CONTROL OF HUMAN TIGER CONFLICT IN SUNDARBAN TIGER RESERVE · CONTROL OF HUMAN TIGER CONFLICT IN SUNDARBAN TIGER RESERVE ... The major issue in managing Human- Tiger conflict in STR
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CONTROL OF HUMAN TIGER CONFLICT IN SUNDARBAN TIGER
RESERVE
NILANJAN MALLICK, CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS
MONITORING CIRCLE, WEST BENGAL
P-16, INDIA EXCHANGE PLACE, NEW CIT BUILDING, KOLKATA.
nmallick66@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: Sundarban is the largest mangrove forest in the world with high biodiversity value. This
is the only mangrove forest in the world where tigers are found. Tigers of Sundarban forests are known
for their ferocity, man eating behavior and peculiar habit of straying into human habitations. This
particular behavior of the sundarban tiger is the main reason of conflict with the local inhabitants. People
living in the vicinity of forest are heavily dependent on forest for livelihood. This is a major problem in
Sundarban tiger reserve and specific measures are taken to control this. The present article describes the
causes, types, nature of human tiger conflict in Sundarbans and measures taken to control it.
Key words: Sundarban tiger reserve, mangrove, tiger straying, conflict, rescue, capture, nylon net
fence.
Introduction: Sundarban, the largest delta in the world, consists of 10,200 sq km of Mangrove Forest,
spread over India (4200 sq km of Reserved Forest) and Bangladesh (6000 sq km approx of Reserved
Forest) and is also the largest Mangrove Forest in the world. Another 5400 sq km of non-forest, inhabited
region in India, along the north and north-western fringe of mangrove forest, is also known as Sundarban
region in India. Indian Sundarban is bound on the west by river Muriganga and on the east by rivers
Harinbhahga and Raimangal. Other major rivers flowing through this eco-system are Saptamukhi,
Thakuran, Matla and Goasaba. (Source: Annual Report of Sundarban Tiger Reserve, 2005)
Sundarban Tiger Reserve was constituted by GOI under Project Tiger scheme, in 1973 with a total area of
2585 sq. km. STR is home one of the largest population of tiger in our country. Historically the tigers of
Sundarbans have the habit of straying into human habitations which are very close to the forest. It has
also been reported as notorious for its human killing propensity in the early literatures related to
Sundarbans especially the fishermen, wood cutters and honey collectors.
This particular problem has always been at the centre point in the management of Sundarban Tiger
Reserve. The present study will deal with the problem and some of its solution.
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Background Information:
Sundarban is the largest river delta of India crisscrossed by tidal rivers and has extremely rich diversity
of aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna. Sundarban's highly productive ecosystem acts as a natural fish
nursery. Millions of people living in the vicinity of forest depend on Sundarban Ecosystem for their
livelihood and sustenance through fishing, collection of honey and fuel wood/timber.
Average annual maximum temperature is around 35 C . Average annual rainfall is 1920 mm. Average
humidity is about 82% which is more or less uniform throughout the year.
Flora:
According to Champion & Seth classification, the Sundarban forest falls under the sub group 4B
tidal swamp forest, with sub-divisions namely, Mangrove type 4B/TS1, 4B/TS2, Salt water type
mixed forests 4B/TS3, Brackish type 4B/TS4 and Palm type 4B/E1.
Major species found in the forests of Sundarban are: Baen ( Avicennia marina , A. alba, A.
officinalis ), , Genwa ( Excoecaria agallocha ), Goran ( Ceriops spp .), Garjan ( Rhizophora spp
.), Kankra ( Bruguiera spp .), Sundari ( Heritiera fomes ). Hental ( Phoenix spp .) Dhundul (
Xylocarpus granatum ), Passur ( Xylocarpus mekongensis ) and Nipa fruticans (Golpata) palm
swamps are extremely limited. Oryza coarctata (Dhani grass) are found all over the area.
