Conducting Qualitative Research: Decisions, Actions, and Implications

CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:

DECISIONS, ACTIONS, AND

IMPLICATIONS

Philip Adu, Ph.D.

Methodology Expert

National Center for Academic & Dissertation Excellence (NCADE)

The Chicago School of Professional Psychology

Surviving in a Class with the

“Most Difficult of Professors”

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Basic Differences Between Quantitative and

Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

Making observations

Test theory

Qualitative Research

Making observations

Develop theory

When to Conduct a Qualitative Study

• Exploring• Phenomenon, case, or situation in the natural

setting

• Complex issues without specific variable identified

• Explaining a process or behavior

• Describing an issue using non-numerical data

• Understanding phenomenon, case, behavior or situation

• Collecting participants’ stories and retell them to address the research question

Qualitative Research Process(Maintaining Consistency)

1. Problem StatementGap found in the literature

2. Research Purpose:Understand

Explain

Describe

Illustrate

Explore

Conceptualize

3. Research

Question:

Exploratory in nature

4. Research Design:

Research Plan - logical

description of how data

would be collected, and

analyzed to address the

research question (s)

Research Approach

Sampling Strategy

Data Collection Strategy7. Quality

AssuranceCredibility

Transferability

Dependability

8. Analysis of Data

6. Philosophical

Assumptions OR

ParadigmOntology (about reality)

Epistemology (about

knowledge)

Axiology (about value)

Researcher’s role(s),

background, beliefs,

perspectives, and

biases

9. Presentation

and Interpretation

of Results

(Yilmaz, 2013)

1. Problem StatementDescribing the specific problem you want to address in your study

• Problem needed to be addressed• Recommended by previous researchers

• Presented in the existing studies

• Inferred from existing studies

• Identifying a gap in existing studies (Techniques)

• Confusion spotting

• Neglect spotting

• Application spotting

• Methodological flaw spotting

(Sandberg & Alvesson, 2010)

2. Research Purpose (Characteristics)

‘

Action’ or ‘operative’ words

• Explain

• Describe

• Illustrate

• Develop

• Explore

• Conceptualize

• Identify

Phenomenon, case, situation, or

process

• Specific issue you plan to address in your study

Participants and location/setting

• Specific participants and location/setting you want to study

The purpose of the study is to explain how mental health stigma

influences help seeking behaviors among teens with mental

health problems in a low income neighborhood in Accra, Ghana.

Defining the main concepts

3. Research Question

Functions:• It drives the study

• Informs research approach

• Informs data collection and analysis process

Characteristics of a qualitative research question:

• Exploratory

• Open-ended (what, how, why...)

• Specific context

Types of Qualitative Research Question

Type of Research Question Examples

QualitativeResearch Question

(Exploratory)

Ontological researchquestion

(Capturing participants‘ realities)

“What is the nature of…?” “What are the lived experiences of…?” “What is it like being…?”

(Saldana, 2013, p.61)

Epistemological researchQuestion

(Understanding phenomenon)

“How does…?” “What does it mean to be…?” “What factors influence…?”

(Saldana, 2013, p.61)

How does mental health stigma influence help seeking behaviors among teens

with mental health problems in a low income neighborhood in Accra, Ghana?

4. Research Design

Qualitative Research

Design

Research Approach

Data Collection Strategy

Sampling Technique

Philosophical

Assumptions

Researcher’s

Background,

Beliefs, & Biases

Data

Analysis

Research Plan

- logical

description of

how data would

be collected,

and analyzed to

address the

research

question (s)

(Yilmaz, 2013)

5. Philosophical Assumptions(Associated with Qualitative Research)

Ontology

(Reality)

Epistemology

(Knowledge)

Axiology

(Value)

Meaning Multiple realities;

Subjectivity of reality;

Socially constructed

reality

Close interaction

between the

knower and the

known

Value and beliefs

influence actions

taken

Implications Understanding the

phenomenon from

multiple perspectives

by capturing

subjective views and

experiences

A close

connection

between you

(the researcher)

and participants/

phenomenon

Discussing your

background,

beliefs, and biases

and how they

influence the

research process

(Creswell, 2013; Yilmaz, 2013)

Philosophical Assumptions(Actions to be taken)

Researcher’s

background,

beliefs, and biases

Participants’

multiple

perspectives

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT• Being aware of your values (i.e. background, beliefs, and biases)

• Making your values known

• Getting know your participants and building trust

• Distinguishing your views from the views of participants

• Paying attention to context, participants’ background, and beliefs

Collecting participants’ realities and experiences, and capturing how context

and their backgroundinfluence their realities and experiences

Analyzing their realities and

experiences to develop

themes which represent data collected and address the

research question(s)

Choosing an Appropriate Research

Approach

Appropriate Research Approach

a.

