competitive between various organizations so as
to attract and hold people.
3. If the money is to act as a motivator, it is necessary to assume a
relationship between performance and reward in terms of money. Those who
seek money will be motivated only if they can clearly link higher performance
to the reward of money. Moreover, people are concerned not only with
absolute amount of money they are paid for their efforts; the relationship of
this amount to what others are paid is also important. This is based on equity
theory. This suggests that people at the same level should be paid same or
nearly same money.
4. Money to act as motivator in an organization should be given in sufficient
quantity to the people. Gellerman suggests that money can motivate only
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when the perspective payment is large enough relative to a person’s income.
The people will try to earn money by their higher performance if they feel that
additional money earned by their efforts is a significant portion of their income.
5. The social attitude towards wealth plays as important role in determining
whether, within a given culture, money will be actively sought and used to
satisfy human needs. In some societies, the personal acquisition of wealth
has been looked upon as evil, or as being beneath the dignity of man. For
such cultural values, the money cannot act as motivator.
Non-Financial Incentives
Financial incentives are used to motivate employees for higher work.
However, individuals have various needs which they want to satisfy while
working in the organization. People at comparatively higher level of
managerial hierarchy attach more importance to socio-psychological needs
which cannot be satisfied by money alone. Thus management, in addition to
the financial incentives, provides non-financial incentives too to motivate the
organization. The connection of non-financial incentive to motivation people in
the organization has nothing to spend on these. However, the emphasis of
non-financial incentive is to provide psychological and emotional satisfaction
rather than financial satisfaction. For example, if an individual gets promotion
in the organization, it satisfies him psychologically more, that is, he gets better
status, more pay also by way of promotion. Some important non-financial
incentives are as follow:
(i) Status: Status, in general terms, is the ranking of people in the
society. In the organizational context, status means the ranking of
position, rights and duties in the formal organization structure. The
status system is an instrument of motivation because it is extremely
important for most of the people. The status system should be
closely related to the abilities and aspiration of people in the
organization.
(ii) Promotion. Promotion is defined as a movement to a position in
which responsibilities and presumably prestige are increased.
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Promotion satisfies the needs of human beings in the organization.
Since the promotion depends upon capabilities and good
performance, people will try for that if the venues for promotion
exist.
(iii) Responsibility. Most of the people prefer challenging and
responsible jobs rather than monotonous and routine type jobs. If
the job is responsible, it satisfaction people’s natural and inherent
characteristics and they put more effort for completing the job.
(iv) Making job Pleasant and interesting. The work can be made
enjoyable and pleasant it so designed that it allows the employees
to satisfy their natural instincts. This creates interest in the work and
employees take it as natural as play. Job enlargement-a method of
making job more complicated and varied- makes the job more
interesting.
(v) Recognition of Work. Most people have a need for a high evaluation
of themselves. They feel that what they do should be recognized by
others concerned. Recognition means acknowledgement with a
show of appreciation. When such appreciation is given to the work
performed by employees, they feel motivation to perform work at
similar or higher level.
(vi) Job Security. Employees want that their job is secure. They want
certain stability about future income and work so that they do not
feel worried on these aspects and they can work with greater zeal.
In India, this aspect is more important considering the inadequate
job opportunities and too many aspirants for these. However, there
is on negative aspects of job security. When people feel that are not
likely to forfeits their jobs, they become complacent.
Summary and Implications for Managers
The following suggestions summarize the essence of motivating employee in
organizations:
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• Recognize individual differences Employees have different needs. Don’t treat them all alike.
Moreover; spend the time necessary to understand what’s important to
each employee. This will allow you to individualize goals, level of
involvement, and rewards to align with individual needs.
• Use Goals and Feedback
Employees should have hard, specific goals, as well as
feedback on how well they are faring in pursuit of those goals.
• Allow employees to participate in Decisions that affect them
Employee can contribute to a number of decisions that affect
them: setting work goals, choosing their own benefits packages, solving
productivity and quality problems, and the like. This can increase
employee productivity, commitment to work goals, motivation, and job
satisfaction.
• Link Rewards to Performance Rewards should be contingent on performance. Importantly,
employee must perceive a clear linkage. Regardless of how closely
rewards are actually correlated to performance criteria, if individuals
perceive this relationship to be low, the result will be low performance, a
decrease in job satisfaction, and an increase in turnover and absenteeism
statistics.
• Check the system for Equity
Rewards should also be perceived by employees as equating
with the inputs they bring to the job. At a simplistic level, this should mean
that experience, skills, abilities, effort, and other obvious inputs should
explain differences in performance and, hence, pay, job assignments, and
other obvious rewards.
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Chapter 8 LEADERSHIP
Definition: Leadership refers to the relation between an individual and a group
around some common interest and behaving in a manner directed or
determined by him. Leadership may be defined in terms of totality of
functions performed by executives as individuals and as a group.
Traits: Leadership must have the following:
1. Leadership establishes relationship between an individual and groups
around some common interest, importance to leadership.
2. It is an important function for making an organization successful.
3. We are concerned about the manager as a leader.
4. Without a good leader the organization cannot run effectively.
5. Direction of activities in the organization is effected by the leader.
Motivating Employees:
Motivation is necessary for work performance. A good leader by
exercising his leadership motivates the employees for high performance.
Good leadership in the organization itself is a motivating factor for the
individuals. A good leader also understands the profile of an employee and
also becomes aware of what motivates an individual employee. This will help
the leader to take individual attention and keeping the motivation level high
among the subordinates.
Creating Confidence:
A good leader may create confidence in his followers by directing,
giving advice and getting good results in the organization. Once an individual
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with the help of a leader puts in high efficiency, he tries to maintain the level of
confidence towards his capacity.
