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Chapter 2 & 3Chapter 2 & 3

Organizational Environments and

Cultures

2Blast From The PastBlast From The PastTechnological Innovation in the 20th CenturyTechnological Innovation in the 20th Century

1900-1910✔airplane, plastic, air conditioner

1911-1920✔mammogram, zipper, sonar

1921-1930✔talking movies, penicillin, jet

engine1931-1940

✔radar, helicopter, computer1941-1950

✔atomic bomb, bikini, transistor1951-1960

✔DNA, oral contraceptive, Tylenol

1961-1970✔video recorder, handheld

calculator, computer mouse1971-1980

✔compact disc, gene splicing, laser printer

1981-1990✔MS-DOS, space shuttle, CD-

ROM1991-Today

✔Pentium processor, Centrino, Quad core, Mobile computing, Java, etc

3Technology CycleTechnology CycleS-curve pattern of innovationS-curve pattern of innovation

Effort

Discontinuity

NewTechnology

Adapted from Figure 10.1

Changing EnvironmentsChanging Environments

✔Environmental Change✔Environmental Complexity✔Environmental Munificence✔Uncertainty

5Issues Priority Matrix

6Basic Model of Basic Model of Strategic ManagementStrategic Management

Four Basic Elements

7Strategic Decision Making ModelStrategic Decision Making Model

8Strategic Decision Making, Cont.Strategic Decision Making, Cont.

Outcomes from External and Internal Outcomes from External and Internal Environmental AnalysesEnvironmental Analyses

Examine opportunities and threats

Examine unique resources, capabilities, and competencies(sustainable competitive advantage)

STRATEGIC FORMULATIONSTRATEGIC FORMULATION(The TOWS Matrix help you generate STRATEGY (The TOWS Matrix help you generate STRATEGY

alternatives by Matching S-W-O-T)alternatives by Matching S-W-O-T)

1. Environmental Scanning1. Environmental Scanning

Lingkungan Internal PerusahaanLingkungan Internal Perusahaan

✔Struktur Organisasi✔Budaya Organisasi✔Sumber daya yang dimiliki perusahaan

✴Keuangan✴SDM yang ada✴Sarana dan prasarana fisik

Industry AnalysisIndustry Analysis Porter’s 5-Forces Model, Modified Porter’s 5-Forces Model, Modified

15Organisasi dan MasyarakatOrganisasi dan Masyarakat

Pemerintah Pusat

Pemerintah Daerah

Penyalur

Media Massa

Lembaga Pendidikan

Lembaga Konsumen

Pelanggan

Lembaga Keuangan

Pasar Uang

Karyawan

Serikat Buruh

Pesaing

Asosiasi Bisnis

Pemasok

Kelompok Politik

Pemilik

Lembaga Hukum

How Global Conditions How Global Conditions Affect Firm ValueAffect Firm Value

Figure 17.6

Technological ForcesTechnological Forces

http://api.ning.com/files http://blog.karachicorner.com/blog-images

Economic ForcesEconomic Forces

http://filipspagnoli.wordpress.com/tag/education

Economic ForcesEconomic Forces

GDP nominal per capita world map IMF 2008.png

Perkembangan Pertumbuhan Ekonomi Beberapa Negara 1990 - 2005

1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61

USAJepangIndonesiaThailanSingapore

Perkembangan Suku Bunga Internasional dan Domestik 1990 - 2005

1 14 27 40 53 66 79 92 105

Sibor 3 blUSA primeSBI 3 bl

Perkembangan Tingkat Inflasi beberapa Negara 1990 - 2005

1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61

USAJepangIndonesiaThailanSingapore

Jumlah Uang Beredar (M1)

Perkembangan Kurs Rp terhadap Beberapa Mata Uang Asing 1990 - 2005

02000400060008000

10000120001400016000

1 15 29 43 57 71 85 99 113

Rp/$Rp/YRp/SgdRp/Euro

Socioculture ForcesSocioculture Forces

Population Pyramid Summary for Indonesiahttp://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idbpyr.html