Assessing methodological rationale

of potential research approaches

b.

Engaging

in a Process of Elimination

c.

Reviewing characteristics of the research question(s)

a. Assessing Methodological Rationale of

Potential Research Approaches

(Creswell, 2013; Yilmaz, 2013)

1. Phenomenological approach

2. Grounded theory approach

3. Narrative approach

4. Case study

5. Ethnography

a. Assessing Methodological Rationale of

Potential Research Approaches

(Creswell, 2013; Yilmaz, 2013)

Phenomenological approach

• Capturing participants’

experiences

• Examining how they make

sense of their experiences

• Coming up with themes

that represents their

experiences

Lived experience

Phenomenon

Essence meaning

Making sense

Participants’ reality

a. Assessing Methodological Rationale of

Potential Research Approaches

(Creswell, 2013; Yilmaz, 2013)

Grounded theory

approach

Developing an explanation,

proposition, model and/or

theory that best fit the data

collected and provide an

understanding of a

phenomenon, situation, or

process

ExplanationTheory

Phenomenon Process

DevelopModel

a. Assessing Methodological Rationale of

Potential Research Approaches

(Creswell, 2013; Yilmaz, 2013)

Narrative approach

Collecting participants’

stories

Analyzing the data to

retell their stories in

specified pattern so as to

address the research

question

retellStories

Narrative Pattern

DescriptionSetting

a. Assessing Methodological Rationale of

Potential Research Approaches

(Creswell, 2013; Yilmaz, 2013)

Case study

• Shedding light or

providing an in-depth

understanding of a

specific and well-defined

case/phenomenon using

multiple data sources

In-depthCase

Multiple

Data sources

Well-defined context

UnderstandingCredibility

a. Assessing Methodological Rationale of

Potential Research Approaches

(Creswell, 2013; Yilmaz, 2013)

Ethnography

Examining or exploring a

phenomenon by studying

a group of people or

individual in their natural

environment as they

interact with their

surroundings and people

around them

Natural setting

Interactions

Observation

Description

Participant observation

Field notes

b. Engaging in a Process of Elimination

1. Reviewing characteristics of the research question(s)

2. Eliminating the research approaches that are not consistent

with the research question(s)

3. Determining the kind of data needed to address the research

question(s)

4. Compare the expected data with the methodological

rationale/purpose of each potential research approach

Reviewing

EliminatingDetermining

Comparing

REDC

b. Engaging in a Process of

Elimination

Type of Research Question Examples Potential Research

Approach

QualitativeResearch Question

(Exploratory)

Ontologicalresearchquestion

(Capturing participants‘

realities)

“What is the nature of…?”

“What are the lived experiences of…?”

“What is it like being…?”

(Saldana, 2013, p.61)

• Phenomenological

approach

• Narrative approach

• Ethnography

EpistemologicalresearchQuestion

(Understanding phenomenon)

“How does…?” “What does it mean to

be…?” “What factors

influence…?”

(Saldana, 2013, p.61)

• Case study

• Ethnography

• Grounded theory

approach

• Phenomenological

approach

Example

Purpose statement

• The purpose of the study is to explain how mental health stigma

influences help seeking behavior among teens with mental health

problems in a low income neighborhood in Accra, Ghana.

Research Question

• How does mental health stigma influence help seeking behaviors

among teens with mental health problems in a low income

neighborhood in Accra, Ghana?

Grounded theory

OR

Case study approach

Qualitative Data Collection

• Data collection strategies:

• Observation

• Participants observation

• In-depth interviews

• Document collection/analysis

• Focus groups

• Characteristics of data:

• Audio

• Text

• Visual/artifact

(Yilmaz, 2013)

Sampling Techniques

Sampling Techniques

Qualitative Sampling Techniques

Sampling Technique Meaning

Intensity sampling Appropriate if you plan to explore different components

of a case, phenomenon, situation, and/or behavior with

varied intensity

Homogeneous sampling Focusing on participants who have similar experiences,

beliefs, and/or background

Criterion sampling Selecting participants who meet specified criteria.