Building Morale:
High moral leads to high productivity and organization stability. Good
leadership in an organization will raise high their employee’s moral thus
ensuring productivity and stability in the organization.
Concept of Leadership:
It represents an abstract quality in a man. A leader may or may not be
a business executive but a business executive must be a leader. It is the
followers who make a person a leader. An executive has to earn his
followers. He may not get a follower unless; he makes people willing to follow
him. Only willing followers can and will make a leader.
Characteristics of Leadership:
1. Leadership is a personal quality of character and behavior in a man.
2. It helps others in choosing and attaining specified goals to the maximum
satisfaction of both the leader and the follower.
3. A leader must lead his group with authority and confidence.
4. A leader motivates his group to work for the attainment of a goal.
5. Leadership is the process of directing, guiding and influencing the people
to do the best and to attain their goal.
Theories of Leadership:
What makes a leader effective? Is his success due to his personality or
his behaviour or the types of followers or the situation in which he works or a
combination of all these? There is no a satisfactory answer to the question.
Instead researches have contributed various theories or approaches on
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leadership, the prominent among these are trait theory, behavioural theory,
and situational theory. Each theory has its own contributions limitations and
assumptions.
Trait Theory:
Trait is defined as an enduring quality of an individual. The trait approach
determines the success of a leader. It depends on the leaders own personal
characteristics.
People say that a particular individual was successful leader because
of his certain qualities. Under this method, leaders of eminence were
selected and their characteristics were studied. It was a strong belief that the
persons having certain traits could become successful leaders. The various
traits are intelligence, attitudes, personality, and biological factors. Various
trait theories have suggested the following traits in a successful leader.
(i) Physical factors (height, weight, physique, energy, health, appearance): (ii)
intelligence; (iii) Self confidence; (iv) Sociability; (v) Will (initiative, persistence,
ambition); (vi) Dominance; and (vii) Urgency (talkative, cheerfulness, genuine,
enthusiasm, expressiveness, alertness and originality). The various studies
show wide variations in leadership traits. The various traits can be classified
into innate and acquirable traits on the basis of their source.
Innate qualities are those which are possessed by various individuals since
their birth. These qualities are natural and often known as God gifted. On the
basis of such qualities, it is said that “leaders are born and not made”. These
qualities cannot be acquired by the individuals. Acquirable qualities of
leadership are those which can be acquired and increased through various
practices. Many of these traits can be increased through training
programmes.
Evaluation:
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The trait theory is very simple. However, this fails to produce clear cut
results. It does not consider the whole environment of the leadership of which
trait may be only one factor. Moreover, no generalization can be drawn about
various traits for leadership. There were variations in traits established by
various researches. They are:
1. No Common traits:
There cannot be common traits for a successful leader. This was evident
by various researches conducted on leadership traits.
2. Degree of traits:
No evidence has been given about the degree of the various traits. The
degree varies.
3. Problem of Measurement:
There is a problem of measuring the traits. The various tests cannot give
definite conclusion. There have been many people with the traits specified for
leader, but they were not good leaders.
This approach, however, gives indication that leader should have certain
personal characteristics. This helps management to develop such qualities
through training and development programmes.
Behavioral Theory:
This approach emphasizes that strong leadership is the result of
effective role behavior. Leadership is shown by a person’s acts more than by
his traits. Traits are affected by followers, goals and the environment in which
these occur. Thus, there are four basic elements leaders, followers, goal and
environment, which affect each other in determining suitable behavior.
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Leadership acts may be viewed in two ways. Some acts are functional
(favorable) to leadership some are dysfunctional (unfavourable). The
dysfunctional acts are also important in leadership because they de-motivate
employees to work together. As such, a leader will not act in this way, the
dysfunctional acts are inability to accept subordinates ideas, display of
emotional immaturity, poor human relations, and poor communications.
Behavior of a manager in a particular direction will make him good
leader. While opposite of this world discard him as a leader. Setting goals,
motivating employees for achieving goals, raising the level of morale building
team spirit, effective communication etc. are the functional behaviour for a
successful leader.
This approach suffers from one weakness that is a particular behaviour
at a time may be effective, while at other times it may not be effective. This
means the time factor becomes a vital element which has not been
considered here.
Situational Theory:
The prime attention is given to the situation in which leadership is
exercised. Research is being done to the situation that surrounds the
exercise of leadership. The point is that in one situation leader may be
successful while in others he may not. Ohio state university research has
given four situational variables that affect the performance of leadership.
These are:
(a) The cultural environment
(b) Differences between individuals
(c) Differences between jobs
(d) Differences between organization
(a). The cultural environment:
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Culture is man-made. It is based on social system of belief, faith and
value. Many aspects of life influence behaviour. Understanding behaviour
requires the understanding of culture. Thus leadership should influence
behaviour of followers in the context of culture.
(b). Differences between individuals:
Human behaviour is caused by combination of factors. There are varieties
of factors affect behaviour. They are aptitudes, personality characteristics,
physical characteristics, interests and motivation, age, sex, education,
experience, etc. The individuals characteristics, also affect the leadership
process.
(c). Differences between jobs:
People perform different types of jobs. The job performance is affected by
four different considerations economic, legal, personal and social. Different
job conditions influence leadership behaviour differently.
(d). Differences between organization:
Organization differs on the basis of their size, age, ownership pattern,
objectives etc., in different types of organizations. Leadership process tends
to differ. For example, leadership behaviour in business organizations will be
different from military organization.
The situational theory of leadership explains how leadership differs with
situational variables. Thus, the question, why a manager in a particular
situation is successful while in the other situation is unsuccessful, is answered
by this theory.
