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Reading Focus• How did peace create problems for the Allies?• How did the Cold War conflict worsen in the late 1940s?• What were some of the early Cold War confrontations?• How did the arms race begin in the 1950s and early 1960s?• How did the Cold War contribute to conflict around the world?• How did the superpowers attempt to achieve arms control during
the Cold War?
Main IdeaOnce partners in war, the Soviet Union and the other former Allies found it much more difficult to cooperate in peace. The result was an era of conflict and confrontation called the Cold War.
Beginnings of the Cold War
• In World War II the Allies worked together to defeat the Axis • At war’s end, shattered European nations needed to be dealt with • This task placed a great strain on the alliance
• Much of Germany in ruins when war ended, May 1945
• Allies needed to establish system to govern and rebuild nation
Occupying Germany• Allies began to plan
Germany’s future before war’s end
• Agreed on major issues at Potsdam
• Agreed to divide into four zones of occupation
Four Zones• Soviet Union to control
one-third• Remaining two-thirds
controlled by rest of Allies
• Also divided capital of Berlin into four occupation zones
Capital Divided
The Problems of Peace
Trials and Reparations• Military courts tried more than two hundred Nazi, military officials• Several dozen sentenced to death for roles in Holocaust, war crimes• Allies also agreed on plan for Germany to pay reparations for destruction caused by
war; in form of currency, industrial equipment• Soviet Union got largest share; had suffered greatest destruction
Ridding Germany of Nazis• Allies also worked together to establish plan to rid Germany of any remnants of Nazi
Party, Nazi beliefs• Brought former Nazi, military leaders to justice for crimes committed during war at
Nuremberg trials in Nuremberg, Germany; 1945–1949
Beyond Germany• Allies agreed on Germany, what to do with rest of Europe more difficult• Even before war ended, major Allied powers in conflict over Eastern Europe• Eastern Europe bordered Soviet Union, was occupied by Soviet forces
Growing Tensions• American, British leaders believed Stalin planned to establish pro-Soviet Communist
governments throughout Eastern Europe and beyond• Growing tensions between Allies about to lead to another conflict
Buffer Zone• Soviet leaders had been invaded by Germany in both wars• Wanted buffer zone of friendly governments to guard against another attack• Stalin promised to respect Eastern Europeans’ right to choose governments
Eastern Europe
As communism spread throughout Eastern Europe, tension between the Soviet Union and the western democracies continued to grow.
The relationship between the Soviet Union and the Western nations continued to worsen after the war. Soon the United States and the Soviet Union entered an era of tension and hostility, which became known as the Cold War.
• Cold War more than military rivalry• Struggle for power, control between
two nations with very different approaches
• Conflict between communism, capitalist democracy
The Struggle Begins
The Conflict Worsens
• Backed by Soviet troops, pro-Soviet Communist governments established in Eastern Europe
• Only Yugoslavia avoided Soviet domination, although it was led by Communist dictator
Pro-Soviet Governments
• March 1946, former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill gave speech in U.S.
• Churchill used image of iron curtain to describe the division of Europe as result of Soviet actions
• Said this was serious threat to peace
Iron Curtain• Tension worsened by Soviet failure to
remove troops from northern Iran
• January 1946, President Truman warned “Another war is in the making.”
• February 1946, Stalin stated publicly he believed war between East, West bound to happen
Another Possible WarMore Tension
The democratic nations of the West soon faced a test of their resolve to contain the Communist East.
• Early 1947, Soviet backed Communists threatened governments of Greece, Turkey
• President Truman announced Truman Doctrine—pledge to provide economic, military aid to oppose spread of communism
• Congress agreed to send aid to Greece, Turkey
The Truman Doctrine• Because of post-war economies,
Truman believed more European countries might turn to communism
• U.S. launched massive program of economic aid
• Marshall Plan provided $13 billion for rebuilding Europe
• Plan helped Western Europe make rapid recovery from war, preserved political stability
The Marshall Plan
The West Resists
• Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan demonstrated West’s Cold War policy, containment• Containment involved resisting Soviet aggression in order to contain spread of
communism• Confrontations between East, West soon became increasingly severe
• Division of Germany, Berlin originally meant to be temporary
• 1947, Western leaders began planning creation of independent democratic German nation
• Also planned democratic government in West Berlin
Crisis in Berlin• June 1948, Soviets blocked off land,
rail, water routes into West Berlin to force West to leave Berlin
• Western leaders organized Berlin airlift to supply Berlin by air
• Airlift successful; Soviets called off blockade May, 1949
West Berlin Blockade
Cold War Confrontations
New Nations and Alliances
Germany and NATO• At end of Berlin crisis, western zones of Germany formed
Federal Republic of Germany, or West Germany• Soviet zone became German Democratic Republic, or East
Germany• U.S., Canada, most Western European countries joined in
military alliance—North Atlantic Treaty Organization, NATO—designed to counter Soviet power in Europe
• 1955, Soviet Union, Communist nations of Eastern Europe formed own alliance, Warsaw Pact
Division of Korea• Allies gained control of Korea after Japan’s World War II surrender• Soviet Union, U.S. agreed to temporarily divide country in half• Soviets established Communist government in north; U.S. supported non-
Communist regime in south
MacArthur at Inchon• UN formed military force; troops from 17 nations sent to Korea• North Koreans nearly conquered south within matter of months• American general Douglas MacArthur, UN forces landed behind enemy lines at
Inchon; tipped balance back in favor of UN forces
Eisenhower’s Warning• June 1950, North Koreans attacked South Korea • U.S. asked United Nations to approve use of force to stop invasion• Eisenhower: “We’ll have a dozen Koreas soon if we don’t take a firm stand.”
