Composition II GE217 Instructor: Melissa Barry. Chapter one Understand Persuasion:Thinking Like a Negotiator.

Composition IIGE217

Instructor: Melissa Barry

Chapter one

Understand Persuasion:Thinking Like a Negotiator

What is an argument?

• Persuasion means influencing someone to do something

• An argument is when you express ideas, you are attempting to persuade someone to agree with you.

Facts are not arguable

• Facts are readily verifiable, they can’t be argued. Of course, people might dispute a fact.

• Example:

• The distance between Boston and New York is 214 miles

• Martin Luther King Jr’s birthday is now celebrated in all 50 states

• I got a 91 on my math test

continued

• The Washington Monument is 555 feet high.

• The Japanese smoke more cigarettes per capita than any other people on earth.

• My dog Fred died a year ago

• George W. Bush was elected as the 43rd president of the United States

Opinion based on personal taste and preference

• Different opinions are the basis of all arguments; however, you have to be careful to distinguish between opinions based on personal taste

• The word opinion is commonly used to mean different things. Opinions can refer to personal preferences, a reaction, analysis of something or an evaluation.

• George looks good in blue

• Pizza is my favorite food

• Video games are a waste of time

Even if you have strong feelings

• Even if you have strong emotional feelings tied to a subject it is not worth a debate based on your personal feelings…… for example lets say you make the statement that you never eat red meat1.) you are disgusted by by the sight of meat

2.) When meat is cooked; the smells disgusts you

3.) Hamburgers remind you of a fight that broke out at a local McDonalds

4.) You once got sick from red meat

Opinions/judgment

•A opinion of a judgment is one that weighs pros and cons of an issue and determines the relative worth

PROS CONS

The uses of argument

• A debate is an encounter between two or more adversaries who battle with each other who over who is right.

• An argument is a form of persuasion that seeks to convince others to do what the arguer wants.

Debate

• Debate is how we traditionally think of argument

• Debates are traditionally won or lost, and losers often feel frustrated and disappointed. Even more important, reasonable concerns on the losing side are often overlooked and not addressed.

• Debate does not provide a mechanics for compromise. It is not intended to provides a path toward common ground or a resolution in which all parties achieve a degree of success and positive change is made.

Formulating claims

• The claim is the heart of your argument

• Sometimes writers signal their claims to their readers by certain words: therefore, consequently, the real question is, the point is, it follows that…….

• Formulating your claim when you debate is the first step for thee reasons…

1.) It establishes the subject

2.) It solidifies your own stand or position about the issue

3.) It sets up a strategy on which your argument can be constructed.

Creating Reasons

• Reasons are the support beams of an argument essay

• Reason answer some basic question bout your claim

Why do you believe your claim to be true?

On what information or assumptions do you have to base your claim?

Do any authorities or experts concur with your claim?

Credibility is an essential element in creating reasons….

The opposition

• Your goal as a successful debater is based on being prepared for the opposition or opposite view point

• If you are unaware of opposing reasons, you leave yourself open to being undermined and not prepared.

Exchanges

• One way to be aware of the reasons on the other side is to study and research your topic carefully. Engage by using “yes, but” exchange and imagine you are face to face with someone holding a different position.

• I do agree but…

• In exchange to that….

• Yes, but I see it this way…..

Dialogue

• Dialogue is discussion, listening, interaction, and understanding…..

• The object of a dialogue is not to win or lose; the object is to communicate….

• This allows for modification in the discussions and requires both sides to do more than argue but to present viewpoints and respond to the opposition questions.

Deliberation

• Plays an important part in the process of developing arguments and deliberation means to carefully and fully consider our reasons for and against something before making up our minds.

• 1.) Becoming informed about the issue by reading and researching the information available

• 2.) Creating a dialogue by listening to the arguments of all sides in the debate and trying to understand the reasons behind their claims

• 3.) Carefully weighing all the arguments and information

• 4.) Determine your own position on the issue.

What is rhetoric

One person addressing an audience (one or many)

The art of observing any given case always in a persuasive method

Found in conversations, movies, advertisements, books, magazines and art

“the faculty of discovering in any particular caseall of the available means of persuasion.”

Why is rhetoric important

Because it allows a person to transform their ability to speak, read and write making their speech or piece of work more successful and meaningful....

What are appeals?Appeals- Finding common appeals to the audience...(money, love, self-worth, success)

Appeals are used to even narrow down a specific audience

For example: If I were to write a voting campaign for a younger audience, I will have young stars and musicians star in my public service announcement

Ethos, Logos, Pathos

Ethos“think ethical”

An attitude held by the receiver (the audience) toward the speaker (the source). We commonly refer to this as source credibility, the prestige of the speaker, and personal proof. Ethos can be initial (the beginning of the message), it can be derived (produced during the message) and it can be terminal (source credibility at the close of the message.

Ethos is in the mind of the receiver; the receiver has it; we as an audience determine if the communicator is credible. The ethos of a source may vary greatly; especially if he/she is controversial.

“Ask not what your country can do for

you...ask what you can do for your country”

Logos“think logic”

Logos appeal is a more logical approach that uses factual data, stats, quotes, citations and informed opinions. It also uses literal and historic analogies and clear definitions.

A logical argument would look like this- We should increase the use of nuclear energy in the US to save money and create alternative energy.

