Chapter 7: The Biosphere and Ecosystems Section 1: The components of the Biosphere Section 2: The structure of the Biosphere Section 3: The Formation.
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Chapter 7: The Biosphere and Ecosystems
Section 1: The components of the Biosphere
Section 2: The structure of the Biosphere
Section 3: The Formation and evolution of the Biosphere
Section 4: Ecosystems Section 5: Human Beings and Ecosystems
The Components of the Biosphere
Material Components : Organism belongs to organic materials, while rock, atmosphere and water, as the part of the environment, are inorganic minerals.
Element Components : The main components are hydrogen , oxygen and carbon, which separately accounts for 49.8 percent, 24.9 percent and 24.9 percent of the total number of the organism. While the sum of them accounts for 99.6 percent of the total. Besides the above, there are some microelements, such as Nitrogen, Calcium, Kalium, Silicon, Magnesium, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Aluminium and so on.
System Components : There are terrestrial ecosystems and marine ecosystems
Biology Components: There are prokaryotic microorganism , protozoa, metaphyte, metazoa 。
Material Components
The biosphere
Organic bodis
Inorganic Environments
Producer
Consumer
Decomposer
AtmosphereWaterRock and soilSunlightOther inorganic compounds
Element Components of the Organism
As indicated by research, the element components of the organism are mainly hydrogen , oxygen and carbon, which separately accounts for 49.8 percent, 24.9 percent and 24.9 percent of the total number of the organism. While the sum of them accounts for 99.6 percent of the total. Besides the above, there are some microelements, such as Nitrogen, Calcium, Kalium, Silicon, Magnesium, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Aluminium and so on.
System Components of the Biosphere
Th
e b
iosp
here
Terrestrialecosystem
Marineecosystem
Forest ecosystem
Prairie ecosystemDesert ecosystemLake ecosystem
Marsh ecosystemRiver ecosystem
Tundra ecosystem Urban ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem︰……
Tropic rainforest ecosystemSubtropic evergreen forest
ecosystemTemperate deciduous ecosystem Northern needlepoint ecosystem
Wheat ecosystemPaddy ecosystemCorn ecosystem
Northern pine forestEcosystem
Northern spruce forestEcosystem
Northern fir forestecosystem
Deep-sea ecosystemShallow-sea ecosystemEstuarine ecosystem
The Biology Components of the Biosphere
As indicated by the early research, biology includes animal, plant and microorganism. But proved by the later research, there are also some animals existing which structures and functions are between those of animals and plants. Therefore, it is suggested by scientists that biology be divided into four categories: Prokaryotic microorganism, protozoa, Metaphyte and metazoa .
Biology
Prokaryotic
microorganism
Protozoa
Metaphyte
Metazoa
The Structure of the Biosphere
The structure of the biosphere
The structure of vertical quasi-
normal distribution
Horizontal continuous and asymmetrical structure
Multilevel nested structure
The Structure of the Biosphere
Structure of vertical quasi-normal distribution Biology distributes concentrating in some areas along the vertic
al direction but gradually decreases upwards or downwards. Horizontal, continuous and asymmetrical structure Biology distributes continuously everywhere on the earth surfac
e. The structure of biosphere is uneven and biology distributes asymmetrically on the earth surface.
Multilevel nested structure Multilevel systems intersect and overlap mutually in space. At t
he same time, they interrelate and interact.
Structure of Vertical Quasi-normal Distribution of the Biosphere
In the sea, the amount and category of biology decrease gradually with the increase of depth. But on the land, the amount and category of biology decrease with the increase of the elevation. In a word, we can use a simple chart to illustrate the vertical structure of biological distribution. On the whole, it has the characteristic of quasi-normal distribution. From this point of view, the vertical structure of the biosphere is also entitled as the structure of vertical quasi-normal distribution.
As far as the structure of the biosphere is concerned, there is the characteristic of vertical quasi-normal distribution. Structure of vertical quasi-normal distribution means that biology distributes concentrating in some certain area along the vertical direction and tends to decrease gradually upwards or downwards. Specifically, biology distributes near the rising sea level but its amount and category decrease orderly upwards or downwards from the sea level with the increase of depth or elevation.
( JiangWang , 2000 )
Biomass
or biological category
Dep
th o
f seaw
ate
rEle
vatio
n
Increasing
The Structural Characters of the Biosphere
亲 岩 性 亲 水 性 亲 气 性 Ç ×¹ âÐ Ô Î Â¿ ØÐ Ô
½ á¹ ¹Ì ØÐ ÔStructural characters
Temperaturecontrolled
Lightneeded
Gas needed
Waterneeded
Rockneeded
Different Distribution of District and Flora of Biology
Different distribution of district and flora of biology
Latitude Zone
Aridity/humidity zone
Vertical zone
Local
Floral
Different Distribution of District and Flora of Biology
◆ Latitude zone Global biology distributes along the altitude and changes regularly. ◆ Aridity/humidity zone Because of different amount of moisture resulting from different distance from the sea, the distribution of animals and plants alters orderly from the coast to the inland. ◆ Vertical zone Biological distribution alters regularly with increasing altitude. ◆ Local The rule of different distribution happens in local district. ◆ Floral During far-flung history of succession, different animals and plants formed a biological flora because they distribute in the same area.