31Population Pyramid Summary for China

Socioculture Socioculture ForcesForces

Political ForcesPolitical Forces

Natural ForcesNatural Forces

http://1.bp.blogspot.com http://pusdiknakes.or.id/persinew/images

http://bataviase.files.wordpress.com/2007/02/03-banjir.jpg

http://westnu.files.wordpress.com

Lingkungan EksternLingkungan Ekstern

1. PASAR YANG TERSEDIA✔ a. Jumlah penduduk dan Pertumbuhan penduduk✔ b. Distribusi penduduk✔ c. Pendapatan per kapita

2. KONDISI PEREKONOMIAN ✔ a. Sumber daya alam✔ b. Topografi✔ c. Iklim✔ d. Pertanian atau Industri ?✔ e. Prasarana

393. LINGKUNGAN SOSIAL BUDAYA

Para ahli Antropologi telah sepakat bahwa budaya itu memiliki tiga karakteristik yakni :✔ Budaya bukan pembawaan sejak lahir melainkan dipelajari✔ Berbagai bentuk budaya saling berhubungan – kalau salah satu aspek budaya tersentuh, maka yang lain

akan ikut terpengaruh pula✔ Budaya dimiliki bersama oleh anggota kelompok dan menjadi pembatas antara kelompok yang berbeda

( Edward T. Hall, 1977 )✔ a. Nasionalisme✔ Sebagai contoh, untuk memasarkan produk film di negara India, sebuah perusahaan film asing, mesti

mempersiapkan strategi yang terencana, mengingat nasionalisme masyaraakat India terhadap film mereka sendir sangat besar.

b. AgamaBeberapa hal yang perlu diperhatikan oleh manajer pemasaran internasional anatara lain ( Moezamil, 1992)

aadalah sbb. :✔ Perusahaan harus memastikan bahwa jadwal kerja dan program pemasarannya disesuaikan dengan hari

libur agama.✔ Pola konsumsi mungkin dipengaruhi oleh kewajiban atau tabu oleh agama. Contohnya adalah ikan pada

hari Jum’at untuk ummat Katolik jaman dahulu, daging sapi untuk orang Hindu atau dagin babi bagi orang Islam dan Yahudi. Larangan minum alkohol dalam agama Islam merupakan keuntungan bagi perusahaan seperti Coca Cola.

✔ Peran ekonomi wanita banyak bervariasi dari satu budaya ke budaya lainnya, dan penyebab pentingnya adalah kepercayaan agama.

✔ Sistem kasta membatasi partisipasi dalam perekonomian. Pengaruhnya tidak hanya dalam penempatan tenaga, tetapi juga dalam program distribusi dan promosinya.

✔ Lembaga keagamaan seperti ( jaman dulu terutama ) sering dapat merintangi pengenalan produk dan teknik baru, atau sebaliknya dapat memperlancar.

c. Tingkat pendidikand. Atribut produk✔ Hal ini disebabkan arti warna-warna tersebut tidak selalu sama untuk setiap negara. Misalnya, Bagi

Amerika warna hijau melambangkan iri hati, biru melambangkan kesedihan. e. Sikap dan nilai

4. LINGKUNGAN POLITIK DAN HUKUM

a. Peranan Pemerintah✔ Untuk mengetahui situasi lingkungan politik ( peranan pemerintah ) ini Richard

Robinson memberikan 4 pertanyaan yang dapat digunakan untuk mengevaluasi produk yang akan dipasarkan berkaitan dengan situasi politik yang ada. Pertanyaan-pertanyaan tersebut adalah :

✔ Apakah produk itu pernah menjadi pokok perdebatan politik mengenai cadangan pasoknya ( minyak, fasilitas pengangkutan, pelayanan umum, dan sebagainya ) ?

✔ Apakah produk itu merupakan suatu masukan penting bagi industri lainnya ( semen, baja, tenaga, alat mesin, dan sebagainya ) ?

✔ Apakah produk itu dari segi sosial atau politik cukup peka ( obat-obatan, makanan, dll ) ?

✔ Apakah produk itu memiliki arti penting bagi pertahanan nasional ? b. Perkembangan Teknologi Informasi✔ Masalah Pendirian. ✔ Untuk mendirikan sebuah usaha /perusahaan di negara lain, maka perlu diperhatikan

suasana dan kecenderungan perkembangan politik yang sedang dan akan terjadi di negara tersebut.

c. Paten dan Merek Dagang. d. Perlindungan dan Penyelesaian Perselisihan. ✔ Interntional Chamber of Commerce, American Arbitration Association, dll.e. Perpajakan.