• True Mangrove species = 26
• Mangrove associates = 29
• Back mangrove species= 29
• Family = 40 Genera = 60
Fauna:
Mollusc species = 177 Fish species = 364
Mammals species= 47 Insect species= 114
Birds species = 234 Reptiles species = 71
(Source: Tiger conservation plan of Sundarban tiger reserve, 2012)
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Demography:
During post-independence period, this region witnessed sudden influx of population mainly due
to migration. The displaced persons occupied vested lands and cleared forests for habitation. It
exerted negative impact on the economy of fringe population. In Sundarban, 36.5% of the
population belongs to SC/ST as compared to the State average of 25.61%. Nearly 95% of the
population primarily depends on agriculture, which is mostly rain-fed mono-cropping, and about
fifty percent of agriculturists are landless laborers. During agricultural lean season, due to
extreme poverty people resort to fishing and collection of prawn seeds, even risking their lives
from tigers and crocodiles.
Study Area:
Total area: 2585 sq. km.
Critical Tiger Habitat: 1699.62 sq. km.
Buffer Zone: 885.27 sq. km.
(Source: Annual report of Sundarban Tiger Reserve 2005)
Materials and Methods:
The present study is based on the observations made during field visit and interaction
with the frontline staffs of Sundarban Tiger Reserve along with already available data and
literature.
The Tiger of Sundarban is known as Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris). Its
claws are adapted to strike & hold prey while canines are designed for biting & killing, its short
strong jaws are controlled by powerful muscles and soft pads for stealthy approach make tiger
capable of sudden speed & burst of power. It is combined with highly developed sense of
hearing & vision. However its power of smell has been reported to be not as powerful as the
hearing ability. Its unique striped colour of deep yellow, orange and black are variable.
Sundarban Tiger is different because of its adaptability to the unique mangrove habitat. Their
behaviour is highly individual specific. (Tiger conservation plan of Sundarban tiger reserve,
2012)
Tiger in Sundarban employs individual hunting techniques for its broad range of prey
including regular & occasional (cattle & human being) prey. This is based on different hunting
tactics like concealment, stalking, sudden rush and then dispatch of prey. Predatory behaviour
will also differ according to the prey species, prey size & hunting environment.
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Territoriality of Sundarban Tiger:--
The idea that Tiger is a territorial animal came from the study made by Seidensticker
when he tranquilized a tiger for the first time in Sundarbans which had strayed into a village &
subsequently released the tiger into the forest. The tiger was found dead & the cause of death
was attributed to a territorial dispute between the released tiger & the resident tiger in whose
domain, the tiger was released.
But in recent times, a number of strayed tigers have been successfully relocated in good
habitat types far away from straying zone. Intensive monitoring of the released tiger was done
for all of those relocations. In none of the cases, evidence of territorial conflicts was found. To
add with, in Sundarban, because of different physical factors tiger wanders a lot but the range
requirement of tiger is not known actually. (Tiger conservation plan of Sundarban tiger reserve, 2012)
Man eating propensity of Sundarban Tiger: ---
Within the memory of man, Sundarban tigers have been ill-famed as man eaters. The earliest
known written document is found in the letters of Portuguese Jesuit missionaries, among them Francis
Fernandez and Melchoir Fronseca, who travelled to Bengal in 1598 and 1599. For the first time they
reported that tigers of gangetic delta are fond of human flesh. (Holsten, 1925)
Man eating behaviour of Sundarban Tigers has been historically authenticated but since
how long is not known. The data provided below, gives an idea of casualties in the undivided
Sundarban during last century (Gupta, 1964):–
Year
No. of man carried away
No. of tiger killed or trapped
1881-82 161 3
1883-84 168 8
1907-08 120 9
1911-12 112 61
1914-15 79 36
1915-16 60 33
This behaviour of tiger does not have any intra-specific or intra-generic similarity with any of the
Panthera species from anywhere in the world. The various groups of human being fall victim of
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tiger include honey collectors, fishermen including crab collectors, tiger prawn seed collectors &
even Forest Department staff.
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Map of Sundarban Tiger Reserve
Trap cage for capture of strayed tiger
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Members of TSCF being trained
Nylon net fencing in Sundarban Tiger Reserve
Tiger being released after capture
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The reasons attributed for man eating propensity of Sundarban Tigers are as follows:--
A) Salinity :---
Hendrics (1975) was the first to notice an increased percentage of human death by tiger
in high salinity zone.
Siddiqi & chowdhury (1987) also found human killing by tiger in high salinity zone is
significantly higher than those in medium & low salinity zone.