The Relation of Horizontal Distribution of Terrestrial Vegetation to the Latitude and Arid Index
Altitude zone means that global biology distributes along the altitude and changes regularly. The rule of different distribution of district results from the grads change of solar radiation along the altitude and accordingly results in the zonal distribution of climate and biology. Precipitation permits, from the equator to poles, there are tropical rainforests, subtropical evergreen forest, temperate deciduous forest, boreal needlepoint forest, cold tundra and arctic desert.
Desert
Tundra
Taiga
Forest
Woodland
Chaparral
Rain forestMonsoon
forest
SavannaDesert
Arctic
Subarctic
Temperate
Tropical
Decreasing precipitation
Incr
easi
ng lati
tude
Desert
The Relationships Between Vertical Zone and Latitude zone of Vegetation
With the change of altitude, the distribution of biology alters regularly. This phenomenon is called vertical zone. Topography is the premise of vertical zone. The direct cause for vertical zone is that climate varies with increasing altitude. With the topography drives up, climate and biology vary accordingly in vertical direction. Vertical zone is not only restricted by zonal factors but by non-zonal factors. From this point of view, it is joint result of the both. There is some kind of comparability in structure and property between vertical zone and latitude zone. But as far as causes of formation are concerned, there is great difference between the both.
Latitude
Ele
vatio
n
Tropicforest Taiga Cold
tundra
Taiga
Temperateforest
Taiga
TundraHighlandtundra
Snowline
Treeline
Snowbelt
Tree
line
Snowline
Polarice
The International Flora and Its ZoneDuring the far-flung history of succession, different animals and plants formed a biological flora because they distribute in the same area. The flora is the reflection of the kindred relationships, geographic isolation and growing process between animals and plants. In the same flora, the more the numbers of the special species are and the senior its grade is, the older animals and plants are and the longer the history of geographic isolation is.
(塔赫他间, 1978 )1978
1 Northern area2 Ancient tropic area
3 New tropic area4 Cape area
5 Australian area6 Antarctic area
The Formation and Succession of the Biosphere
The origin of life
The phase from inorganic mineral to simple organic
material;
The phase from simple organic material to complex one;
The phase from macromolecule organic material to
metabolic
protein. The succession of the biosphere
Biological categories increase gradually;
The structure of the biosphere becomes more and more
complex;
The spatial distribution of biology expands gradually and
extends from ocean to land.
Ecosystems
◆ Components of ecosystems :
A typical ecosystem has two basic components. The first is abiotic material such as water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, acid, alkali and elements or compounds that exits outside the body of the organism anytime. The other is organism composed of producer, consumer and decomposer.
◆ Structure of ecosystems Trophic levels : This is the physical part of ecosystems. Trophic levels are
the levels and positions at which species feed and all steps removed from plants in a food chain are included.
Food chains : In ecosystems, plants are eaten by animals and herbivores are eaten by carnivores, therefore, the sequence of levels in the trophic levels is referred as a food chain.
Food webs : A food chain often has different branches. The food chains overlap and intersect to form feeding mosaic are called a food web.
The Components of Ecosystems ( Mackenzie,1998 )
A typical ecosystem has two basic components, one is abiotic substance, the other is organism.
Producer
Consumer
DecomposerLoss
of heat
The composition of inorganic matters
Trophic Level, Food Chain and Food Wet
The trophic structure is the most primary structure of ecosystems. The structure relates all kinds of organisms with food.
Fox
3
2-3
Food chain Food net
1st-level
2nd-level
3rd-level
Trophiclevel
Grass
Rabbit
Rabbit
Hawk
Fox
Skunk
Deer
Mouse
Leaf
Grass Seed
The Functions of Ecosystems
Productivity Energy flow of ecosystems The energy through ecosystems flows toward one direction. According
to Lindeman’s law of trophic efficiency, biomass decreases with each successive trophic level and the efficiency of energy transferring from one trophic level to the next is about 10%.
Material cycle of ecosystems There are many kinds of organic materials. These materials can be deco
mposed and released into the environment so as to be utilized repeatedly. By this way, materials of ecosystems can move in cycles.
Information transfer of ecosystems The stability of ecosystems–ecological balance The energy flow and material cycle of the ecosystems stable or balance
able can maintain its own state for a long time.