Snowball sampling Recruit participants based on the recommendation of

initial participant(s) sampled

Random purposive

sampling

Randomly sampling participants who have been

purposively sampled

(Jacobs, 2013)

Number of Participants for a Qualitative Study

• It depends on:

1. Research approach chosen

2. Recommendations made by

qualitative researchers

3. Homogeneity of participants’

background

4. Accessibility of participants

5. Attainability of saturation

6. Availability of time and resources

7. Adequacy of the potential data to

address the research question(s)

(Baker & Edwards, 2012).

Qualitative Data Analysis

Assigning labels to

Data

1. Interview transcripts

2. Documents

3. Artifacts

4. Field notes

A code is a word, phrase, or sentence that represents

aspect(s) of a data or captures the essence or

feature(s) of a data

(Saldana, 2013)

For more information go to:

http://www.slideshare.net/kontorphilip/qualitative-analysis-coding-

and-categorizing(Adu, 2014)

Coding Process

Coding Sorting Synthesizing Theorizing

TheoryThemesCategoriesCodes

Real

or

Particular

Abstract

or

General

(Saldana, 2013)

Quality Assurance

• Credibility (Do the data and findings truly reflect participants’ experience?)

• Accuracy of data and findings

• Direct connection between findings and data collected

• Rich context and in-depth description

• Triangulation – using more then one data source

• Transferability (Can the findings be transferred to similar context?)

• Clearly describing the context

• Detailing research assumptions the inform the study

• Dependability (Would we arrive at similar results if the procedures are followed?)

• Clearly presenting step-by-step data collection and analysis process

• Presenting the paradigm that informed the study

• Describing researcher's role, bias, and background

(Trochim, 2006; Yilmaz, 2013)

Recap: Qualitative Research Process(Maintaining Consistency)

1. Problem StatementGap found in the literature

2. Research Purpose:Understand

Explain

Describe

Illustrate

Explore

Conceptualize

3. Research

Question:

Exploratory in nature

4. Research Design:

Research Plan - logical

description of how data

would be collected, and

analyzed to address the

research question (s)

Research Approach

Sampling Strategy

Data Collection Strategy7. Quality

AssuranceCredibility

Transferability

Dependability

8. Analysis of Data

6. Philosophical

Assumptions OR

ParadigmOntology (about reality)

Epistemology (about

knowledge)

Axiology (about value)

Researcher’s role(s),

background, beliefs,

perspectives, and

biases

9. Presentation

and Interpretation

of Results

(Yilmaz, 2013)

Recap: Research Design

Qualitative Research

Design

Research Approach

Data Collection Strategy

Sampling Technique

Philosophical

Assumptions

Researcher’s

Background,

Beliefs, & Biases

Data

Analysis

Research Plan

- logical

description of

how data would

be collected,

and analyzed to

address the

research

question (s)

(Yilmaz, 2013)

Ncade.me@thechicagoschool.edu

Philip Adu, Ph.D.

Methodology Expert

National Center for Academic & Dissertation

Excellence (NCADE)

References

Adu, P. (2014). Qualitative Analysis: Coding and Categorizing. The Chicago School of

Professional Psychology. Retrieved from

http://www.slideshare.net/kontorphilip/qualitative-analysiscoding-and-categorizing-

ncade-webinar

Baker, S. E., & Edwards, R. (2012). How many qualitative interviews is enough?

Southampton, UK: National Center For Research Methods.

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five

Approaches (3rd). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Jacobs, R. M. (2013, March 20). Educational research: Sampling a population. website:

www83.homepage.villanova.edu/richard.jacobs/.../lessons/sampling.ppt

Saldana, J. (2013). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. London: Sage

Trochim, W. M. (2006, October 20). Qualitative validity. Retrieved from Research

methods knowledge base website:

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualval.php

Yilmaz, K. (2013). Comparison of quantitative and qualitative research traditions:

Epistemological, theoretical, and methodological differences. European Journal of

Education, 48(2), 311-325.