Transcript
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THEORIES AND CONCEPTS OF REGIONAL
INTEGRATION
MDS (NDA)
BY
SIMON PETER
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INTRODUCTION
1. Regional Integrationcan be defined as a segment of the world boundtogether by a common set of objectives based on geographical, social,
cultural, economic and political ties and possessing a formal structure
provided for in formal intergovernmental agreements.1 Regional integration
efforts have a long history in Africa dating back to pre-independence era.
The inclination to unite was an initial response of Africas founding fathers
to the balkanization process of the colonial era and the desire to overcome
colonially imposed artificial boundaries.2 In recent times however, the
need for sustainable economic development in the face of the harsh
realities of globalization and trade liberalization has been the motive force
driving regional integration in Africa. The increasing integration of African
economies into the global economy and the unfavourable conditions of
international trade has continuously ensured the deliberate transfer of
wealth from African countries to developed countries. As long as this
practice persists Africa will continue to be impoverished. In reaction to this
and in view of the many benefits of integration, there arose a spontaneous
tendency for economic cooperation and integration in Africa as a means of
enhancing self reliance and reducing their individual and joint
vulnerabilities. Consequently the initial motive for integration in Africa was
mainly economic in nature.
THEORIES AND PHASES OF INTEGRATION
2. Earlier integration theories developed out of political science theories
of the functionalist and neo-functionalist frameworks and liberal economic
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theoretical framework. They basically focus on the characteristics and
processes of regional economic organization itself and the concept of
supra-national organization. They explained supra-national organization as
a process in which national actors are persuaded to shift their loyalties,
expectations and political activities toward a new centre. In general, the
main theories of integration are:a. Realism
b. Functionalism
c. Neo-Functionalism
d. Intergovernmentalism
e. Transactionalism
f. Institutionalism
g. Regime Theory
h. Customs Union Theory
i. Optimal Currency Area Theory
Realism
3. Realism is an approach to the study and practice of international
politics in relation to integration. It emphasizes the role of the nation-state
and makes a broad assumption that all nation-states are motivated by
national interests. The grand theories of the realist school that emerged out
of American political thought view the state as the single most important
actor in the international system with predetermined national interests,
which often quantifies costs and benefits involved in different policy
alternatives to achieve desired goals. The realists view the international
system as lacking in any centralized authority to make and enforce laws
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governing inter-state relationships. It adopts the concept of states being
sovereign and that in international politics states compete with one another
without established rules and norms. Under this condition, states rely on
the means they can generate and the arrangements they can make for
themselves.
In addition, the realists argue that the basic anarchical structure of the
international system determines inter-state relations where states seek self-
preservation and application of force in the pursuit of their national
interests, which largely accounts for conflict of interests. They contend that
international cooperative schemes grow as competing states interests
converge.
Critics of this theory however believe that it did not give enough explanation
for the reasons why states enter into cooperation within regional economic
organisations.3
In general terms, the realist blue print seem to have significantly predicted
the behavior of ECOWAS member states in their basic assumptions in that
states tend to pursue policies with maximum national benefits at minimum
cost.
Functionalism
4. The functionalist blue print based its assumptions on the believe that
in a world of economic interdependence, apolitical problems such as social,
technical and humanitarian could be prioritized and solved. It insists that in
a world of economic interdependence, common economic interests create
the need for international institutions and rules.The functional approach is
evolutionary in process and holds that states that have common interests,
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values and experiences can transfer their sovereign will by a function for
the realization of set goals, objects, and objectives in the hope that in time
the integrating states would shift from working together in certain technical
areas of interest to creating a political union as a higher level of
cooperation.4 The central point of the functionalist approach is that by
cooperating in specific, usually nonpolitical issues (such as trade), states
can learn to trust one another to the point, in the stream of time, where
causes of political conflict are eliminated. Functionalism is hinged on the
reduction of extreme forms of nationalism to pave way for greater mutual
trust and confidence. It proposes to build a form of authority based on
functions and needs, which linked authority with needs, scientific
knowledge, expertise and technology, i.e. it provided a supraterritorial
concept of authority.Its assumptions emphasized a practical approach to
problem solving insisting that this could be achieved by prioritizing areas of
common interests while concluding that cooperation in economic and social
fields may eventually spill over into the political fields.