There are opinions from other authors too, claiming that the physiology of Sundarban
Tigers is affected by high salinity which causes irritation resulting in human killing by
tiger. But there is no scientific proof of this. It is to be kept in mind that inner organs like
liver, kidney etc can be investigated histologically & Management Authority presently
decides to do that in case of any tiger death.
B) Vegetation :---
Chakrabarty (1978) identified that habitat of pure Ceriops & Phoenix does stand for
highest human killing by tiger.
It can be attributed that dense vegetation of Ceriops & Phoneix may influence the tiger to
explore different preying strategy which may be successful for killing of human being
after following them & assessing the chance of stalking by getting closest to them.
C) Prey density & Biotic interference :---
Salter (1984) opined that the frequency of human killing is highest in areas at times of
heaviest concentration of people. Hendricks (1975) also concluded that increased
utilization of forest by human being resulted in higher casualties. Deodatus & Ahmed
(2002) were of opinion that less prey density might also trigger up high human death if
the biotic interference is maximum.
However, in brief, Tiger density, prey density, kind & frequency of human
activities & human casualties can’t be co-related as long as sufficient data are not
available.
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D) Tiger straying: ---
The major issue in managing Human- Tiger conflict in STR is the straying of tiger into
fringe villages & the rescue of the same without causing any harm on either side. It is worth
mentioning here that STR’s only north – western boundary has an interface with 25 fringe
villages which are densely populated with human & cattle.
Many times it becomes possible for the staff and local villagers to drive the tiger back to
the forest by using drums, crackers, fire etc. Sometimes tiger also goes back to the forest on its
own. These straying incidents are termed as Temporary Straying, where in case of any repeated
phenomenon, trap cage with live bait is being used to trap the tiger & then relocate the same.
In Permanent Straying, the tiger takes refuge in a cattle shed or inside any village hut,
when tranquilization is used to rescue the animal.
Tigers in Sundarban stray into the neighboring villages because they are situated in the
reclaimed forest land and in same places the boundary between the forest & agricultural land is
even not distinct. Some villages have small patches of mangrove forests so the tiger gets into
these forests by losing direction.
Sometimes tiger easily cross the small creek in search of easy prey like cow & goat.
Tigress sometimes litters inside the paddy field as she wants to avoid the danger of male
tiger. Old aged & diseased tigers like the ones with broken canine also stray because it is difficult
to hunt the prey in forest & finds easy to prey on domestic cattle.
However, the process of rescuing a strayed tiger often offers following constraints:--
A) The entire north western boundary of STR is surrounded by the villages which form
clusters of islands and the area is criscrossed by small & big rivers /creeks &
communication is very difficult, compounded by tides, which makes the transportation of
animal after trapping or rescue very difficult.
B) The population density is very high in the fringe villages & they have a single crop in the
field mostly. As the tiger commonly attack their cattle & attack them during honey/ fish
collection, so, they become revengeful & attack the strayed tiger & kill it, sometime, even
by poisoning.
C) The people also attack the animal because of their general strained relation with STR
authority, because staffs penalize them for theft/ illegal activities like collection of fish,
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timber, and firewood. So the people take opportunity by killing the strayed tiger in the
village itself & assaulting the staff.
D) The success of capture & release also depend on the area where the strayed tiger
ultimately move into. If the strayed tiger is far from the rivers etc then the transportation
of the animal as well as the staff becomes very difficult.
E) Chemical immobilization requires high technical expertise, precision, courage, patience
& decision making ability. Although regular trainings are organized for selected staff for
tranquilization, still performing in a crowded area often poses difficulties.
Mitigation strategies with respect to tiger straying :----
A) Protocol for reduced reaction time in case of permanent tiger straying :---
To reduce the reaction time in any permanent tiger straying situation, following
action protocol is followed: ---
i) Displaying of contact numbers of local Police, other concerned
Administrative Officials, local public representative, Panchayet Pradhan/
member at Range & Beat office so that they can be contacted properly for
mob controlling & other necessary actions. At the same time the contact
numbers of Officers of Sundarban Tiger Reserve are also given to the
members of Forest protection Committee and Eco Development
committee so that they can inform immediately in case of any straying
incident.
ii) A speed boat to be kept always in ready condition so that the Quick
Response Team (QRT) may act immediately.
iii) Tranquilization equipment, translocation cages etc to be kept ready along
with tiger guard & other necessary tools like nylon net, crackers, flame
torch, search light etc for the Tiger Straying Combat Force (TSCF).
iv) The Veterinary Surgeon and at least one staff who is trained in
tranquilization & the speed boat driver should be always ready to act
impromptu. In case of allowing leave, this issue has to be taken care of.