415. ISNIS INTERNASIONAL / GLOBALISASI

✔ Perkembangan Dunia✔ “Jika suatu negara menginginkan kemakmuran / kesejahteraan bagi rakyat dan bangsanya,

hendaknya ia melakukan perdagangan dengan negara lainnya ”

Faktor yang menyebabkan suatu negara memerlukan negara lain : ✔ Tidak Setiap Sumber Daya yang Dibutuhkan, Dimiliki Negara ✔ Untuk Memperluas Pasar✔ Untuk Memperoleh Devisa✔ Untuk Keperluan Alih Teknologi✔ Mendapatkan Keuntungan dengan Adanya Spesialisasi

✔ Hal lain yang perlu diperhatikan :a. Mata Uang yang Berbedab. Kondisi Goegrafis c. Kebijaksanaan Pemerintahd. Kondisi Pasar Tujuan✔ Kualitas yang minimal tidak dibawah produk lokal✔ Harga yang besaing✔ Pilihan produk yang cukup✔ Pelayanan pasca penjualan yang baik✔ Ketersediaan/kontinuitas produk yang cukup✔ Akrab lingkungan dan sesuai dengan kultur setempat✔ Memiliki nilai lebih dibanding produk pesainge. Kemampuan Perusahaan

Beberapa Fakta Tentang RisikoBeberapa Fakta Tentang Risiko

✔ NEGARA % RESIKO YANG HILANG✔ ✔ AMERIKA 73,0✔ INGGRIS 65,5✔ ITALIA 60,0✔ ARGENTINA 19,0✔ BRASIL 31,0✔ INDONESIA 19,0

88Chapter

The Manager as a The Manager as a Planner and Planner and StrategistStrategist

PlanningPlanning

Defining the organization’s goals, establishing an overall strategy, and developing a hierarchy of

plans to achieve goals

Setting GoalsSetting Goals

SpecificMeasurableAttainableRealisticTimely

GAMBARAN VISI PERUSAHAAN

“Alice” in Wonder Land Dalam perjalanannya, Alice tertesesat di hutan, dan menghadapi beberapa pilihan jalan yang harus dilalui. Untunglah ia bertemu sahabatnya, seekor keledai. Bertanyalah ia kepada sahabatnya tersebut :

Alice : “ Sahabatku, tolong tunjukkan kepada saya jalan mana yang harus saya ambil agar tidak tersesat lagi ? “ Si keledai : “ Sebelum saya tunjukkan jalan, maukah Alice memberitahukan akan pergi kemana ? “ Alice : “ Itulah masalahnya, Saya tidak tahu mau pergi kemana ….“ Si keledai : “ Jika engkau tidak tahu mau kemana, maka jalan mana saja yang akan kamu pilih tidak akan membuat engkau tersesat. Toh Alice tidak mempunyai tujuan / tempat yang hendak dituju… “

VISI : Suatu keinginan perusahaan terhadap keadaan di masa datang yang diinginkan/dicita-citakan oleh seluruh personel perusahaan dari jenjang yang paling atas sampai yang paaling bawah ( sampai pesuruh sekalipun )

Three Mission StatementsThree Mission Statements

Figure 8.4

Reduces theReduces theImpact of ChangeImpact of Change

ProvidesProvidesDirectionDirection

Minimizes WasteMinimizes Wasteand Redundancyand Redundancy

Sets Standards toSets Standards toFacilitateFacilitateControlControl

ReasonsReasonsfor Planningfor Planning

Specific Plans

Directional Plans

Three Steps in PlanningThree Steps in Planning

Figure 8.1

Planning Process StagesPlanning Process Stages✔ Determining the Organization’s Mission and Goals

✴Defining the organization’s overriding purpose and its goals.

✔ Formulating strategy✴Managers analyze current situation and develop

the strategies needed to achieve the mission.✔ Implementing strategy

✴Managers must decide how to allocate resources between groups to ensure the strategy is achieved.

52Figure 5.2Figure 5.2Types of PlanningTypes of Planning

Levels of Planning at General ElectricLevels of Planning at General Electric

Figure 8.3

Planning and Strategy FormulationPlanning and Strategy Formulation

Figure 8.5

Strategi TingkatKorporasi

Strategi Tingkat UnitBisnis

Strategi TingkatFungsional

Strategi TingkatOperasional

Bisnis apa yg. Akan diterjuni ?Apa harapan setiap unit bisnis ?Bagaimana alokasi sumber daya ?

Bgm. Perusahaan harus bersaing ?Produk yg. Bg,. Yang akan ditawarkan ?Pasar mana yang akan dilayani ?

Bgm. memproduksinya ?Bgm memasarkannya ?Bgm. Mengendalikan SDM ?

Bgm. Memperoleh bahan baku yg. baik ?Bgm. Skeduling produksinya ?

