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Marketing Research 8th Edition Marketing Research 8th Edition Aaker, Kumar, Day Aaker, Kumar, Day
Marketing ResearchMarketing Research
Aaker, Kumar, DayAaker, Kumar, Day
Eighth EditionEighth Edition
Instructor’s Presentation SlidesInstructor’s Presentation Slides
Marketing Research 8th Edition Marketing Research 8th Edition Aaker, Kumar, Day Aaker, Kumar, Day
Chapter ElevenChapter Eleven
Attitude MeasurementAttitude Measurement
Marketing Research 8th Edition Marketing Research 8th Edition Aaker, Kumar, Day Aaker, Kumar, Day ©
Attitude MeasurementAttitude Measurement
Majority of questions in marketing research are Majority of questions in marketing research are designed to measure attitudesdesigned to measure attitudes
Attitudes includeAttitudes include Information possessedInformation possessed
Feelings of like and/or dislikeFeelings of like and/or dislike
Intentions to behaveIntentions to behave
Management wants to understand and influence Management wants to understand and influence behaviorbehavior
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Reasons for Measuring AttitudesReasons for Measuring Attitudes
Attitudes lead to behaviorAttitudes lead to behavior
More feasible to ask questions on attitudes than to More feasible to ask questions on attitudes than to observe and interpret behaviorobserve and interpret behavior
Large capacity for diagnosis and explanationLarge capacity for diagnosis and explanation
Learn which features of a new product concept are Learn which features of a new product concept are acceptable or unacceptableacceptable or unacceptable
Measure the perceived strengths and weaknesses of Measure the perceived strengths and weaknesses of competitive alternativescompetitive alternatives
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What Are Attitudes?What Are Attitudes?
Mental states used by individuals to structure Mental states used by individuals to structure the way they perceive their environment and the way they perceive their environment and guide the way they respond to itguide the way they respond to it
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Components of AttitudeComponents of Attitude
Cognitive or Knowledge ComponentCognitive or Knowledge Component Represents a person’s information about an objectRepresents a person’s information about an object
Awareness of existence on the objectAwareness of existence on the object
Beliefs about the characteristics or attributes Beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of the objectof the object
Judgments about the relative importance of Judgments about the relative importance of each of the attributeseach of the attributes
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Components of Attitude (Cont.)Components of Attitude (Cont.)
Affective or Liking ComponentAffective or Liking Component Summarizes a person’s overall feelings toward an Summarizes a person’s overall feelings toward an
object, situation, or personobject, situation, or person
On a scale of On a scale of like-dislikelike-dislike or or favorable-unfavorablefavorable-unfavorable
When there are several alternatives, liking is When there are several alternatives, liking is expressed in terms of preferenceexpressed in terms of preference
Measured by asking which alternative is “most Measured by asking which alternative is “most preferred” or “first choice,” which is the “second preferred” or “first choice,” which is the “second choice,” and so onchoice,” and so on
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Components of Attitude (Cont.)Components of Attitude (Cont.)
Intention or Action ComponentIntention or Action Component Refers to a person’s expectations of future behavior Refers to a person’s expectations of future behavior
toward an objecttoward an object Intentions are usually limited to a distinct time Intentions are usually limited to a distinct time
period that depends on buying habits and planning period that depends on buying habits and planning horizonshorizons
AdvantageAdvantage Incorporates information about a respondent’s Incorporates information about a respondent’s
ability or willingness to pay for the object, or other ability or willingness to pay for the object, or other taken actiontaken action
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Measurement and ScalingMeasurement and Scaling
MeasurementMeasurement Standardized process of assigning numbers or other Standardized process of assigning numbers or other
symbols to certain characteristics of objects of interests symbols to certain characteristics of objects of interests according to pre-specified rulesaccording to pre-specified rules
Characteristics for StandardizationCharacteristics for Standardization One-to-one correspondence between the symbol and the One-to-one correspondence between the symbol and the
characteristic in the object that is being measuredcharacteristic in the object that is being measured
Rules for assignment should be invariant over time and Rules for assignment should be invariant over time and the objects being measuredthe objects being measured
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Measurement and Scaling (Contd.)Measurement and Scaling (Contd.)
ScalingScaling
Process of creating a continuum on which Process of creating a continuum on which objects are located according to the amount of objects are located according to the amount of the measured characteristic that the object the measured characteristic that the object possessespossesses
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Measurement ScalesMeasurement Scales
Nominal ScaleNominal Scale Objects are assigned to mutually exclusive, labeled Objects are assigned to mutually exclusive, labeled
categoriescategories
No necessary relationships among categoriesNo necessary relationships among categories
No ordering or spacing are impliedNo ordering or spacing are implied
Only possible arithmetic operation is a count of each Only possible arithmetic operation is a count of each categorycategory
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Measurement Scales (Contd.)Measurement Scales (Contd.)