War in Korea
Push Back• UN forces pushed North Koreans out
of south• Drove deep into North Korea near
Chinese border
Stalemate• 1951, war settled into stalemate• Battle lines lay about where they had
been before North Korea’s initial invasion
War Shifts Again • War shifted again when Communist
Chinese came to aid of North Korea• Drove UN forces out of north
End of War• 1953, both sides agreed to armistice;
war over• Little changed during war• North remained Communist state;
South, ally of West
UN Responds
The U.S. technological advantage was short-lived. Less than one year later the Soviets tested their own hydrogen bomb.
During the 1950s and early 1960s nuclear war seemed to draw ever closer as the Soviet Union and the United States raced to develop powerful new weapons. This rivalry between the world’s two superpowers became increasingly tense—and dangerous.
• 1949, Soviets successfully tested atomic bomb
• Great military advantage of U.S. over Soviet Union gone
• U.S. sought to develop even more powerful weapons
The Nuclear Arms Race
The Arms Race Begins
• Atomic bombs used energy created by splitting atoms
• Nuclear fusion—larger explosion• 1952, U.S. tested first fusion-powered
hydrogen bomb, vaporizing island on which tested
Hydrogen Bomb
Strategy of Deterrence• Deterrence, development of or maintenance of military power to prevent attack• Two superpowers locked in arms race to gain advantage in weapons• U.S. had more weapons, but nuclear attack by either side would lead to terrible
destruction
Change in Tactics• Both sides forced to change military tactics• Could no longer rely on conventional forces, like troops, tanks• U.S., Soviets increased stockpiles of nuclear weapons• Nuclear weapons central to deterrence
In October 1957 the arms race took another leap forward with the Soviet Union’s successful launch of Sputnik.
• Sputnik, history’s first artificial satellite—object orbiting earth
• Soviet military technology now feared to be in the lead
• U.S. government established National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA
• Agency would eventually return United States to forefront of space research
Sputnik• Growing threat of nuclear war• Significant impact on people • Built bomb shelters to help protect
from nuclear explosion• Schools led air-raid drills to prepare
for possible Soviet attack• Books, movies, comic books had
plots centered on dangers of radiation, nuclear war
Public Fears
Soviet Union Launches Sputnik
Red Scare
Cold War led to so-called Red Scare in U.S. • Many Americans feared possible Communist influence in U.S.
government
• U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy
– Prompted congressional committee in effort to expose Communists in American film industry, government, late 1940s, early 1950s
– Accused many innocent people of Communist activities
The Korean War showed that Cold War rivalry could lead to conflict far from the United States or the Soviet Union. During the Cold War, this rivalry led to struggles for influence in countries around the world.