What is Change?What is Change?

✔Alterations in people✔Alterations in structure✔Alterations in technology

Categories of Change Categories of Change (Exhibit 13-1)(Exhibit 13-1)

STRUCTUREAuthority relationshipsCoordinating mechanismsJob redesignSpans of control

PEOPLE

AttitudesExpectationsPerceptionsBehaviour

TECHNOLOGY

Work processesWork methodsEquipment

The “Calm Waters” MetaphorThe “Calm Waters” Metaphor

Unfreezing Changing Refreezing

Lewin’s Three-Step Process

External Forces of ChangeExternal Forces of Change

✔Marketplace✔Government laws and regulations✔Technology✔Economic

60Changes in Political and Economic Changes in Political and Economic ForcesForces

Figure 6.4

Change: Organizational and Individual PerspectivesChange: Organizational and Individual Perspectives

✔ Types of Organizational Change✴ Anticipatory changes: planned changes based on

expected situations.✴ Reactive changes: changes made in response to

unexpected situations.✴ Incremental changes: subsystem adjustments

required to keep the organization on course.✴ Strategic changes: altering the overall shape or

direction of the organization.

Why Do Employees Resist Change?Why Do Employees Resist Change?✔ Surprise

✴ Unannounced significant changes threaten employees’ sense of balance in the workplace.

✔ Inertia✴ Employees have a desire to maintain a safe, secure,

and predictable status quo.✔ Misunderstanding and lack of skills

✴ Without introductory or remedial training, change may be perceived negatively.

Why Do Employees Resist Change? Why Do Employees Resist Change? (cont’d)(cont’d)

✔ Emotional Side Effects✴ Forced acceptance of change can create a sense of

powerlessness, anger, and passive resistance to change.

✔ Lack of Trust✴ Promises of improvement mean nothing if

employees do not trust management.✔ Fear of Failure

✴ Employees are intimidated by change and doubt their abilities to meet new challenges.

✔ Personality Conflicts✴ Managers who are disliked by their managers are

poor conduits for change.✔ Poor Timing

✴ Other events can conspire to create resentment about a particular change.

✔ Lack of Tact✴ No showing sensitivity to feelings can create

resistance to change.

Why Do Employees Resist Change? (cont’d)

✔ Threat to Job Status/Security✴ Employees worry that any change may threaten

their job or security.✔ Breakup of Work Group

✴ Changes can tear apart established on-the-job social relationships.

✔ Competing Commitments✴ Change can disrupt employees in their pursuit of

other goals.

Why Do Employees Resist Change? Why Do Employees Resist Change? (cont’d)(cont’d)

Reducing Resistance to ChangeReducing Resistance to Change

✔Education and communication✔Participation✔Facilitation and support✔Negotiation✔Manipulation and co-optation✔Coercion --> Have to do

Managing Teams

When Selected Companies Began When Selected Companies Began Using Work TeamsUsing Work Teams

Boeing 1987Caterpillar 1986Champion International 1985Cummings Engine 1973Digital Equipment 1982Ford 1982General Electric 1985LTV Steel 1985Procter & Gamble 1962

Adapted From Table 13.1

69The Advantages of TeamsThe Advantages of TeamsIncreasedIncreased::

CustomerSatisfactionCustomer

Satisfaction

Productand

ServiceQuality

Productand

ServiceQuality

Speed andEfficiency in

ProductDevelopment

Speed andEfficiency in

ProductDevelopment

Employee SatisfactionEmployee Satisfaction CrossTraining

The Disadvantages of TeamsThe Disadvantages of Teams

InitiallyHigh

Turnover

InitiallyHigh

Turnover

SocialLoafingSocial

LoafingSelf-Limiting

BehaviorSelf-Limiting

Behavior

Legal RiskLegal Risk

When to Use TeamsWhen to Use TeamsUse Teams When:Use Teams When:

✔There is a clear purpose

✔The job can’t be done individually

✔Team-base rewards are possible

✔Ample resources exist

✔Teams have authority

Don’t Use Teams When:Don’t Use Teams When:✔There is no clear

purpose✔The job can be done

individually✔Only individual-based

rewards exist✔Resources are scarce✔Management controls

72Back to the FutureBack to the FutureIs Your Office Ready for Teamwork?Is Your Office Ready for Teamwork?