Ordinal ScaleOrdinal Scale Rank objects or arrange them in order by some common Rank objects or arrange them in order by some common
variablevariable
Does each object have more or less of a variable than Does each object have more or less of a variable than some other object?some other object?
Does not provide information on how much difference Does not provide information on how much difference between objectsbetween objects
Arithmetic operations are limited to statistics such as Arithmetic operations are limited to statistics such as median or modemedian or mode
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Measurement Scales (Contd.)Measurement Scales (Contd.)
Interval ScaleInterval Scale Numbers are assigned to objects that represent Numbers are assigned to objects that represent
categories, rank orders, as well as how much the object categories, rank orders, as well as how much the object is preferred on the attribute being measuredis preferred on the attribute being measured
Differences can be comparedDifferences can be compared
Entire range of statistical operations can be employedEntire range of statistical operations can be employed
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Measurement Scales (Contd.)Measurement Scales (Contd.)
Ratio ScaleRatio Scale Type of interval scale with meaningful zero point Type of interval scale with meaningful zero point
Possible to say how many times greater or smaller one Possible to say how many times greater or smaller one object is than anotherobject is than another
Magnitude scaling of attitudes has been calibrated Magnitude scaling of attitudes has been calibrated through numeric estimationthrough numeric estimation
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Attitude Rating ScalesAttitude Rating Scales
Present a respondent with a continuum of Present a respondent with a continuum of numbered categories that represent the range numbered categories that represent the range of possible attitude adjustmentsof possible attitude adjustments
Single item or multiple item scalesSingle item or multiple item scales
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Attitude Scales
Single-Item Scales
Continuous Scales
Multi-Item Scales
Stapel Scales
Thurstone Scales
Likert Scales
Associative Scales
Semantic Differential
ScalePaired
Comparison Scales
Q-sort Scales
Comparative Scales
Itemized Category
Scales
Pictorial Scales
Constant Sum Scales
Rank Order Scales
Classification of Attitude Scales
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Single Item ScalesSingle Item Scales
Only have one item to measure a constructOnly have one item to measure a construct Itemized-category scale most widely used by Itemized-category scale most widely used by
marketing researchersmarketing researchers Other single item scales Other single item scales
ComparativeComparative Rank-order Rank-order Q-sortQ-sort PictorialPictorial Constant sumConstant sum
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Single Item Scales (Contd.)Single Item Scales (Contd.)
Itemized-category ScalesItemized-category Scales Scales in which the respondent selects from a Scales in which the respondent selects from a
limited number of categorieslimited number of categories
Comparative ScaleComparative Scale A judgment comparing one object, concept, or A judgment comparing one object, concept, or
person against one anotherperson against one another
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Single Item Scales (Contd.)Single Item Scales (Contd.)
Rank-order ScalesRank-order Scales
Scale in which the respondent compares one item Scale in which the respondent compares one item with another or a group of items against each with another or a group of items against each other and ranks themother and ranks them
Q-sort ScalingQ-sort Scaling
Respondents sort comparative characteristics into Respondents sort comparative characteristics into normally distributed groupsnormally distributed groups
Ten or more groups increases accuracy of resultsTen or more groups increases accuracy of results
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Single Item Scales (Contd.)Single Item Scales (Contd.)Constant-sum scaleConstant-sum scale
Respondents allocate a fixed number of rating points Respondents allocate a fixed number of rating points among serial objects to reflect relative preferenceamong serial objects to reflect relative preference
Pictorial scalesPictorial scales
Various categories of the scale are depicted pictoriallyVarious categories of the scale are depicted pictorially Thermometer ScaleThermometer Scale
Funny faces scaleFunny faces scale
Format must be comprehensible to respond and allow Format must be comprehensible to respond and allow accurate responseaccurate response
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Single Item Scales (Contd.)Single Item Scales (Contd.)