Training classes are regularly organized for the front line staffs.
v) Time to time group meeting in the villages creating public awareness, eco-
development works etc help a lot in getting information & co- operation from the
villagers during tiger straying & rescuing of the animal.
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B) Protocol to be followed in Tiger rescue operation :---
i) The TSCF must be well equipped; should be accompanied by a Veterinary
Surgeon & one trained staff for tranquilization.
ii) In case of acting in dark, proper search light, flame torch etc along with
proper arms & ammunition to cover up the man who is darting is
necessary. Use of tiger guard is a must.
iii) Before tranquilization, necessary instructions for mob clearance should be
pronounced by hand – mike & police may be requested for securing the
area.
iv) After tranquilization, the animal may be caged by using stretcher
immediately under supervision of the Veterinary Surgeon.
v) The caged animal should be boarded urgently & the boat must move to an
open space, preferably in a nearby forest for post- tranquilization care, to
be executed by Veterinary Surgeon.
vi) The animal should be kept under minimum of 24 hrs observation or any
other accordant instruction from Chief Wild Life Warden has to be
followed.
vii) The animal may be released after obtaining “Fit for release” certificate
from Veterinary Surgeon.
viii) All such strayed out animal should be properly photographed and an ID-
Catalogue should be maintained for checking of repeated straying
behavior.
C) Precautionary measures to be adopted to reduce tiger straying incidences
:---
Fencing the boundaries of the vulnerable forest areas by vegetative cover i.e.
Ceriops- Excoecaria combination & mechanical methods by nylon net fencing
using Avicennia posts along the forest fringe have been found to be very effective
for last ten years. Both these fencings last about three years. Ceriops –Excoecaria
fencing is not encouraged presently because it requires heavy toll of vegetation
cutting. Now, nylon net fencing with Avicennia posts is mostly practiced which is
planned to be further improvised with RCC posts & Bamboo to reduce even the
Avicennia cutting and recurring expenditure. To add with, recent observations
reveal that tiger starts negotiating the 8ft high fence by jumping over the same.
Use of RCC posts & Bamboo pole can also help to erect the fencing at a height of
10 – 12 ft. the normal mesh size remains 4” X 4” to avoid any strangulation of
wild animal like deer. Presently 54km of forest fringes out of total 70km has
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already been fenced & the further action has also highlighted in budget phase
wise, including maintenance.
To restrict entry inside the forest patrolling activities are strengthened. No
unauthorized persons are allowed inside the protected area. This reduces chances
of possible conflicts and tiger attacks.
CREATION AND MAINTENANCE OF NYLON NET FENCING:
A protocol for maintenance of the nylon net fencing has been designed with an aim of carrying
out thorough checking and proper maintenance. The Protocol includes involvement of local
Stakeholders in FPC/ EDC members also along with forest staff.
A Fencing Register will be kept in each station and records will be kept in accordance to the
parameters given below:
S no. Rank Frequency Remarks
1 Concerned Forest
Guard
Daily He will take at least one concerned
FPC/EDC Member & both will jointly sign
in Fencing checking Register.
2 Concerned Beat
Officer
Weekly once He will take the Joint Convenor of concerned
FPC/EDC Member & both will jointly sign in
Fencing checking Register.
3 Concerned Range
Officer
Once in 15 days He will take the Concerned Forest Guard
or Beat Officer along with and will report
to DFD/STR in detail as well as will
mention in fencing checking Register.
4 Asstt. Field
Director/STR
Once in a month They will check the fencing in the field to
verify that the same has been maintained
properly.
5 Dy. Field
Director/STR
Once in six
weeks
He will check the fencing in the field to
verify properly.
(Source: Annual report of Sundarban Tiger Reserve, 2012)
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Parameters for fence checking:
The total length of Nylon Net fencing has to be checked as proposed on following parameters:
Height of Nylon Net fencing maintained (The height should be of 8 ft minimum; (in
case of new fencing) and 6.0 ft ( in case of old fencing)
Height of Khal guard to be maintained at least 5 ft above from the highest tidal level
estimated for ‘Kotal’ period.