Functionalism pessimists strongly illuminate the set backs involved in a
regional integration programme due to the reluctance of member states in a
regional organization to transfer sovereignty to a higher level particularly in
areas of strong national interests.In reality, the theory of functionalism
provides an insight into the operations of international organizations, by
successfully tracing the origins of international cooperation to functional
interdependence.
The theory of functionalism has not fully explained integration
withinECOWAS because so far, cooperation in the social, technical and
economic fields have not automatically yielded increased dividends in other
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areas within the community. Further, one major challenge within ECOWAS
remains the reluctance of member states to transfer decision-making
powers to the regional body. Also, ECOWAS legislations and protocols are
often left at the mercy of member states to decide whether to enforce them
or not. Therefore, the success of functionalism within the frame work of
ECOWAS is severely limited because the basic ingredients for the success
of its basic assumptions are not evident in the case of ECOWAS.
Neo-Functionalism
5. Neo-Functionalists seek to refine the functionalist assumptions and
hinged on three main processes the actors, the motives and the process
and context.5 In order to avoid the pit falls of functionalism, the theory
upgraded the importance of nation-states by insisting that states are the
primary actors in an integration process, within which are interest groups
and political parties. This approach agrees with the functionalists on the
need for states that have common interests, values and aspirations to work
together but they disagree on the timetable of the evolutionary process.The neofunctionalists believe that the timetable of the evolutionary process
will not move quickly enough to sort out the several differences that require
resolution. The neofunctionalist advocate the establishment of an
institutional mechanism to promote more collaboration tendencies and
behaviours rather than stake transition from non political arms of
cooperation to political union. Neofunctionalists see integration as a direct
response to the functional needs of state. It also foresaw that domestic,
transnational and supranational actors would engage in regional integration
to improve their efficiency in governance given their relative close proximity
and the various possibilities and advantages.They viewed integration as an
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outcome of joint action by all parties as problems in one area could only be
solve through recourse to action in other sectors. This is to be achieved by
upgrading of common interests under the guidance of a regional supra-
national body.
Regional integration efforts in Africa is tending towards the neo-functional
approach. African nations do not just need to agree to live and work
together in certain areas of cooperation, but there is the need to work out
an institutionalized framework for harmonizing perceptions, intuitions,
interests, values and strategies for achieving set goals.
Intergovernmentalism
6. The theory of intergovernmentalism conceptualized integration as a
series of bargains between the heads of government of the leading states
in a region. Its basic assumption is based on the belief that integration
takes place within domestic politics and entirely a logical consequence of
intergovernmental negotiations while down grading the importance ofsupra-national institutions in the process of integration.
It assumed that converging interests within an integration process are
essentially the interests of large states and that harmony is maintained
within the union by the big states buying off the small ones. However, the
theory contends that weak states would need international institutions as
they are confronted with more expansive and complex issues.The
intergovernmentalism placed a lot of emphasis on heads of states as major
players in the integration process without due regard to the importance of
several behind the scene events that take place before inter-state bargains.
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This theory is applicable in SADC and most African regional organizations.
Its assumptions that the constraints and opportunities imposed by
economic interdependence shape national preferences and that outcomes
of inter-state bargains are results of relative bargaining power of
governments etc. is a reality as South Africa exerts enormous influence in
SADC while Cote DIvoire and Senegal wielded a lot of influence in
UEMOA especially before the Ivorian crisis.
Transactionalism
7. Transactionalism is based on the assumption that integration is a
function of the level of communication between states. It offers a much
broader definition of integration than functionalism in economic sense to
include,social perceptions, values, sentiments and articulation of these
values and sense of community in formal and structured forms. It holds the
view that cooperation could indeed be enhanced and empirically quantified
in term of the frequency of transactions between states.