✔Office layout may hinder teamwork✔Use low-rise, rather than high-rise office

buildings✔Open offices with fewer walls and barriers

Work Team CharacteristicsWork Team Characteristics

Norms Cohesiveness Size Conflict

Stages of Team Development

Stages of Team DevelopmentStages of Team Development

Forming

Storming

Norming

Performing

De-Norming

De-Storming

De-FormingTeam

Motivation

What Would What Would YouYou Do? Do?

✔What motivates employees?✔How can you get them excited about

their work?✔How can you improve morale?

Components of MotivationComponents of Motivation

Initiation Persistence

Direction

A Basic Model of Work Motivation A Basic Model of Work Motivation and Performanceand Performance

Effort•Initiation•Direction•Persistence

Performance

Adapted From Figure 16.2

Effort and PerformanceEffort and Performance

✔Job performance✴how well someone performs the job

✔Motivation✴effort put forth on the job

✔Ability✴capability to do the job

✔Situational Constraints✴external factors affecting performance

Job Performance = Motivation X Ability X Situational Constraints

80Needs Classification of Different Needs Classification of Different TheoriesTheories

Maslow’sHierarchy

Self-ActualizationEsteem

Belongingness

SafetyPhysiological

Alderfer’sERGGrowth

Relatedness

Existence

McClelland’sLearned NeedsPowerAchievementAffiliation

HigherOrderNeeds

LowerOrderNeeds

Adding Need Satisfaction to the Adding Need Satisfaction to the ModelModel

UnsatisfiedNeed Tension

Energized to Take Action

Effort•Initiation•Direction

•Persistence

PerformanceSatisfaction

Leadership

Managers versus LeadersManagers versus Leaders

• Do things right• Status quo• Short-term• Means• Builders• Problem solving

• Do the right thing• Change• Long-term• Ends• Architects• Inspiring & motivating

Managers Leaders

Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits

Desire toLead

CognitiveAbility

EmotionalStability

Honesty/Integrity

Self-confidence

Knowledgeof the

Business

Fiedler’s Contingency TheoryFiedler’s Contingency Theory

GroupPerformance

Leadership Style

SituationalFavorableness

Situational FavorablenessSituational Favorableness

✔How a particular situation affects a leader’s ability to lead

✔Three factors✴Leader-member relations✴Task structure✴Position power

Situational FavorablenessSituational Favorableness

Leader-MemberRelations

Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor

TaskStructure

High High Low Low High High Low

PositionPower

Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong

Situation I II III IV V VI VIIFavorable Moderately Favorable Unfavorable

Leadership StylesLeadership Styles✔Directive

✴clarifying expectations and guidelines✔Supportive

✴being friendly and approachable✔Participative

✴allowing input on decisions✔Achievement-Oriented

✴setting challenging goals

89When to Use Each of the Four When to Use Each of the Four Leadership StylesLeadership Styles

Directive Leadership Supportive Leadership• Unstructured tasks• Inexperienced workers• Workers with low perceived ability• Workers with external locus of

control• Unclear formal authority system

• Structured, simple, repetitivetasks

• Stressful, frustrating tasks• When workers lack confidence• Clear formal authority system

Participative Leadership Achievement-Oriented Leadership• Experienced workers• Workers with high perceived

ability• Workers with internal locus of

control• Workers not satisfied with rewards• Complex tasks

• Unchallenging tasks

StyleStyle Explanation Explanation

AI - AutocraticAI - Autocratic Solve the problem yourself using the information Solve the problem yourself using the information you have.you have.

AII - Less autocraticAII - Less autocratic Obtain the needed information from workers; then Obtain the needed information from workers; then solve the problem yourself. Workers provide solve the problem yourself. Workers provide

information but not alternatives.information but not alternatives.

C1- ConsultativeC1- Consultative Share the problem with workers individuallyShare the problem with workers individually

(but not as a group), seeking suggestions &(but not as a group), seeking suggestions &

possible alternatives. Solve the problem yourself.possible alternatives. Solve the problem yourself.

CII - More consultativeCII - More consultative Share the problem with workers as a group, seeking Share the problem with workers as a group, seeking suggestions & possible alternatives. Solve yourself.suggestions & possible alternatives. Solve yourself.

GII - Group decisionGII - Group decision Share the problem with workers as a group,Share the problem with workers as a group,

seeking suggestions & possible alternatives.seeking suggestions & possible alternatives.

Attempt to reach a consensus & be willing to Attempt to reach a consensus & be willing to

accept & implement the workers’ solution.accept & implement the workers’ solution.

Decision StylesDecision Styles

Terima Kasih...Terima Kasih...

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