• End World War II, France tried to reestablish control over Southeast Asia
• Communist rebels in Vietnam fought back, forcing French to give up control
War in Southeast Asia
• Peace agreement temporarily divided Vietnam in half
• Communists controlled North, anti-Communist regime ruled South
Vietnam Divided
• U.S. supported South Vietnam, when revolution broke out sent military troops
• Eventually North Vietnamese fought alongside rebels
• War dragged on until mid–1970s
American Support
Cold War Around the World
Crossing Over• After Communist East Germany, democratic West Germany formed in 1949, tens of
thousands of East Germans crossed from East to West Berlin• Some wanted to live in free nation, other simply wanted to find work
Communist Brutality• Barrier, Berlin Wall, heavily guarded• Anyone attempting to cross risked being shot by East German guards• Succeeded in slowing flight of East Germans, became symbol of Communist system
brutality
Berlin Wall• By 1961, up to 1,000 per day made daily trip between homes in East Germany, jobs
in West Berlin• To stop exodus, East Germany erected barrier between two halves of city
Another Crisis in Berlin
• 1959, rebels led by Fidel Castro overthrew Cuba’s dictator• Installed Communist government• Centrally planned economy, close ties with Soviets• Actions worried United States; Cuba near Florida coast• Cuba’s alliance with Soviet Union brought Cold War close to American territory
• U.S. government secretly trained invasion force to overthrow Castro
• April 1961, force came ashore at Cuba’s Bay of Pigs
• American officials believed invasion would start uprising against Castro
• Instead invaders quickly defeated
Bay of Pigs• 1962, Cuban missile crisis, two week
confrontation between U.S., Soviet Union over installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba
• After standoff missiles removed; U.S. agreed to remove missiles from Turkey, not attack Cuba
Cuban Missile Crisis
Communism in Cuba
Suez Canal• 1956, Egypt angered West by taking over Suez Canal• Britain, France, Israel attacked Egypt; Soviet Union would take Egypt’s side• U.S. demanded Western allies halt attack; conflict came to end
Angola• 1975, Angola won independence from Portugal• U.S., Soviet Union supported opposing sides in ensuing civil war which lasted until
1991
The Congo• Ending of European colonial rule in Africa brought superpower involvement• 1960 Belgium ended control of Congo; U.S., other western countries supported
military dictator Joseph Mobutu as good ally against Soviet Union
Other Cold War Conflicts
While relations between East and West were largely hostile throughout the Cold War, some attempts at cooperation were made.
• Eisenhower proposed open skies treaty with Soviet Union
• Each side could fly over other’s territory, gather accurate weapons information
• With accurate information, neither side would have to imagine worst about enemy
• Soviets rejected proposal
Early Arms Control• Soviet leaders proposed total nuclear
disarmament• United States rejected idea• President Kennedy favored limited
nuclear weapons tests• Cuban missile crisis convinced both
sides important to make arms control progress
• 1963 U.S., Soviets agreed on Test Ban Treaty
Test Ban Treaty
Attempts at Arms Control
SALT I• U.S. President Richard Nixon sought détente, reduced tension between
superpowers; started negotiations called Strategic Arms Limitations Talks• SALT I talks led to agreements limiting nuclear weapons held by each side
SALT II• Vulnerability important element of principle of deterrence• Two sides began new round of talks called SALT II• Talks resulted in arms control treaty in 1979: never ratified by U.S. Senate
ABM Treaty• Also led to Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, preventing development of weapons
designed to shoot down nuclear missiles• Meant to ensure each side remained vulnerable to other’s nuclear weapons
SALT I and SALT II
Reagan Presidency• Reagan took aggressive position
against Soviet Union• Wanted to develop missile defense
system
INF Treaty• 1988, two countries ratified
Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty
• Called for elimination of certain types of missiles
Arms Reduction Talks• Idea of system seemed to violate spirit
of ABM Treaty• Began arms reduction talks with Soviet
leader Gorbachev
Improving Relations• After many years of conflict,
relationship between U.S., Soviet Union began to improve
The 1980s
• Western Europe faced challenging future after World War II• At end of war, much of Western Europe lay in ruins• Property, farmland destroyed; national economies collapsed; millions displaced
from homes; seemed on brink of chaos• Chaos did not come, thanks in large part to Marshall Plan
• With American aid, Western Europe’s factories produced more in 1950s than before war
• West Germany became major economic power
• Growth strong in other countries
Economic Growth• Availability of jobs attracted
immigrants from former colonies• Created strain as Europeans struggled
to adapt to newcomers, their cultures
Influx of Immigrants
Western Europe
World War II had changed Europe’s place in the world. The continent was no longer the center of world power; instead, the United States and the Soviet Union were centers of power.
• European nations began to end longstanding rivalries, work for common good
• NATO unified many nations in strong military alliance with U.S., Canada
Alliances• Many Western
European nations moved toward economic unity
• Cooperation begun in coal, steel industries, and development of atomic energy
Economic Unity• Broader efforts to
develop single regional market, free of trade barriers
• Goal to create single market to rival United States
Markets
Alliances and Economic Unity
The Common Market
European Economic Community • 1957, six European nations founded European Economic
Community; also known as Common Market
• 1960, seven other European countries formed rival European Free Trade Association
• True economic unity in Europe still years in future
Stalin-era economic and political restrictions loosened, but country remained Communist. Individual freedoms limited, still hostile stance against the West.