Transactionalism is believed to be an effective mechanism for social
mobilization of communities and initiate historical processes of national
development.6It contends that solid network of transactions between states
would lead to more interaction and enhanced feelings of mutual benefits
and trust from increased transactions would motivate further interactions.
The theory insists that the potential for integration is guaranteed in regions
with mutual high international transaction, which would be actualized if
states are responsive to one another.
The effective adaptation of this theory to the circumstances of ECOWAS
and UEMOA may pose serious problem as greater percentage of
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transactions within the community are basically informal and unrecorded,
but how these high informal transactions within the region have promoted
greater reciprocal relevance or the feeling of trust between member states
is difficult to quantify. Despite the relatively large informal contact and
informal transaction within the ECOWAS region, the feeling of distrust
among member states is still relatively high especially between the
francophone and the Anglophone states. The level of trade within the
UEMOA region like other regions is very low because of the homogeneity
rather than complementarity of goods produced.
Institutionalism
8. The theoretical framework for institutionalism is hinged on the basic
assumption that institutions are important because of their impact on
political outcomes they provide the contexts where actors conduct useful
bargains and serve as information pool with relative
transparency.7Generally, institutions intervene between preferences of
actors and policy outcomes.
However, institutionalist theoretical agenda is diverse with three major
variants and so are their accounts of the importance of institutions, actors
preferences and indeed how and when they are formed. They differ in
terms of the extent institutional structure influences the actor Historical
and rational choice variants while some others further distinguish between
historical and sociological institutionalism. All the variants generally agree
that institutions are important and are not passive tools but significantly
shape political out comes.
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Rational choice institutionalism assumes that actors will only engage in
rational pursuit of their self-interest, and views preference formation as
undertaken quite outside the institutional venue. In this context, institutions
shape or moderate the strategies that political actors adopt in the pursuit of
their interests. They insist that states create institutions in order to benefit
from the important services offered by them particularly in the reduction of
transaction costs.
Regime Theory
9. Regime theoretical concept is defined as a set of implicit or explicit
principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures around which
actors expectations converge in a given area of international
relations.8Regime theoretical framework insisted that states interests and
capabilities as well as the increasing global interdependence can promote
cooperation. The theory assumes international institutions moderate states
and promote understanding between them, thereby providing an avenue for
monitoring states behaviour and reducing uncertainties and transaction
costs. International institutions succeed if they are able to establish
principles and facilitate the convergence of expectations and interests. The
framework emphasizes the importance of cognitive factors in international
politics.
Regime theory is viewed as an amalgam of the realist and liberal
traditions.9Those closer to the realist concepts assume that the conflicting
nature of the international system diminish free flow of cooperation and that
a hegemon is needed to restore sanity within the system emphasizing the
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importance of sanctions. They insist that sanctions and monitoring are
important to sustain cooperation among self-interested states.
However, Regime theorists with more liberal orientation de-emphasize the
application of sanctions and monitoring in international cooperation,
assuming that increasing interdependence and common interests,
enhancement of available information and norms are sufficient to foster
cooperation. In most regional integration groups in Africa, particularly
ECOWAS, there is still little hope as to the readiness of member states to
transfer some measure of sovereignty to the regional body. In addition, it
remains quite doubtful if there is any member state of ECOWAS with
sufficient resources to play the role of a Benevolent Hegemon without
necessarily jeopardizing their immediate national interests and needs, thus,
the concept in all its dimensions do not go far in explaining the state of
regional integration in West Africa. The experience of Nigeria in Liberia
within the framework of ECOMOG an example.
Customs Union Theory
10. The Customs Union examines markets and goods within a region and
the effect of discrimination within the integrating area. Customs Union is
defined as the process of elimination of intra-trade barriers and the
equalization of tariffs on imports from non-member countries.The
background work on customs theory was done by Jacob Viner and he
conceptualized trade creation and trade diversion within an integrating
area10. He argued trade creation occurs when the output of inefficient
producers are replaced after the elimination of tariffs by cheaper imports of
more efficient producers within the region to the benefit of both producers
and consumers.