Condition of nylon rope of the net (if the net found brittle, immediately it should be
changed after bringing it to due notice to the concerned authority)
Condition of the posts of the fencing (if found rotting at the base, to be changed
immediately after bringing it to due notice to the concerned authority)
Condition of the runner (the tensile strength to be checked) GI runners to be used nylon
runners to be replaced immediately.
Condition of khal guard (if sagging noticed, to be repaired immediately)
Monitoring frequency (as proposed)
D) Compensation & Awareness campaign :---
i) To minimize the revengeful attitude of the local people, if any, regular
awareness campaign is already in practice which needs further
intensification payment of compensation on spot for human & cattle death
& treatment of injured negates the chance of revenge killing of tiger.
Presently, the compensation for the human death is Rs. 1.00 lakh & that of
cattle death is Rs. 750/- which requires further consideration. Payment of
actual market price on spot in cattle death can minimise the apathy of local
villagers. Regular meeting with JFMCs is also the need of the hour. To
ensure cooperation from the villagers entry point activities under Joint
Forest Management are taken up.
A lot of eco-development works which include entry point activities and creation
of alternative livelihood options have already been done to win the people’s
confidence in STR, still, further action is also proposed in budget in a
comprehensive manner to strengthen the relation with JFMCs.
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Results and Discussions:
A careful analysis of the observations and data collected by the field workers of Sundarban
Tiger Reserve shows a trend of reduction in tiger straying as well as human death caused by
tiger. This trend has become conspicuous after 2001, when the Sundarban Tiger Reserve has
started making the nylon net fencing along with the other initiatives to control the conflicts.
The following table shows the extent of total nylon net fencing created till date.
Table 1: Range wise location of the existing Nylon-Net fence and it maintenance is given
below:
Range Total length of nylon net fencing Location
N.P.(W)
9 km.
(inclusive khal guards)
• From Belegudam khal to Pirkhali Khal
S.W.L.S.
25 km. approx.
(inclusive of khal guards)
• Belegudam khal to Pakhirkhal: 5 km approx
• Pakhirkhal to Lalitkhali: 9 km. approx
• Lalitkhali to Ranjit’s khal: 5 km.approx.
• Ranjit’s khal to Duttar Beat: 6 km.approx.
BHT
20km. approx.
( inclusive of khal guards)
• Shamsernagar (Kalindi River side) to
Jhingakhali Beat: 13km. approx.
•Jhilla Compound to opposite of Budhbarer
Bazar :7 km. approx.
(Source: Annual report of Sundarban Tiger Reserve, 2012)
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Table –2. Data of Human Killing by Tiger in STR from Different Sources
Person killed / Injured by Tiger
(Report based on STR) (Report based on other sources) RCHP, Gosaba; BPHC Death Registar Office, Gosaba and NGO’s
Financial Year Died Injured Calendar Year Died Injured
1985-86 32 6 1985 31 4
1986-87 25 6 1986 26 7
1987-88 21 7 1987 19 7
1988-89 14 3 1988 21 3
1989-90 12 10 1989 6 4
1990-91 43 8 1990 53 10
1991-92 38 7 1991 41 6
1992-93 34 5 1992 40 5
1993-94 31 4 1993 47 2
1994-95 5 - 1994 16 2
1995-96 4 0 1995 15 2
1996-97 2 2 1996 6 3
1997-98 5 2 1997 12 3
1998-99 2 2 1998 21 2
1999-2000 13 - 1999 35 0
2000-01 15 4 2000 40 3
2001-02 12 - 2001 2 -
2002-03 14 - 2002 1 -
2003-04 8 - 2003 1 -
2004-05 2 - 2004 - -
2005-06 - - 2005 - -
2006-07 - - 2006 - -
2007-08 6 - 2007 3 1
2008-09 9 - 2008 1 -
2009-10 8 1 2009 4 2
(Source: Tiger conservation plan of Sundarban tiger reserve, 2012)
The available data clearly shows that the conflict has reduced considerably after 2000. Before 2000 every
year the human death used to touch double figure. After that the condition has drastically changed. This
has also helped the management of Sundarban Tiger Reserve to create a better understanding with the
local people.
At the same time it is seen that cases of tiger straying into the fringe villages has reduced considerably
after 2001-02. This trend is continuing till now.