The challenges facing the Soviet Union and the Eastern European nations under its control were even more overwhelming than those facing Western Europe. Like Western Europe, however, the region soon began to recover.
• Tens of millions killed in war• Heavy damage to cities and farms• Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin
determined to rebuild quickly• Soviet Union had command economy
The Postwar Soviet Union
Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union
• Government controls all economic decisions
• Goods at prewar levels by 1953• Nikita Krushchev became leader of
Soviet Union, undertook effort to “de-Stalinize” Soviet Union
Command Economy
• Soviet crackdowns did not end protests in Eastern Europe
• 1980, Polish electrician Lech Walesa led hundreds of thousands of workers in anti-government protest movement, called Solidarity
• Poland’s Communist government used martial law to suppress movement, could not destroy it
Solidarity• Changes after Stalin’s death led
Eastern Europeans to hope for end of Soviet domination
• Soviet leaders made it clear reforms were limited
• Used or threatened force to crush public protests in many countries, assert control
• Troops put down revolts in East Germany (1953), Poland (1956), Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1968)
Many ChangesRevolts in Eastern Europe
Soviet Economy Faltered• Soviet economy performed well after war, began to falter in 1960s• By 1980s, Soviet Union faced crisis; command economy system inefficient• Production goals with little regard for wants, needs of marketplace
New Concepts• Proposed two radical concepts—glasnost, perestroika• Glasnost, “openness,” willingness to discuss Soviet problems openly• Perestroika, “restructuring,” reform of Soviet economic, political system
Gorbachev• Goals stressed heavy industry, neglecting needed consumer goods• As result most sectors of Soviet economy ceased to grow• 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev came to power, saw need for change
Glasnost and Perestroika
Policy Reversal• Gorbachev knew Soviet Union could not afford to prop up Communist governments
of Eastern Europe• Began to pull Soviet troops out of region, urged local leaders to adopt reforms• Reversed decades of Soviet policy in Eastern Europe
Reforms• Gorbachev pushed through number of major reforms• Aggressively pursued arms control agreements with U.S.• Also reduced central planning of Soviet economy, introduced some free market
mechanisms
• Eastern Europeans longed for freedom, did not wait for reform• 1989, revolution spread; citizens overthrew Soviet-backed leaders• Gorbachev, no longer wanting to control Eastern Europe, did not interfere• Most revolutions were peaceful• Solidarity forced elections in Poland; Lech Walesa elected president
• Czechoslovakia had Velvet Revolution—so called because it was peaceful
• Pushed communists out of power• Only bloodshed in Romania, where
some military forces remained loyal to Communist dictator
Czechoslovakia, Romania• Most dramatic changes took place in
East Germany• Berlin Wall opened November 1989• Strongest symbol of Soviet repression,
Cold War, finally fell• Less than year later, East, West
Germany reunified as single nation
East Germany
Revolutions in Eastern Europe
The fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of Soviet-backed regimes in Eastern Europe showed the dramatic crumbling of Soviet power.
• Soviet Union consisted of 15 separate republics
• Some had been independent nations before World War II and long wanted freedom
• 1990, Lithuania declared independence; appeared other republics planned same
• Not clear if Soviets had will, power to stop movement
Soviet Union Collapses• August 1991, hard-line Communists
tried to end Gorbachev’s reforms in coup
• Effort failed due to opposition of Boris Yeltsin, leader of republic of Russia
• Yeltsin favored more radical changes than Gorbachev
• Did not want to see hard-liners take over Soviet Union
Government in Crisis
The Breakup of the Soviet Union
• Twelve republics united in loose confederation, Commonwealth of Independent States
• Mighty Soviet Union, once one to two most powerful countries in world, no longer existed
• Cold War finally over after more than 40 years of tension, conflict
End of Soviet Union• Although coup failed, Gorbachev’s
power largely gone
• Republic after republic declared independence
• By end of 1991, Soviet government had ceased to function
Gorbachev’s Power GoneFailed Coup
More Freedom• Yeltsin began to allow private ownership of businesses, land• Business owners, workers able to take advantage of economic opportunities• However, lost guarantee of government-backed job, other government supports
Economic Change• Soviet Union fell; communism ended in former Soviet republics• In largest republic, Russia, Boris Yeltsin began campaign to alter economy’s basic
structure• Goal to make economy function like capitalist system
Mixed Results
Early results of Russia’s reforms mixed • Some entrepreneurs prospered, most ordinary Russians did
not • Prices rose sharply
– Many Russians could not afford to buys goods in stores
– Some questioned benefits of market reform • Early 2000s, Russia rebounded somewhat from economic
crises; still, path from communism to capitalism not easy
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