Limitations: This theory is criticized as follows:
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(i). Matching to situation:
This theory emphasises leadership in a given situation. Thus, it measures
his present leadership potentialities. Whether this individual will fit in another
situation is not answered by this theory.
(ii). Measuring Personal ability:
Organisation may be helpful to a great extent to an individual leader in
exercising his leadership. Thus, it is difficult to measure his personal abilities
as a good leader.
(iii). Process of making good leader:
The theory does not indicate the process of making good leaders. Thus, it
puts a constraint over leadership development process.
Power:
Power is the capacity to influence the behavior of others. The term
power may be ' applied to individuals, groups, teams, departments,
organizations, and countries.
For example a certain team within an organization might be labeled as
powerful, which; suggests that it has the ability to influence the behavior of
individuals in other teams or departments. This influence may affect resource
allocations, space assignments, goals, hiring decisions, and many other
outcomes and behaviors in an organization. At Lockheed Martin, engineering
departments are powerful; at Microsoft, software, designers are powerful; and
at "Mary Kay, marketing people are powerful.
People continually attempt to influence the behavior of others in the
normal, course of everyday living. For example, people quite naturally attempt
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to reinforce the pleasing or satisfying behaviors of family members and
friends.
Also, people often attempt to punish undesirable behavior (perhaps in
very subtle ways) so that it will not be repeated. The behaviors of people at
work are no different in this respect than the behaviors of people in general.
Power is a social term; that is, an individual has power in relation to
other people, a team has power in relation to other groups, and so on. Thus
the concept of power characterizes interactions among more than one.
Further, power is never absolute or unchanging. It is a dynamic relationship
that changes as situations and individuals change. For example, a manager
may strongly influence the behavior of one subordinate but, at the same time,
only marginally influence another.
Managers may be powerful with respect to their own subordinates, yet
be unable to influence the behaviors of employees in other departments. In
addition, relationships change with time. Last month's successful influence
attempt may fail tomorrow, even though the same people are involved in both
situations.
Sources of Power in Organization
Interpersonal Sources of power . Reward . Coercive . Legitimate . Expert . Referent
Structural Sources of power . Knowledge . Resources . Decision making . Networks .
Effective/Ineffective Application of Power . Relationship among power Bases . Selection of Influence Strategies
POWER
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Interpersonal Sources of Power:
Power issues in organizations often focus on interpersonal
relationships between managers and subordinates, or leaders and followers.
French and Raven identified five interpersonal sources of power. They are
Reward power, Coercive power, Legitimate power, Expert power, and
Referent power.
Reward Power:
Reward power is an individual's ability to influence others' behaviors by
rewarding their desirable behaviors. For example, to the extent that
subordinates value rewards that the manager can give - praise, promotions,
money, time off, and so on. They may comply with requests and directives.
A manager who controls the allocation of merit pay raises in a
department has reward power over the employees in that department.
Accordingly, employees may comply with some attempts by managers to
influence their behaviors because they expect to be rewarded for their
compliance.
Coercive Power:
Coercive power is an individual's ability to influence others' behaviors
by punishing their undesirable behaviors. For example, subordinates may
comply because they expect to be punished for failure to respond favorably
with managerial directives. Punishment may take the form of reprimands,
undesirable work assignments, closer supervision, and tighter enforcement of
Influence Over
Others
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work rules, suspension without pay, and the like. The organization's ultimate
punishment is to fire the employee.
Legitimate Power:
Legitimate power most often refers to a manager’s ability to influence
subordinates’ behaviours because of the manager’s formal position in the
organization. Subordinates may respond to such influence because they
acknowledge the manager’s legitimate right to prescribe certain behaviours.
Sometimes non managerial employees possess legitimate power. For
example, a safety inspector at Lockheed Martin Vought’s plant in Camden,
Arkansas, has the legitimate power to shut down production when there is a
safety violation, even if the plant manager objects.
Expert Power:
Expert power is an individual's ability to influence others' behaviors
because of recognized competencies, talents, or specialized knowledge. To
the extent that managers can demonstrate competence in implementing,
analyzing, evaluating, and controlling the tasks of subordinates, they will
acquire expert power. Expert power often is relatively narrow in scope.
For example, a team member at Overhead Door Company might
carefully follow the advice of her team leader about how to program a
numerically controlled lathe, yet ignore advice from the team leader regarding
which of three company health plans she should choose. In this instance, the
team member is recognizing expertise in one area while resisting influence in
another.
A lack of expert power often plagues new managers and employees.
Even though a young accountant might possess a great deal of knowledge
about accounting theory and procedures, that expertise must be
demonstrated and applied over time to be recognized and accepted. Similarly,
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employees or managers from under represented groups may have difficulty
getting their expertise recognized by others.
Referent Power:
Referent power is an individual's ability to influence others' behaviors
as a result of being respected, admired, or liked. For example, subordinates
identification with a manager often forms the basis for referent power. This
identification may include the desire of subordinates to emulate the manager.
A young manager may copy the leadership style of an older, admired, and
more experienced manager. The older manager thus has some ability-some
referent power-to influence the behavior of the younger manager. Referent
power usually is associated with individuals who possess admired personality
characteristics, charisma, or a good reputation.
Political Behavior:
Political behavior involves attempts by some to influence the behaviors
of others and the course of events in the organization in order to protect their
self-interests, meet their own needs, and advance their own goals. Described
in this way, almost all behavior may be regarded as political. Labeling
behavior as political, however, usually implies a judgment that certain people
are gaining something at the expense of others or the organization as a
whole. However, a balanced understanding of political behavior and its
consequences is needed. People often are self-centered and biased when
labeling actions as political behavior.
Employees may justify their own political behavior as defending
legitimate rights or interests, yet call similar behavior by others “playing
politics". Including career advancement, recognition and status for individuals
looking after their legitimate interests, and achievement of organizational
goals - getting the job done - as a result of the normal political process in the
organization.