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On the other hand, trade diversion effect occurs when imposition of
common external tariff puts suppliers from countries outside the integrating
area in a competitive disadvantage by encouraging imports from less
efficient suppliers with the union. Thus, this condition leads to trade
diversion which reduces the economic welfare and benefits accruable to
members of the union.
In general terms, conventional economic theories are hinged on the gains
derivable from changes in the existing trade patterns within a region based
on the condition thatemployment is full under a given input of resources
and that domestic prices of products must be a practical reflection of
opportunity cost under a free market allocation of resources.
These two basic conditions will ensure the attainment of integration
through the gradual elimination of quantitative restrictions between member
states of an integrating area. Some scholars and authors like Belassa and
Lipede categorize the process of removing discrimination into five stages
as listed below.11
a. Free Trade Area
b. Customs Union
c. Common Market
d. Economic Union
e. Total Economic Integration
While others like Kaptoum, Fischer and Straubhaar evolved a 6
stagemodel.12These stages are also known as phases of integration and
will be discussed in details in the next section. This paper will rely on the 5
stage concept.
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Optimal Currency Area Theory
11. Optimal currency area is defined as an area in which exchange rates
are immutably fixed or in which a common currency exists13. The theory
basically examines the conditions under which the formation of a currency
is economically viable and hinged on money, markets for goods and
markets for factors of production. It seeks to achieve both internal and
external balance in the least costly way without compromising monetary
and fiscal policies.
However, the proponents of the optimal currency area are divided as to the
best avenue to achieve both internal and external balance [i.e. Flexible or
fixed exchange rates]. The first group favours the adoption of flexible
exchange rates to maintain both internal and external balance while the
second group insists that payment equilibrium would be achieved if real
exchange rates are fixed thus reducing its volatility. However, both strands
converge at the point that the success of a currency area depends on the
availability of high mobility of factors of production within the region14
.
Optimal currency theory framework has been successfully implemented
in the UEMOA region with a common currency and fixed exchange rates.
The much desired economic benefits of ensuring both internal and external
balance as well as the attainment of low/non-inflationary growth has been
achieved minimally within the UEMOA region, however the member states
economies remains very weak, highly fragile and structurally truncated with
little or no influence on the international economic system. Indeed the rate
of growth and development in Anglophone West Africa is relatively higher
than in the UEMOA region. The transition tofull liberalization within the
Union and harmonization of member states economic and fiscal policies
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should help accelerate integration as well as development in the UEMOA
region.
PHASES OF INTEGRATION
The phases of integration refer to the various stages through which nations
quest for economic integration must evolve. Economic integration, as
defined here, can take several forms that represent varying degrees of
integrationSome authors actually refer to these phases also as the theories
of economic integration15. There are divergent views over the number of
phases involved. While some believe there are 5 phases16, others believe
there are 617 and still others restrict themselves to 3 phases18.The 6 stage
model begins with the Preferential Trade Area before the Free Trade Area
of the 5 stage model while the 3 stage model begins with the customs
union and ends with the economic union. However the 5 stage model is
generally accepted and most phases are believed to overlap and cannot
always be neatly separated19. The 5 phases of integration are:
a. Free Trade Area
b. Customs Union
c. Common Market
d. Economic Union
e. Complete Economic Integration
Free Trade Area
A free-trade areais a trade bloc whose member countries have
signed a free-trade agreement (FTA), which eliminates tariffs, import
quotas, and preferences on most (if not all) goods and services traded
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between them.20Countries choose this kind of economic integration if their
economical structures are complementary and it is believed that this phase
would gradually evolve into a Customs Union. Unlike in a customs
union,members of a free-trade area do not have a common external tariff,
which means they have different quotas and customs, as well as other
policies with respect to non-members. In a free-trade area, tariffs between
the participating countries are abolished, but each country retains its own
tariffs against non members.21To avoid tariff evasion the countries use the
system of certification of origin most commonly called rules of origin, where
there is a requirement for the minimum extent of local content to the goods.