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Year Frequency1998-99 37
1999-2000 32
2000-01 27
2001-02 21
2002-03 15
2003-04 13
2004-05 14
2005-06 2
2006-07 11
2007-08 11
2008-09 12
2009-10 14
Table 3: ABSTRACT OF TIGER STRAYING IN SUNDARBAN TIGER RESERVE
(As per data availability)
(Source: Annual report of Sundarban Tiger Reserve 2012)
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Inferences from recent tiger straying incidences: ---
Eco developmental works done by the forest dept. in villages on the background of JFM plays an
important role because this helps in strengthening the relationship of the forest dept. with the
villagers.
Awareness building is very important in fringe villages because instigation by some people may
change the course of the entire incidence. Help from NGOs & local people is very important to
tackle tiger straying problems right from collection of initial information to successful relocation.
Sheltered place of strayed tiger in the village is important because the shelter place decides partly
the success of darting. It is difficult to tranquilize a tiger in an open paddy field because of its
vastness. Forest dept. thus needs better information & communication network along with
infrastructure.
More staff should be trained in tranquilization of wildlife & trained competent staff should be
posted in vulnerable areas so that they can reach place of occurrence in time for action. Every
tranquilization team should be covered by a supporting team to avoid failures which may lead to
accidents.
Conclusion:
Sundarban is one of the most vulnerable and unique ecosystem with immense biodiversity value.
Conservation of the world’s largest mangrove forest in totality is the precondition of survival of
the royal Bengal tiger, the flagship species. For achieving this objective the management of
Sundarban Tiger Reserve has to resolve the age old human tiger conflict.
The high level of disturbance by forest resource users seems to provoke man-eating behavior
among the tigers despite all other aspects mentioned before. Therefore, the number of tiger
victims can only be reduced if less people enter forest. (G.Neumann-denzau and H. Denzau,
2010)
Poverty is the most dominant factor for which all types of resource extractors are involved in the
present jobs of fishing, wood cutting or honey collection. Enforcement of law, creation of
alternative livelihood options for the fringe dwellers are other factors that can contribute to
reduction of human death.
All other steps already discussed earlier that have been effective especially the creation of nylon
net fencing should also continue in future for minimizing tiger straying. The key factor is that,
keeping people out of the tiger habitat can be achieved by human resource management in
addition to forest resource and wildlife management in the forest of Sundarban.
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References:
1. Anon 2005, 2012, Annual Report of Sundarabn Tiger Reserve, (2005, 2012).
2. Anon 2012, Tiger conservation plan of Sundarban Tiger Reserve for 2013-14 to 2017-18)
3. Chakraborty, K. 1978. Ecology of Sundarban tiger with particular reference to range of
habitats and adaptability to changes. Cheetal, Vol–20, 3-15.
4. Deodatus,F .,Ahmed, Z.U,2002, Survey to determine the relative abundance of tiger, wild boar
and spotted deer in the Bangladesh Sundarban Forest, Dec 2001 to March 2002, SBCP, technical
report no 17, 36 pp + 19 pp Appendix.
5. Gupta, A.C. 1964, West Bengal Forest, Centenary commemoration vol.
6. G. Neumann-Denzau, H. Denzau, 2010,Examining certain aspects of human-tiger conflict in the
sundarban Forest, Bangladesh. Tiger paper, Vol-3, July-Sept.P-10.
7. Hendricks, H. 1975. The status of the tiger Panthera tigris (Linue; 1758) in the
Sundarbans mangrove forest. Saeugetier Kundliche Mitteilungen, 23: 161-199.
8. Holsten, H. 1925, Jesuit letters from Bengal’s Arakan and Burma(1999-1600), Bengal Past and
present 30, 52-76.
9. Seidensticker, J., R.K. Lahiri, K.C. Das and A. Wright, 1976. Problem tiger in the
Sunderbans. Oryx, 267-273.
10. Siddiqi, N.A., J.H. Chowdhury, 1987. Man-eating behavior of tigers of the Sundarbans – twenty
eight years’ record analysis. Tiger Paper, 14(3): 26
11. Salter, R.C., 1984, Status and Utilization of Wildlife, integrated development of the
Sundarbans, Bangladesh. FO: TCP/BGD/2309(MF), FAO, Rome, 59 PP.
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