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Harmful effects included demotions and loss of jobs for “losers" in the
political process, a misuse of resources, and creation of an ineffective
organizational culture.
The effect on culture may be among the most undesirable
consequences of continual political behavior. Organizational politics may
arouse anxieties that cause employees to withdraw emotionally from the
organization.
The withdrawal, in turn, makes creating an organizational culture
characterized by high performance and high commitment very difficult.
Political behavior, then, can meet appropriate and legitimate individual
and organizational needs, or it can result in negative outcomes.
In any event, managers and employees must understand political
behavior because it definitely will occur. Eliminating political behavior isn't
possible - it can only be managed.
Organizational Politics
Organizational politics is universal. Political behavior is not exclusive to
these who hold public positions. We expect political behavior in every
organization. For example, Pfeiffer and Sherwood comment that: “The ‘who
gets what’ (politics) is endemic to every organization, regardless of size,
function, or character of ownership. Furthermore, it is to be found in every
level of the hierarchy; and it intensified as the stakes become more important
and the area of decision possibilities greater.”
Tushman has defined politics as, ‘the structure and process of the use of
authority and power to effort definition of goals, directions and the other major
parameters of the organization’.
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Features of politics:
1. Political behavior involves some kind of power either directly or
indirectly. Power can be exercised by those who are in formal position
and enjoy authority. It can also be influenced by other person close to
those who hold formal authority.
2. Politics involves behavior that is self-serving. It suggests that either
organizational resources are used for personal benefits or benefits to
be given to one person are given to another. In both the cases the
decision is not rational from organization’s point of view.
3. Politics takes place when an individual recognises that achievement of
his goals is influenced by the behavior of other.
4. All self-serving behaviors which do not involve use of power or threat of
use power cannot be termed as politics. For example, an employee
asking for a rise in pay is not political behavior, but the use of threat to
unionise to obtain a pay rise amounts to politics behavior.
Political behavior may assume the following forms:
1. Scapegoat
2. Passing the buck
3. Sabotage
4. Attacking and blaming other
5. Praising others,
6. Creating obligations and reciprocals
7. Creating power coalitions
8. Associating with influential
9. Image building
10. Support building for ideas
11. Falsification or hiding of important information.
All these forms will result into either wastage of organizational
resources or downing of morale of people in the organization. In both
these cases, organizational efficiency will suffer.
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Reasons for Organizational politics
• Competition for power
• Discretionary authority
• Ambiguity in organization
• Subjective evaluation of performance
• Saturation in promotion
• Joint decision- making
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Chapter 9 COMMUNICATION
Definition: The word communication has been derived from the Latin word
'communis', which can be translated as common. However, communication
incorporates, besides commonality, the concepts of transfer, meaning, and
information.
The communication can be defined as the process through which two
or more persons come to exchange ideas and understanding among
themselves.
Process:
Communication has been defined as a process. The process is a
concept of changing rather than static existence. Events and relationships are
seen as dynamic, continuous and flexible, and as such, must be considered
as a whole, a dynamic interaction both affecting and being affected by many
variables. Thus various elements might be involved in this process and may
not be unanimity amongst various authors and thinkers.
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ssssss
A communication process may involve various elements. Thus, the
above figure shows the following elements in this process.
1. Sender:
The person who intends to make contact with the objective of passing
information, ideas to other persons is knows as sender. Labeling one person
as the sender and the other as the receiver is arbitrary. These roles shift back
and forth, depending on where the individuals are in the process when the
receiver responds to the senders the original receiver becomes the sender
and the initiating sender becomes the receiver.
Sender may have certain intention in communicating, such as changing
the thoughts, beliefs, attitude or behavior of the receiver or changing the
sender's relationship with the receiver. These intentions may be presented
openly. If the receiver doesn't agree with them, the probability of distortions
and misunderstanding can be quite high. The fewer the differences in goals,
attitudes, and beliefs, the greater is the probability that accurate
communication will occur.
Communication Process: Sender Ideas Encoding Channel Receiver
Decoding
FEEDBACK
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2. Ideas:
This is the subject-matter of communication. This might be opinion,
attitude, feelings, views, suggestions, orders, etc.
3. Encoding:
Since the subject-matter of communication is abstract and intangible,
its transmission requires the use of certain symbols such as words, actions,
pictures, etc. Conversion of the subject matter into these symbols is the
process of encoding.
4. Channel:
These symbols are transmitted through certain channels, e.g. radio,
telephone, air, etc., depending upon the situation of the two parties, viz.,
sender and receiver.
5. Receiver:
Receiver is the person to whom message is meant for.
6. Decoding:
Receiver converts the symbols received from the sender to give him
the meaning of the message.
7. Feedback:
Feedback is necessary to ensure that the receiver has received the
message and understands it in the same sense as sender wants. Further, it
also acts as an energizing factor, thereby changing the course of action in the
communication.
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Making Communication Effective:
There are various guidelines for making effective communication.
American Management Association has suggested Ten Commandments of
good communication. These are:
• clarifying idea before communication,
• purpose of communication,
• understanding physical and human environment of communication,
• consulting others in planning communication,
• contents and overtones of communication,
• value of communication to the receiver,
• follow-up action,
• importance of communication,
• action congruent with communication, and
• good listening.
The major efforts for making communication effective are as follows:
1. Clarity in idea:
The communicator should be quite clear about what he wants to
communicate. Communication is a process starting with ideation which
includes generation of ideas which are meant for communication. This is the
subject-matter of communication and may, include opinions attitudes,
feelings, views, suggestions, orders, etc.