Only goods that meet these minimum requirements are entitled to the
special treatment envisioned by the free trade area provisions. The aim of a
free-trade area is to reduce barriers to exchange so that trade can grow as
a result of specialisation, division of labour, and most importantly via
comparative advantage. The net result will be an increase in income and
ultimately wealth and well-being for everyone in the free-trade area. Also
Free Trade Areas allow the agreeing nations to focus on their competitive
advantage and to freely trade for the goods they lack the experience at
making, thus increasing the efficiency and profitability of each country.But
the theory refers only to aggregate wealth and says nothing about the
distribution of wealth; in fact there may be significant losers, in particular
among the recently protected industries with a comparative disadvantage.
In principle, the overall gains from trade could be used to compensate for
the effects of reduced trade barriers by appropriate inter-party transfers.
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Customs Union
A customs union is the second stage in the 5 phase integration model.
According to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs a customs union
shall be understood to mean the substitution of a single customs territory
for two or more customs territories, so that (i) duties and other restrictive
regulations of commerce are eliminated with respect to substantially all the
trade between the constituent territories of the union and, (ii) substantially
the same duties and other regulations of commerce are applied by each of
the members of the union to the trade of territories not included in the
union." 22Essentially, it consists of an agreement between two or more
countries (usually within the same geographical region) to remove trade
barriers, and reduce or eliminatecustoms duty or other restrictions on
mutualtrade as well as the establishment of uniform tarrif on trade with non
members. A customs union generally imposes a commonexternal-tariff
(CET) on imports from non-member countries and (unlike a common
market) generally does not allow free movement of capital and labouramong member countries. A customs Union can therefore be said to
consist of a free trade area with a common external tariff. Establishing a
customs union involves, besides the suppression of discrimination in the
field of commodity movements within the union, the equalization of tariffs in
trade with nonmember countries23.The participant countries therefore set
up common external trade policy, but in some cases they use different
import quotas. Common competition policy is also helpful to avoid
competition deficiency.The purposes for establishing a customs union
normally include increasing economic efficiency and establishing closer
political and cultural ties between the member countries. A clear
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understanding of the customs union was made by Jacob Viner in his work
on customs union.24Through abolishing tariffs within the union and
maintaining them against third countries, a customs union entails the
suppression of discrimination between home-produced goods and goods
produced in partner countries, and, at the same time, it gives rise to
discrimination between commodities produced in partner and in third
countries. Customs Union therefore involves trade creation and trade
diversion.There are 2 well established customs unions in Africa, the first
being the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) while the second
transcends the customs union to a monetary union, the Union Economique
et Monetaire Ouest Africaine (UEMOA) which has a well defined customs
union integrated within its structure.The European Union also has a well
defined customs union.
Common Market
A common market is a type oftrade bloc composed of a free trade area (for
goods) with common policies on product regulation, and freedom of
movement of the factors of production (capital and labour) and ofenterprise
and services. The goal is that the movement of capital, labour, goods, and
services between the members is as easy as within them as possible.The
physical (borders), technical (standards) and fiscal (taxes) barriers among
the member states are removed to the maximum extent possible. These
barriers obstruct the freedom of movement of the four factors of production.
A higher form of economic integration is therefore attained in a common
market, where not only trade restrictions but also restrictions on factor
movements are abolished.
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A common market has many benefits. With full freedom of movement for all
the factors of production between the member countries, the factors of
production become more efficiently allocated, further increasing
productivity.For both business within the market and consumers, a
common market is a very competitive environment, making the existence of
monopolies more difficult. This means that inefficient companies will suffer
a loss of market share and may have to close down. However, efficient
firms can benefit from economies of scale, increased competitiveness and
lower costs, as well as expect profitability to be a result. Consumers are
benefited by the common market in the sense that the competitive
environment brings them cheaper products, more efficient providers of
products and also increased choice of products. Businesses in competition
will alsoinnovate to create new products thereby creating more benefits for
consumers.