Biological Amplification
As far as pollution ecology is concerned, the research of food chains is very significant because chemical pollutants are passed along a simple food chain to the top carnivores, where the accumulation becomes concentrated. This phenomenon is biological amplification. Chemicals become increasingly concentrated at each higher trophic level, as a result, they do serious harms to the development or health of biology at higher trophic level. Take the DDT as an example, if the concentration in the air is 0.000003 ppm and when it is absorbed by planktons in the sea, the concentration in the body of plankton then reaches 0.04 ppm which is 130 thousand times of that in the air. If plankton is devoured by small fish, the concentration adds up to 0.5 ppm and if small fish is devoured by the big one, the concentration reaches 2 ppm and then if fishes are eaten by the waterfowl, the concentration reaches 25 ppm. Finally if waterfowl is eaten by human beings, the concentration adds up to 30 ppm which is a hundred million times of that in the air. The higher the trophic level is, the more the concentration in the body of the organism is.
Accumulated130 thousand times
Plankton Small fish
Big fish Waterfowl Human body
The Relationships Between Energy Flow and Material cycle of the Ecosystem
In order to maintain the natural operation of the ecosystem, energy has to be imported continuously. Energy comes to ecosystems in the form of sunlight which is used by plants. This energy is stored in the system in the form of organic materials in animals and plants. It flows through the system along food chains and webs from one trophic level to the next. It is finally released into the environment from the system by means of decomposition. At the same time, addition energy is lost through respiration at all trophic levels. Therefore, energy is no longer utilized by producer to repeat this kind of recycle. This phenomenon that the energy flows through ecosystems toward one direction is referred as energy flow.
Energy flow
Material cycle
Decomposer
Primary productivity
Respiration
Respiration
Respiration
CarnivoreHerbivore
The sun Import or
nutrimentExport ofnutriment
Storage oforganic
materials
Storage of soil
Ecological Pyramid
In every ecosystem, biomass decreases with each successive trophic level and the efficiency of energy transferring from one trophic level to the next is about 10%.This is Lindeman’s law of trophic efficiency. According to this theory, every ecosystem has a pyramid of numbers and energy, reflecting the relationship between energy flow and loss of the organisms in the food chain. The smallest organisms are the most numerous and consume the greatest energy, while large life forms, such as secondary consumers, are lowest in population and represent the least energy. This phenomenon is called ecological pyramid.
Vegetation
Herbivore
Carnivore
The firstlevel
The secondlevel
The thirdlevel
The Energy of Ecosystems ( small biological cycles )( jiangwang , 2000 )
The material of ecosystem circulates by the following means:(1)environment-producer-environment;(2) environment-consumer-environment;(3) environment-decomposer-environment;(4) environment-producer-consumer-environment;(5) environment-producer-decomposer- environment;(6) environment-consumer-decomposer-environment;(7) environment-producer-consumer-decomposer-environment.
environment
producer
consumer
decomposer
Feedback can be classified into two types,that is to say, the positive and the negative. The both behave reversely. The negative feedback is essential to the self-regulation of ecosystems. The feedback mechanism is very complex, which shows not only between biology components and environment but between structure and function. In an ecosystem, when the number of preys increases, the number of captors increases a lot accordingly because there is much food for them. When the number of captors increased, the number of preys decreases and because there are not enough food for captors, the number of them decreases spontaneously.
The Negative Feedback and Its Regulation of Ecosystems
Vegetation increases
Vegetationdecreases
The food forrabbit increases
Number of foxincreases
Little food for rabbit
Much foodfor rabbit
Food forfox increases
Number of rabbits
decreases
Number of rabbits increases
Number of foxdecreases
Few rabbits for
fox
A lot ofrabbits for
fox
Rabbits die ofhunger
Fox die ofhunger
Human Beings and the Biosphere
The human being is the part of the
biosphere;
The food human beings needed is
gained from the biosphere;
Plants supply oxygen to human beings
for their survivals;
The biosphere and biology resources.
The Relationships Between Human Beings and the Other Animals
Besides human beings, there are many other mammals such as horses, cattle, tigers, rabbits, sheep, monkeys, dogs and pigs. They are viviparous and homoiothermous. They feed their children by themselves and most of them have furs. Among all the mammals, only human beings, monkeys, orangutans and apes belongs to primates. In fact, human beings are evolved from apes. From this point of view, the human being is a special kind of animal and there is close relationship between human beings and animals. But there is essential difference between them because human beings can make tools and their cerebra develop so well that they have thoughts. But whatever to say, human beings are evolved from animals and are parts of the biosphere. Animals
Pisces, Aves…Mammalias
Primatescarnivore …
Mollusca, Arthropoda … Craniota
Sub-craniota… …
Gibbon… Humanbeings
The role of Human Beings in the Food Chain
The lives of human beings depend on the biosphere. The physical body of human itself can not make organic material directly. The maintenance of physical body is indispensable of the organic material supplied or made by biology. As far as the food chain is concerned, human beings are senior consumers. In order to maintain the lives of human beings, there must be enough plants and animals to supply enough food.
Land area
moisture
Agricultural land
The human being
fertilizer
Solar energy
CO2
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