2. Purpose of Communication:
Every communication has some purpose, the basic purpose of any
communication being to get behavioral response from the receiver of the
communication. However, the ultimate objective may be extended further, for
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example, getting an order accepted by the subordinate. The communications
should be directed towards this objectively by the efforts of communicator.
3. Empathy in Communication:
The way for effective communication is to be sensitive towards
receiver's needs, feelings, and perceptions. This is what psychologists call
empathy in communication, implying putting legs in other's shoes, or
projecting oneself into the viewpoint of the other person. When the sender of
the message looks at the problems from the receiver’s point of view, many of
the misunderstanding is avoided.
4. Two-way Communication:
Communication is a two-way traffic and this fact must be realized in
communication. Two-way communication brings two minds together which is
the basic core of any communication. It involves a continuous dialogue
between sender and receiver of the message. Upward communication can
become a reality in the organization and effective if this fact is recognized.
5. Appropriate Language:
The subject-matter of communication is transmitted by decoding it into
some symbols. Such symbols may be in the form of words, either spoken or
written, pictures, and gestures. If the words are used, the language used for
communication should be such which is understandable by the receiver.
Technical terminology and multi-syllable words may be impressive looking,
but they can also be troublesome to the listener. One way of making the
communication simple is to use repetitive language with which the receiver is
quite familiar.
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6. Supporting words with Action:
Often it is said that action speaks louder than words. While
communicating, the sender may use the actions to emphasize a point. This
enhances the understanding as well as emphasizes the important point in
communication. Further, the sender of the message must also follow in action
what he says to others. This will ensure the seriousness in communication.
7. Credibility in Communication:
One criterion for effective managerial communication is that it has
credibility or believability. The subordinates obey the orders of the superior
because he has demonstrated through his competence that he is worthy for
trust. He must also maintain his trust and credibility. Thus any communication
which is based on this trust and credibility will be followed by the
subordinates.
8. Good Listening:
A communicator must be a good listener too. By this process, he is not
only giving chance to others to speak but he gathers useful information for
further communication. By concentrating on the speaker's explicit and implicit
meanings, the manager can obtain a much better understanding of what is
being said.
Nicholas has identified that managers suffer from some common
habits of bad listening, though; much of their communication time is spent in
listening. Davis has suggested ten points which may be observed in listening.
These are stop talking, put the talker at ease, show the talker that you want to
listen to, remove distractions, emphasize with the talker, be patient, hold your
temper, go easy on arguments and criticism, ask questions, stop talking. He
has emphasized to stop talking because without stopping to talking, one
cannot listen to.
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Transactional Analysis:
Understanding Human Behavior:
Managers are interested in securing increased performance or
productivity from their subordinates. Several theories of motivation help them
in this direction. Psychologists have considerably helped in recent years
towards a better understanding of human behavior. For example, in recent
times, other psychologists starting with Eric Berne have developed the theory
of Transactional Analysis.
Transactional Analysis theory can provide the manager with insight into
his own personality as well as into what makes others behave as they do.
Such an understanding can help improve the relationships between the
manager and his subordinates as well as his superiors. It can even help him
increase his own on the job effectiveness through a better self understanding
and insight into personalities and transactions.
(1) Ego States:
Eric Berne noticed when observing people that they seemed to change
before his eyes. In the earlier stages, he found two types of people existing
within the same individual and he referred to them as the "Adult" and the
"Child". Later on he found a third state, distinct from these two, which he
labeled the "Parent". The same person was seen to change among these
three states as he expressed himself in words, gestures, etc.
Berne defines an ego state as "A consistent pattern of feeling and
experience directly related to a corresponding consistent pattern of behavior".
He thus implied that a person's experiences were recorded in his brain. These
included experiences of his childhood and the way his parents behaved.
These had an effect on the way he himself behaved in response to situations.
Thus, each person has three ego states, namely:
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(1) The Parent Ego State:
The Parent ego state is the part of an individual's personality which
incorporate the attitudes and behaviors from external sources primarily
parents or those who had parental authority over him. Outwardly the behavior
is critical, prejudicial or nurturing, whilst internally the old parental messages
continue to influence the inner child of the individual. Thus, for better or
worse, parents do serve as models and the effect of their behavior continues
in their children even when they are grown up.
Again, a parent himself has three unique ego states, namely the
Parent, Adult and the Child, which are incorporated in the individual's own
parent ego state. This analysis of an ego state within an ego state is called
Second order structural analysis. What this implies is that an individual's
behavior may resemble that of the grandmother's adult or the father's child
and so on.
Psychologists have shown that in the early years, say up to the age of
five, the child accepts as correct whatever is communicated by his parents.
This remains in his sub-conscious, even after he has become an adult, when
he continues to copy his parents' postures, gestures.
Some parental messages are good, whilst others are bad. Both the
positive and the negative messages remain in the individual's brain and make
him behave in a particular way.
(2) The Adult Ego State:
The Adult ego state in an individual deals rationally and objectively with
reality. It is organized and intelligent. It gathers information and tests
realities. It computes dispassionately. This state is not related to a person's
age. For example, we often say of a grown-up man that he is still not mature.
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What we are referring to is the fact that his Adult is not strong in terms of
transactional analysis.
The Adult ego state exists in everyone, unless the brain is severely
damaged. Each one can use this Adult data processing ability. Berne
describes the Adult as an independent set of feelings, attitudes, and behavior
patterns that are adapted to the current reality and are not effected by
Parental prejudices or archaic attitudes left over from childhood. The Adult is
the ego state which makes survival possible.
He also describes it as being "concerned with the autonomous
collecting and processing of data and the estimating of probabilities as a basis
for action". The Adult ego state is thus capable of separating fact from
fantasy; is able to evaluate current situations; and permits the individual to
assess alternative courses of action before adopting the optimum. This
should, however, not be confused with meaning that the Adult ego state
depends upon correctness of the decisions. It refers to the process of
decision making rather than the result.