Paired-Comparison ScalesPaired-Comparison Scales The brands to be rated are presented two at a time, so each brand The brands to be rated are presented two at a time, so each brand
in the category was compared once to every other brandin the category was compared once to every other brand Brands are rated on a given 10 pts. that are then divided between Brands are rated on a given 10 pts. that are then divided between
the two brandsthe two brands
AdvantagesAdvantages Performs well on the criteriaPerforms well on the criteria
LimitationsLimitations Cumbersome to administerCumbersome to administer Frame of reference is always the other brand being tested; these Frame of reference is always the other brand being tested; these
brands may change over timebrands may change over time
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Designing Single Item ScalesDesigning Single Item Scales
Number of Scale CategoriesNumber of Scale Categories
Types of Poles Used in the ScaleTypes of Poles Used in the Scale
Strength of the AnchorsStrength of the Anchors
Labeling of the CategoriesLabeling of the Categories
Balance of a ScaleBalance of a Scale
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Multiple-item ScalesMultiple-item Scales
Developed to measure a sample of beliefs Developed to measure a sample of beliefs toward the attitude objects and combine the set toward the attitude objects and combine the set of answers into an average scoreof answers into an average score
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Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)
Likert ScaleLikert Scale Requires respondent to indicate degree of Requires respondent to indicate degree of
agreement or disagreement with a variety of agreement or disagreement with a variety of statements related to the attitude objectstatements related to the attitude object
Summated Scale Summated Scale Scores on individual items are summed to give total Scores on individual items are summed to give total
score for respondentsscore for respondents Likert Scale Is Uni-dimensionalLikert Scale Is Uni-dimensional
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Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)
Thurstone ScalesThurstone Scales Also known as the method of equal-appearing intervals; Also known as the method of equal-appearing intervals;
objective is to obtain a unidimensional scale with objective is to obtain a unidimensional scale with interval propertiesinterval properties
Step 1:Step 1: Generate a large number of statements or adjectives reflecting Generate a large number of statements or adjectives reflecting
all degrees of favorableness toward the attitude of objectsall degrees of favorableness toward the attitude of objects
Step 2:Step 2: A group of judges is given this set of items and asked to A group of judges is given this set of items and asked to
classify them according to their degree of favorableness or classify them according to their degree of favorableness or unfavorableness unfavorableness
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Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)
Thurstone Scales (Cont.)Thurstone Scales (Cont.)AdvantagesAdvantages
Easy to administerEasy to administer Requires minimum instructionsRequires minimum instructions
LimitationsLimitations Time consumingTime consuming Expensive to constructExpensive to construct Not as much diagnostic value as a Likert scaleNot as much diagnostic value as a Likert scale Values depend on the attitudes of the original judgesValues depend on the attitudes of the original judges
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Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)
Semantic-differential ScaleSemantic-differential Scale
Respondents rate each attribute object on a Respondents rate each attribute object on a number of five or seven-point rating scales number of five or seven-point rating scales bounded by polar adjectives or phrasesbounded by polar adjectives or phrases
With bipolar scale, the midpoint is a neutral With bipolar scale, the midpoint is a neutral pointpoint
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Characteristics of Semantic Characteristics of Semantic DifferentialDifferential
Scales in Semantic Marketing ApplicationsScales in Semantic Marketing Applications:: Pairs of objects or phrases must be meaningful in market Pairs of objects or phrases must be meaningful in market
being studied and often correspond to product/service being studied and often correspond to product/service attributesattributes
Avoid "halo" effect by placing negative pole on either sideAvoid "halo" effect by placing negative pole on either side
Category increments are treated as interval scales so group Category increments are treated as interval scales so group mean values can be computed for each object on each scalemean values can be computed for each object on each scale
May also be analyzed as a summated rating scaleMay also be analyzed as a summated rating scale
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Characteristics of Semantic Characteristics of Semantic Differential (Contd.)Differential (Contd.)