Pathos“think patriotism”

Pathos appeal refers to the emotion behind an argument. Pathos arguments tend to be very emotionally loaded with connotative meanings. There are vivid expressions and a strong emotional tone.

An example of a pathos argument would be- The US should invade Iraq after the hundreds of people who lost their lives on 9/11

What is a fallacy?

A fallacy is deceptive or misleading (a false notion)

Example: The world is flat....(false belief)

What is logical fallacy

An error in reasoning, or a flaw in the structure of an argument...here are two ways to create a logical fallacy....

What is an ad hominem?

An argument against “the man”

When you attack the character of personality of the speaker instead of attacking the substance of their position

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ebT1Oo6yDMI

Post hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc

After this, therefore because of this….

Establishes a questionable cause and effect relationship between events

Because event Y follow event X, event X must have cause event Y.

Whenever I drive to Chicago, I get a flat tire….I saw John at the courthouse, he must have been arrested

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HL_vHDjG5Wk&feature=related

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vRJUvFG8gbE

Hasty GeneralizationThe error of drawing a general conclusion based upon unreliable examples....

Example: This book was written by a Harvard professor so it must be good!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cIyhbIZXdtI

False dilemmaWhen someone is asked to choose between two options when there is at least one other option available

Complex questions are subtle forms of false dilemma. Questions such as “Are you going to admit that you’re wrong?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dln3DJEcghY

Ad misericordiam

• Appeal to pity

• When an argument is based solely on the exploitation of the reader’s pity, the issue gets lost.

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s0Sce4-UHjg

Ad populum

• “ To the people”

• Arguments aimed to the supposed prejudices and emotions of the masses.

• Doctors oppose healthcare reform because it reduces their large incomes….

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vmxzb8MQtxc

Bandwagon appeal

• Makes the claim that if everyone is doing it, then you should do it too

• The basic appeal to the argument is feeling like we belong as a group acting as a majority

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YhMaUiufjcU

Circular reasoning

• The conclusion of the argument is hidden in the premise of that argument thus the argument goes in a circle.

• Steroids are dangerous because they ruin your health….steroids are dangerous because they are dangerous….

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8CVbku6nxhU

False analogy

• When two things compared do not match up feature for feature.

• The ideas compared do not logically connect.

• Letting emerging nations have nuclear weapons is like giving loaded guns to children.

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S8LydU2P7Yw

Red herring

• To distract the audience from the true issues of an argument.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=exdK7Lirngg

Slippery slope

• Presumes that one event will lead to a chain of events that will lead to a catastrophe….

• So A lead to B leads to C leads to D leads to Z

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c-zG5U0v3gU&feature=results_main&playnext=1&list=PL0A6527B2A27F4B9E

Practice

• A book is pornographic if and only if it contains pornography

• ANSWER: Circular Reasoning

• Jeff's mom is concerned when she finds out that he skipped class one day. She tells him that she is concerned that since he skipped one class, he will start skipping more frequently. Then he will drop out altogether, never graduate or get into college, and end up unemployed and living at home for the rest of his life. What type of fallacy has Jeff's mom committed?

• ANSWER Slippery Slope

• Louise is running for class president. In her campaign speech she says, "My opponent does not deserve to win. She is a smoker and she cheated on her boyfriend last year."

• Answer Ad Hominem

• Anthony and Marie have a heated argument. During their fight, Anthony tells Marie that he hates her and wished that she would get hit by a bus. Later that evening, Anthony receives a call from a friend who tells him that Maria is in the hospital because she was struck by a bus. Anthony immediately blames himself and reasons that if he hadn't made that comment during their fight, Marie would not have been hit. What logical fallacy has Anthony committed?

• Answer: Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc

• Consider the following conversation:Bill: I think capital punishment is wrong.Adam: No it isn't…what’s wrong is the fact probation officers are being let go on a daily basis

• Answer: Red Herring

• Dana is trying to raise money for her university's library. In her address to the board of trustees, she says, "We must raise tuition to cover the cost of new books. Otherwise the library will be forced to close."

• Answer: False Dilemma

• Jeff is preparing to create a commercial for a new energy drink. He visits a local high school and surveys students in an English class about their beverage preferences. The majority of the class says they prefer grape flavored drinks, so Jeff tells his superiors that grape is the flavor favored most by high school students.

• Ad Populum

• Satanist Quarterly reports that 87% of Americans are atheists.  Therefore, there is no god.

• Answer: Hasty generalization

• You should totally come to SDA because its such an artistic school. Way more people go to SDA than LCC. All of our middle school is going to SDA so you should go too.

• Answer Bandwagon

• Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit in the head in order to make them work, so must employees.

• Answer: False Analogy

• Fred, the Australian, stole my wallet. Thus, all Australians are thieves.

• Answer: Hasty Generalization

• Vegans tend to be healthier than non Vegans. How could you not support Vegans? Do you know how the kill animals in slaughter houses. You should feel bad for those poor animals.

• Answer: Ad Misericordiam

• Immigration to Alberta from Ontario increased. Soon after, the welfare rolls increased. Therefore, the increased immigration caused the increased welfare rolls.

• Answer: Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc

• An animal is human if and only if it has human parents.

• Answer: Circular Reasoning

• Everyone knows that the Earth is flat, so why do you persist in your outlandish claims?

• Answer: Ad Populum