For example, when a person analysis his job in terms of what he really
wants with etc., he is using his Adult ego state. The correctness or quality of
his decisions would naturally depend on how well-informed his Adult is and
the ability of the Adult to select and use appropriate information, even from
the Parent and the Child, to arrive at the right decision.
(3) The Child Ego State:
This ego state incorporates the impulses naturally existing in an infant
and includes the recordings of the child's early experiences. A person's Child
ego state is thus made up of the little boy or girl in him which he or she once
was. Our own impulses during childhood are recorded in our brains. The
Child ego state is the inner world of feelings and experiences. The Child
ego state may express itself by being mean, playful, selfish or manipulative.
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The Child ego state develops into three discernible parts, namely:
(1) The Natural Child:
The Natural Child is that part of the Child ego state that is pleasure
loving or rebelliously angry. It does what comes naturally. An old man
enjoying an ice cream cone with relish is expressing his Natural Child. The
Natural Child is self indulgent, self-centered, aggressive and fearful. It can
also express itself in unpleasant ways such as a boss who wants things done
his way without regard for others. A happy, healthy person with a strong Adult
expresses appropriately, this Natural Child in his daily behavior pattern.
(2)The Little Professor:
The Little Professor is that part of the Child ego state which is creative,
intuitive and manipulative. Advocates of Transactional Analysis indicate that
when a person expresses his creativity purposefully, he is using his Little
Professor along with his Adult ego state. Thus, the creative Little Professor
along with the intelligent Adult makes a good team. However, the Little
Professor can also be manipulative. For example, the woman secretary who
gets what she wants from her male boss with tears in her eyes is using the
Little Professor in her ego state.
(3) The Adapted Child:
The Adapted Child is a child who has learnt to say 'Please' and 'Thank
you'. An infant adapts itself to the demands of outside authority as it does not
know what is right or wrong at that stage. With the help of his Little Professor,
the little child learns how to avoid pain or to gain approval. Children thus
adapt themselves. Thus the Adapted Child is a part of the Child ego state
which is primarily influenced by the parents.
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These ego states are colloquially termed Parent, Adult and Child and
when capitalized here, they refer to ego states rather than to actual parents,
adults or children.
(II) TRANSACTION :
Whenever something happens between persons, it involves a
transaction between their various ego states. When a person recognizes
another with an oral greeting, a frown or a smile, in Transactional Analysis
language, this recognition is termed a stroke. When there are two or more
strokes, they constitute a transaction. Transactions can be classified into one
of three types, namely- (1) complementary, (2) crossed, and (3) ulterior.
Complementary Transactions:
When anything happens between people which involves a transaction
between various ego states, in Transactional Analysis language it is described
as a transaction. When the message sent by one person gets the predicted
response, the transaction is described as a complementary transaction. In the
words of Berne, a complementary transaction is one which is "appropriate and
expected and follows the natural order of healthy human relationships".
For example, if the wife is upset and is immediately comforted by her
husband in a sympathetic manner that is said to be a complementary
transaction as her dependency need has been answered appropriately by the
husband.
Crossed Transactions:
A crossed transaction is a frequent source of resentment. For
example, when two persons are glaring at each other, or are unwilling to
continue transacting, they have most likely experienced a crossed transaction.
An unexpected response was received to the original stimulus. The
transaction has thus activated an inappropriate ego state.
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Take the same illustration where the wife was looking for comfort from
a sympathetic husband. If the husband responds unsympathetically, the
transaction would be described as a crossed one.
Ulterior Transactions:
Ulterior transactions are more complex and have a hidden agenda like
a double message. For example T.V. salesman says to his customer with a
smile that whilst the T.V. set he is showing is the finest, it may be too
expensive for the customer. He is thus sending his message which can be
heard by the customer's Adult or Child ego state. Ulterior transactions often
result in psychological games. An ulterior transaction is involved in all games.
The word 'game' here is used in the language of Transactional Analysis.
Current issues in Communication
We will discuss four current issues related to communication in
organizations: why do man and women often have difficulty communicating
with each other? What are the implications of the “politically correct”
movement on communications in organizations? How can individuals improve
their cross-cultural communications? And how is electronics changing the way
people communicate with each other in organizations?
Communication barriers between women and men
Research by Deborah Tannen Provides us with some important
insights into the differences between men and women in terms of their
conversational styles. In particular, she has been able to explain why gender
often crests oral communication barriers. The essence on Tannen’s research
is that men use talk to emphasize status, while women use it to create
connection. Her conclusion, of course, doesn’t apply to every man or every
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woman. As she puts it, her generalization means, “a large percentage of
women and men are more likely to talk one way or the other”.
Tannen states that communication is a continual balancing act, juggling
the conflicting needs for intimacy and independence. Intimacy emphasizes
closeness and commonalities. Independence emphasizes separateness and
differences. But here’s the kick: women speak and hear a language of
connection and intimacy; men speak and hear a language of status, power,
and independence. So, for many men, conversations are primarily a means to
preserve independence and maintain status in a hierarchical social order. For
many women, conversations are negotiations for closeness in which people
try to seek and give confirmation and support.
Finally, men often criticize women for seeming to apologize all the time.
Men tend to see the phrase “I am sorry” as a weakness because they
interpret the phrase to mean the woman Is accepting blame, when he knows
she’s not to blame. The women also know she’s not to blame. The problem is
that women frequently use “I’m sorry” to express regret and restore balance to
a conversation: “I know you must feel badly about this; I do, too.” For many
women, “I’m sorry” is an expression of understanding and caring about the
person’s feelings rather than an apology.