Transition to a single market can have short term negative impact on some
sectors of a national economy due to increased international competition.
Enterprises that previously enjoyed national market protection and national
subsidy (and could therefore continue in business despite falling short of
international performance benchmarks) may struggle to survive against
their more efficient peers, even for its traditional markets. Ultimately, if the
enterprise fails to improve its organization and methods, it will fail. The
consequence may be unemployment or migration.
The European Economic Community was the first example of a both
common market, but it was an economic union since it had additionally a
customs union. Similarly the UEMOA is a common market and has all its
characteristics in principle. Indeed one of the reasons for the establishment
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of UEMOA was the need to reinforce the monetary union with a customs
union in order to attain a common market based on free movement of
persons, goods, services and capital.but the efficiency of the common
market is highly degraded by the low intra UEMOA trade and the low
industrial and economic base of member countries.
ECONOMIC UNION
An economic union is a type of economic integration which is composed of
a common market with a customs union. The participant countries have
both common policies on product regulation, freedom of movement of
goods, services and the factors of productionand a common external trade
policy.The countries often share a common currency. An economic union,
as distinct from a common market, combines the suppression of restrictions
on commodity and factor movements with some degree of harmonization of
national economic policies, in order to remove discrimination that was due
to disparities in these policies. The reasons for establishing a economic
union normally include increasing economic efficiency and establishing
closer political and cultural ties between the member countries. The EU is
an economic union as well as the UEMOA because they both have
common markets, customs union as well as common currencies. However
the efficiency of the economic union in the case of UEMOA is highly
degraded because of the low volume of trade as well as inability of member
countries to meet up with the macroeconomic convergence criteria
established by the Union.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_markethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customs_unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_(economics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_(economics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factors_of_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_efficiencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_efficiencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factors_of_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_(economics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_(economics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customs_unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_market7/30/2019 Concept of Regional Integration
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COMPLETE ECONOMIC INTEGRATION
Complete economic integrationpresupposes the unification of monetary,
fiscal, social, and countercyclical policies and requires the setting-up of a
supra-national authority whose decisions are binding for the member
states. The member countries therefore operate as one nation in terms of
integration of their various economies. An "economic union" combines
customs union with a common market whileacomplete economic
integration introduces a shared fiscal and budgetary policy. In order to be
successful this stage of integration is typically accompanied by unification
of economic policies (tax, social welfare benefits, etc.), reductions in the
rest of the trade barriers, introduction of supranational bodies, and gradual
moves towards a "political union".25
The EU is at this stage of integration. While theoretically, the UEMOA
which is considered to have gone the farthest on the road to integrationis
supposed to have reached this stage of integration, practically it is far from
this point because of the inability to effectively harmonize budgetary
policies, unification of social welfare benefits and an inability to go beyond
economic integration to social integration as well as the tendency for some
countries to tow the path of national interest against the collective interest
of the region. The inability of UEMOA to make its decisions binding on all
members as well as the over dependence on France which seeks to
promote its own interest is also militating against UEMOAs ability to moveforward on the integration ladder.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_barrierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_barrier7/30/2019 Concept of Regional Integration
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END NOTES
1. L.A Bennett, International Organisations: Principles and Issues, 3rd
edition, NewJersey: Prentice-Hall, 1984. p.289.
2. A. Y. Yansan, Evaluation of the State of Integration in Africa: How to Strengthenthe African Economic Community, in O.M Iheduru (ed.), Contending Issues in AfricanDevelopment: Advances Challenges and the Future, Connecticut: Greenwood Press,2001. p.241.
3. R. O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World PoliticalEconomy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984, p.7.
4. D. Mitrany, A world Peace System, Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1996.p.31.
5. E.B Haas, The Uniting of Europe, Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1958. p.126.
6. S.M Anadi, Regional Integration in Africa: The Case of ECOWAS, Phd ThesisUniversity of Zurich, April 2005.p. 134.
7. ibid. p. 145.