Profile AnalysisProfile Analysis Application of semantic differential scaleApplication of semantic differential scale Plot mean ratings of each object on each scale Plot mean ratings of each object on each scale
for visual comparisonfor visual comparison Overall comparison of brands hard to grasp with Overall comparison of brands hard to grasp with
many brands and attributesmany brands and attributes Not all attributes are independentNot all attributes are independent
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Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)
Stapel ScalesStapel Scales Uses one pole rather than two opposite polesUses one pole rather than two opposite poles Respondents select a numerical response Respondents select a numerical response
categorycategory High positive score reflects good fit between High positive score reflects good fit between
adjective and objectadjective and object Easy to administer and constructEasy to administer and construct No need to assure bipolarityNo need to assure bipolarity
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Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)
Associative ScalingAssociative Scaling Most effective for markets where respondent is Most effective for markets where respondent is
knowledgeable only about a small subset of a knowledgeable only about a small subset of a large number of choiceslarge number of choices
Appropriate to choice situations that involve a Appropriate to choice situations that involve a sequential decision processsequential decision process
Best suited to market tracking where the Best suited to market tracking where the emphasis is on understanding shifts in relative emphasis is on understanding shifts in relative competitive positionscompetitive positions
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Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)
Continuous Rating ScalesContinuous Rating Scales
Respondents rate objects by placing a mark at Respondents rate objects by placing a mark at appropriate position on a line running from one appropriate position on a line running from one extreme of the criterion variable to the otherextreme of the criterion variable to the other
Values can be interpreted as interval or ratio Values can be interpreted as interval or ratio scaled datascaled data
It is easy to constructIt is easy to construct
Scoring is cumbersome and unreliableScoring is cumbersome and unreliable
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General Guidelines For Developing A General Guidelines For Developing A Multiple-Item ScaleMultiple-Item Scale
Determine clearly what you are going to measure
Generate as many items as possible
Ask experts in the field to evaluate the initial pool of items
Determine the type of attitudinal scale to be used
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Include some items that will help in the validation of the scale
Evaluate and refine the items
Administer the items to an initial sample
Finally, optimize the scale length
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Choosing An Attitudinal ScaleChoosing An Attitudinal ScaleProblems in choosingProblems in choosing
There are many different techniques, each with its own There are many different techniques, each with its own strengths and weaknessesstrengths and weaknesses
Virtually any technique can be adapted to the Virtually any technique can be adapted to the measurement of any one of the attitude componentsmeasurement of any one of the attitude components
Researchers choice shaped by:Researchers choice shaped by: The specific information requiredThe specific information required Adabtability of the scale to the data collection method Adabtability of the scale to the data collection method
and budget constraintsand budget constraints Compatibility of the scale with the structure of the Compatibility of the scale with the structure of the
respondent’s attituderespondent’s attitude
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Accuracy of Attitude MeasurementsAccuracy of Attitude Measurements
ValidityValidity An attitude measure has validity if it measures what it is An attitude measure has validity if it measures what it is
supposed to measuresupposed to measure
Face ValidityFace Validity The extent to which the content of a measurement scale The extent to which the content of a measurement scale
appears to tap all relevant facets of the constructappears to tap all relevant facets of the construct
Criterion ValidityCriterion Validity Based on empirical evidence that the attitude measure Based on empirical evidence that the attitude measure
correlates with other “criterion” variablescorrelates with other “criterion” variables
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Accuracy of Attitude Measurements Accuracy of Attitude Measurements (Cont.)(Cont.)
Concurrent validityConcurrent validity Two variables are measured at the same timeTwo variables are measured at the same time
Predictive validityPredictive validity The attitude measure can predict some future eventThe attitude measure can predict some future event
Convergent validityConvergent validity A form of construct validity that represents the A form of construct validity that represents the
association between the measured construct and association between the measured construct and measures of other constructs with which the measures of other constructs with which the construct is related on theoretical groundsconstruct is related on theoretical grounds
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Discriminant validityDiscriminant validity A form of construct validity that represents the extent A form of construct validity that represents the extent
to which the measured construct is not associated to which the measured construct is not associated with which the construct is related on theoretical with which the construct is related on theoretical groundsgrounds
Construct ValidityConstruct Validity A scale evaluation criterion that relates to the A scale evaluation criterion that relates to the
underlying question "what is the nature of the underlying question "what is the nature of the underlying variable or construct measured by the underlying variable or construct measured by the scale?"scale?"
Accuracy of Attitude Accuracy of Attitude Measurements (Cont.)Measurements (Cont.)
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Accuracy of Attitude Measurements Accuracy of Attitude Measurements (Contd.)(Contd.)
ReliabilityReliability The consistency with which the measure produces the The consistency with which the measure produces the
same results with the same or comparable populationsame results with the same or comparable population
SensitivitySensitivity Extent to which ratings provided by a scale are able Extent to which ratings provided by a scale are able
to discriminate between the respondents who differ to discriminate between the respondents who differ with respect to the construct being measuredwith respect to the construct being measured
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Accuracy of Attitude Accuracy of Attitude Measurements (Contd.)Measurements (Contd.)
GeneralizabilityGeneralizability Refers to the ease of scale administration and Refers to the ease of scale administration and
interpretation in different research settings and interpretation in different research settings and situationssituations
RelevancyRelevancy Relevance = reliability * validityRelevance = reliability * validity
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Scales in Cross-national ResearchScales in Cross-national Research
Responses Can Be Affected by:Responses Can Be Affected by:
Low literacy and educational levelsLow literacy and educational levels
Culture in a countryCulture in a country
Semantic differential scale is closest to pan Semantic differential scale is closest to pan cultural scalecultural scale
Adapting response formats, particularly their Adapting response formats, particularly their calibration, for specific countries and culturescalibration, for specific countries and cultures
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