“Politically correct” communication
What words do you use to describe a colleague who is wheelchair
bound? What terms do you use in addressing a female customer? How do
you communicate with a brand-new client who is not like you? The right
answer can mean that their is difference between coding a client, an
employee, a lawsuit, a harassment claim, or a job. Most of us are acutely
aware of how our vocabulary has been modified to reflect political
correctness. For instance, most of us have cleansed the words handicapped,
blind, and elderly from our vocabulary and replaced them with terms such as
physically challenged, visually impaired, and senior.
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Words are the primary means by which people communicate. When we
eliminate word from usage because they’re political incorrect, we reduce our
option for conveying message in the clearest and most accurate form. For the
most part, the larger the vocabulary used by a sender and a receiver, the
greater the opportunity to accurately transmit messages. By removing certain
words from our vocabulary, we make it harder to communicate accurately.
When we further replace these words with new terms whose meanings are
less well understood, we have reduced the likelihood that our messages will
be received as we had intended them. We must be sensitive to how our
choice of words might offend other. But we also have to be careful not to
sanitize our language to the point where it clearly restricts clarity of
communication. There is no simple solution to this dilemma. However, you
should be aware of the trade-offs and the need to find a proper balance.
Cross-cultural communication
Cross-culture factors clearly create the potential for increase in
communication problems. A gesture that is well understood and acceptable in
one culture can be meaningless or lewd in another.
Semantics barriers
Words mean different things to different people. This is particularly true
for people from different national cultures. Some words, for instance, don’t
translate between cultures. Understanding the words issue will help you in
communicating with people. The new capitalists in Russia may have difficulty
communicating with their British or Canadian counterparts because English
terms such as efficiency, free market, and regulation are not directly
translated into Russian.
Barriers caused by Words Words imply different things in different languages. Negotiations
between American and Japanese executives, for instance, are made more
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difficult because the Japanese word hai translates as “yes,” but its
connotation may be “yes,” I’m listening,” rather than “yes, I agree.”
Barriers caused by tone differences
In some cultures, language is formal, in other it’s informal. In some
cultures, depending on the context: people speak differently at home, in social
situations, and at work. Using a Personal, informal style in a situation in which
a more formal style is expected can be embarrassing and off-putting.
Barriers caused by differences among perceptions
People who speak different languages actually view the world in
different ways. Eskimos perceive “snow” differently because they have many
words for it. Thais perceive “no” differently than Americans because the
former have no such word in their vocabulary.
Electronic communications
Until the last 15 or 20 years, there were very few technologies break
through that significantly affected organizational communications. Early in this
century, the telephone dramatically reduced personal, face-to-face
communication. The popularization of the photocopy machine in the late
1960s was the death bell for carbon paper and made the copying of document
faster and easier. But beginning in the early 1980s, we’ve been subjected to
an onslaught of new electronic technologies that are largely reshaping the
way we communicate in organizations.
These include pagers, facsimile machines, video conferencing,
electronic meeting, e-mail, cellular phone, voice messaging, and palm-sized
personal communications. Electronic communication no longer make it
necessary for you to be at your work station or desk to be “available” pagers,
cellular phones, and personal communicators allow you to be reached when
you’re in a meeting, during your lunch break, while visiting in a customer’s
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office across town, or during a golf game on Saturday morning. The line
between an employee’s work and non work life is no longer distinct. In the
electronic age, all employees can theoretically be “on call” 24 hours a day.
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Chapter 10 ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT
Definition:
Conflict is any difference of opinion, disagreement or disequilibrium
between (a) One member and another member of an organization, (b) One
member and group, (c) Between two groups.
Follet defined conflict as,” the appearance of difference of opinion or
interests”. Traditional view of conflicts-“All conflicts are bad”. Human
Resources View of conflict-“They are natural but should be solved”. The
Modern view of conflict- “The conflicts are not only inevitable but many times
they could be a positive force”.
Pondy has described that the term conflict is used in 4 ways in the
literature to describe (i) antecedent conditions of conflict full behavior, such as
scarcity of resources or policy differences;(ii) affective states of individuals
involved, such as a stress, tension, hostility tension etc., (iii) Cognitive states
of individuals that is their perception or awareness of conflictual situations or
and (iv) conflictual behavior ranging from passive resistance to over
aggression.
Some of the positive aspects of conflicts are as follows: 1. Conflicts provide opportunities to individuals and groups to think again and
take a more concrete view of the situation
2. These lead to innovation as conflicting situations always present threats to
the working. In order to overcome this threat the individuals and the groups
have to find out new ways of working.
3. Conflicts bring cohesiveness in groups. This happens more in the case of
inter-group conflicts.
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4. Conflicts provide challenging work environment as these develop high
degree of competition.
5. As conflicts develop among various individuals and groups, these indicate
the shortcomings in the existing system of organizational functioning and
management attention can be drawn for overcoming such shortcomings.
6. Conflicts may be used as a device to overcome many frustrations and
tensions. People may express their frustration and tension by means of
conflicts. Thus they are related to utter mental tension.
It should, however, be taken into consideration that conflicts beyond
certain degree may lead to organizational disequilibrium as discussed above.
Therefore, attempts should be made to overcome conflicts. From this point of
view, understanding of conflicts at various levels in the organization is a
starting point. Conflicts may take place at individual level, intra-individual level
and inter-individual level, group level, and organization level.
Types of Conflict:
1) Individual (within an individual) conflicts:
• Wrong choice of job
• Role conflict
• Goal conflict
2) Interpersonal conflicts (between two people):
• Situational factors
• Distorted information
• Past events
• Status / level / grade
• Ego conflicts
• Performance related conflicts
• Differing skills/knowledge levels
• Threat to existing status
• Simple misunderstanding
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3) Intra group conflict (within group):
• Ethics and Moral issues
• Rebels
• Role conflicts
• Anti establishment people
• Sabotage
4) Inter group conflicts (between 2 groups):
For example- manufacturing vs. quality, marketing vs. finance.