8. www.wikipaedia.orgaccessed on 3 April 2012.
9. S.M Anadi, op. cit. p. 146.
10. J. Viner, The Customs Union Issues in S.M Anadi, op. cit. p. 148.
11. BelaBelassa in his work on Economic Integration cited hereafter and Prof Lipede
in her lecture notes to students of MDS at the Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna bothtalked about 5 stages of economic integration.
12. P.C Kaptouon, The West African Economic and Monetary Union: Past andPresent of an Exceptional North-South-South Integration, University of BerlinDiscussion Paper 19, 2007.Kaptouon reproduced a 6 stage model designed by Fischerand Straubhaar on page 16 of the above quoted reference.
13. WMattli,The Logic of Regional Integration: Europe and Beyond, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1999.p. 105.
14. S.M. Anadi, op. cit.
15. B. Belassa, The Theory of Economic Integration:Illinois, Richard D. IrwinPublishers, 1961.p. 2.
16. B. Belassa,op. cit.p. 1.
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17. P.C Kaptouon, The West African Economic and Monetary Union: Past and
Present of an Exceptional North-South-South Integration, University of Berlin
Discussion Paper 19, 2007.
18. M. Hpner and A.Schfer, A New Phase of European Integration: Organized
Capitalisms in Post-Ricardian Europe, Discussion Paper No. 4,Max Planck Institute forthe Study of Societies, March 2007 p. 7.
19. ibid.
20.www.wikipaediaonline.orgassessed 19 April 2012..
21. B. Belassa, op. cit. p. 1.
22. GATT, Basic Instruments and Selected Documents, Vol. I ( Geneva, 1952), Part
III, Article XXIV, Sec. 8(a).
23. B. Belassa, op. cit. p. 2.
24. J. Viner, The Customs Union Issue in Belassa, op. cit. p.21.
25. www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integration .Assessed on 22 April 2012.
http://www.wikipaediaonline.org/http://www.wikipaediaonline.org/http://www.wikipaediaonline.org/http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integrationhttp://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integrationhttp://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integrationhttp://www.wikipaediaonline.org/7/30/2019 Concept of Regional Integration
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Belassa B., The Theory of Economic Integration:Illinois, Richard D. Irwin Publishers,1961.
Bennett L.A, International Organisations: Principles and Issues, 3rd edition, New Jersey:Prentice-Hall, 1984.
HaasE.B, The Uniting of Europe, Stanford: Stanford University Press,1958.
Keohane R. O., After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World PoliticalEconomy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984.
MattliW, The Logic of Regional Integration: Europe and Beyond, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1999.
Mitrany D., A world Peace System, Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1996.
Yansan A. Y., Evaluation of the State of Integration in Africa: How to Strengthen theAfrican Economic Community, in O.M Iheduru (ed.), Contending Issues in AfricanDevelopment: Advances Challenges and the Future, Connecticut: Greenwood Press,2001.
Discussion Papers
Kaptouon P.C, The West African Economic and Monetary Union: Past and Present of
an Exceptional North-South-South Integration, University of Berlin Discussion Paper 19,
2007.
M. Hpner and A. Schfer, A New Phase of European Integration: Organized
Capitalisms in Post-Ricardian Europe, Discussion Paper No. 4,Max Planck Institute for
the Study of Societies, March 2007.
Internet Sources
www.wikipaedia.org
www.wikipaediaonline.orgwww.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integration
Unpublished Work
S.M Anadi, Regional Integration in Africa: The Case of ECOWAS, Phd Thesis Universityof Zurich, April 2005.
http://www.wikipaedia.org/http://www.wikipaedia.org/http://www.wikipaediaonline.org/http://www.wikipaediaonline.org/http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integrationhttp://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integrationhttp://www.wikipaediaonline.org/http://www.wikipaedia.org/7/30/2019 Concept of Regional Integration
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