• Task ambiguity
• Role conflict
• Target ambiguities
• Conflicts in coordination
• Sharing of power
• Inter departmental problems
• Strategy conflicts
• Functional prestige
• General policies of the organization, particularly reward systems
Managing Conflict: Conflict can be managed at two stages – one preventive and the other
curative.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES
• Development of Effective Leadership,
• Development of Effective Participative Decision Making,
• Development of Effective 2 - Way Communication,
• Improvement in Interpersonal relationship,
• Provision of Facilities.
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CURATIVE MEASURES
Resolution of Conflict
Whenever conflicts arise, these have to be resolved by some specific
actions, known as conflict-resolution actions. There may be many such
actions.
Some major actions in conflict resolution take place in the following ways:
1. Problem Solving
The problem solving technique is considered to be the most positive
technique available for conflict resolution because it emphasizes the attaining
of the common interests of both conflicting parties. In mutual problem solving
process, the conflicting parties must come together with the responsibilities of
solving the mutual problem that faces rather than merely finding the way to
accommodate their perspectives.
Questions of who is right or wrong are generally avoided, but sharing
and communicating are required in order to find areas of common interest.
This process causes the doubts and misunderstandings that underlie the
conflict to become more obvious to the parties so that they may more
effectively deal with them. Problem solving technique can be applied
effectively where conflict is based on misunderstanding of the parties
concerned. However, this technique is not effective when conflicts stem from
value systems that differ and that are the one of the major sources of
conflicts.
2. Avoidance
Another method of overcoming conflict is its avoidance. That is, parties
to the conflict may either withdraw from the conflict or conceal the
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incompatibility. Withdrawal may be observed when one party leaves the field
of conflict so that the other party may win by being in sole possession of the
goal in dispute. Alternatively, the goal may be redefined through mutual
withdrawal from the field and the redefinition of other and one-overlapping
goal priorities.
Concealing the incompatibility is another from of conflict. In such a
case, the conflict may be eliminated by withholding the information that the
parties are in conflict because of goal incompatibilities. However, these are
the methods for avoiding conflicts rather than solving the actual conflicts.
3. Smoothing
It can be defined as the process of playing down differences that exist
between individuals or group while emphasizing common interests.
Differences are suppressed and similarities are accentuated in smoothing
process.
Finding and emphasizing similarities between conflicting parties, while
suppressing differences, can eventually lead the parties to realize that they
are not far apart as was first beloved. With shared viewpoint on an issue, the
ability to work together towards a commonly held goal must be facilitated. This
again however, is not a long-term solution for the conflicts.
4. Compromise
It is a well-accepted technique for resolving conflict, yielding neither
loser nor a distinct winner. Include here are external or third-party
interventions, plus internal compromise between conflicting parties through
both total-group and repetitive negotiation and voting. Such a compromise
may be achieved either through the intervention of third party, the process is
commonly known as mediation, or without the intervention of the external
parties, the method is known as bargaining. In both such cases, the conflicting
parties arrive at some compromise which is mutual give-and-take situation.
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Compromise may be effectively used when the goal object may be
devised up in some way among the competing parties. In cases where this is
not possible, one group may yield to the other something of value in exchange
for a concession on of value; both parties then give something up. In a
compromise situation, the outcome depends primarily on the relative strength
of the parties. In situations in which one of the parties is much stronger than
the other, little actual compromising may occur, and one side dictates to the
other. This is quite effective method of conflict resolution between
management and workers.
5. Confrontation
The various actions enumerated above may not bring resolution of
conflict between parties if they take very rigid stand. In such a case, the
parties are left to confrontation to settle the conflict themselves. This strategy
may result into win-lose situation. The parties concerned may settle their
score by applying their strength against each other. Confrontation may be
used for organization development and increasing organizational
effectiveness. However, confrontation may not be treated as ideal technique
for most of the organizations especially if they are not equipped with taking
the advantage of confrontation. It can be desirable only if the organization is
working on competitive spirit basis. Since this is the part of organizational
climate and if organizational climate may not be development on this basis, it
is not desirable to go for confrontation.
The parties involved in conflict must analyze certain aspects before
going for confrontation. The first basic question is: what are the issues-of
conflict? What are the costs for achieving a particular thing? Often conflict is
based not on actual issue but on misperception which may aggravate the
situation leading to conflictual behavior. In such a case, self-introspection
provides the real understanding of conflict phenomenon. The second aspect
which must be analyzed is the cost involved. Often the cost involved is much
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more than the benefits associated with confrontation. Therefore it cannot
always be relied upon.
Conflict resolving strategies:
• Avoidance strategy - pretend that there is no conflict.
• Postponing strategy - the problem is recognized. But solution is not
attempted.
• Compromise - try to tell both the parties to stop. But the outcome is
won by the stronger party. Normally the conflict is referred to a third
party for mediation.
• Smoothing strategy - the boss appeals to both the parties to stop
quarreling for his sake. The parties might stop temporarily but will pick
up the next opportunity.
• Healthy confrontation - Here the problem is approached directly with
a view to get all facts - tell the parties their mistakes and rights and
wrongs without personal prejudice. The idea is to resolve the problem
and not to find fault with individuals. But normally both the parties
would have done mistakes that contributed to the conflict. The boss
tells them their mistakes also, without fear or favor and the occasion is
taken to set right the systems also. Normally this is the best method.
But very difficult to apply where delicate feelings and emotions are
involved.
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