Chapter 10

Warm Up● Discuss and write down examples with your teammates

for the following questions: 2. Jared Diamond refers to the people of New Guinea as

“among the world’s most culturally diverse and adaptable people in the world”, yet they have much less than modern Americans. Diamond has developed a theory about what has caused these huge discrepancies among different countries, and he says it boils down to geographic luck. Give several examples from the film to support Diamond’s theory.

8. Do you agree with Jared Diamond when he says of a civilizations ability to gain power, wealth, and strength, “…what’s far more important is the hand that people have been dealt, the raw materials they’ve had at their disposal.” Why or why not?

AGRICULTURE

Chapter 10

An Introduction to Human Geography The Cultural Landscape, 8e

James M. Rubenstein

Economic Activities

Primary Raw Materials: Agriculture, mining, fishing, and

forestrySecondary

Manufacturing: capital (for industry) and consumer goods

Tertiary Consumer: retail and personal services;

entertainment Quaternary

Business/Producer services: trade, insurance, banking, advertising, transportation and information services

Quinary Public (government) Services: health, education,

research, transportation, tourism & recreation

These three

levels are often

subdivided within the economic activity group

“tertiary” as services

may be utilized by

both consumers

& producers.

Key Issue 1: Where Did Agriculture Originate?

Origins Of Agriculture Crop and Animal Hearths Hunters And Gatherers

• Contemporary Hunting And Gathering Invention Of Agriculture

• Two Types Of CultivationLocation Of First Vegetative PlantingLocation Of First Seed Agriculture

• Diffusion Of Seed Agriculture Mapping Agricultural Regions

• Differences between Commercial and Subsistence Agriculture

Vocabularyagriculture

cropvegetative planting

seed agriculturesubsistence agriculturecommercial agricultureprime agricultural land

agribusiness

Animal Hearths

Figure 10-3

ON YOUR PLACE MAPS:

INDICATE EACH OF THE MAJOR ANIMAL HEARTHS WITH A SYMBOL FOR EACH.

Crop Hearths

Figure 10-2

ON YOUR PLACE MAPS:LABEL EACH OF THE MAJOR CROP HEARTHS YOU RECOGNIZE

Agricultural Origins and Regions

Origins of agriculture Hunters and gatherers

Before the invention of agriculture, all humans probably obtain the food they needed for survival by hunting for animals, fishing, or gathering plants (including berries, nuts, fruits, and roots). Hunters and gatherers lived in small groups, usually fewer than 50 persons, because a larger number would quickly exhaust the available resources within walking distance.

TODAY Estimated 250,000 people living in isolated areas still live as hunter-gatherers Arctic, and the interiors of Africa, South America and Australia

Invention of agriculture Agriculture is the deliberate modification of Earth’s surface through

cultivation of plants and rearing of animals to obtain sustenance or economic gain.

Neolithic/Agricultural Revolution c. 8000 B.C.

Location of Agricultural Hearths

Location of agricultural hearths Vegetative planting

(aka root cropping) is the reproduction of plants by direct cloning from existing plants, such as cutting stems and dividing roots [Cassava (manioc or yucca), yams, sweet potatoes]

Agricultural Origins and Regions

Location of agricultural hearths Seed agriculture

the reproduction of plants through annual planting of seeds that result from sexual fertilization

milletrice

flax

sorghum

wheat

barley

Seed Agriculture Hearths

Seed agriculture also originated in several hearths and diffused from those elsewhere.

Carl Sauer: 11 areas of agriculture innovations

Agriculture probably did not originate in one location, but began in multiple, independent hearths, or points of origin. From these hearths agricultural practices diffused across Earth’s surface.

Animal Domestication The best animals to farm are large, plant eating mammals. Over the

years, humans have probably tried to domesticate all of them, usually without success. Despite repeated efforts, Africans have never domesticated the elephant.

Animals which make suitable candidates for domestication have the following characteristics: start giving birth in their first or second years have one or two offspring a year (so their productivity is high) behaviorally they need to be social animals (males, females and the young

live together as a group) get along with humans internal social hierarchywhich means that if humans can control the leader, they will also gain control of the whole herd.

Diamond counted 148 different species of wild, plant eating, terrestrial animals that weigh over 100 pounds. Of those, we have only successfully farmed for any length of time –just 14. They are: goats, sheep, pigs, cows, horses, donkeys, Bactrian camels, Arabian camels, water buffalos, llamas, reindeers, yaks, mithans and Bali cattle. All but one [llamas of South America] of these animals are native to Asia, North Africa and Europe.

The Big Four livestock animals: cows, pigs, sheep and goats were native to the Middle East.

U.S. Farms by RegionThe number of farms in the United States in 2008 is estimated at 2.2 million, 0.2 percent fewer than in 2007.Total land in farms, at 919.9 million acres, decreased 1.56 million acres, or 0.2 percent, from 2007. The average farm size was 418 acres, unchanged from the previous year. The decline in the number of farms and land in farmsreflects a continuing consolidation in farming operations and diversion of agricultural land to nonagriculturaluses.

USDA 2008 Report

NOTE: Map at left from 2002 but change in farms from 2002 to 2008 would show little visible change on the map.

Winter Wheat

Spring Wheat

Differences Between Subsistence And Commercial Agriculture

• Purpose Of Farming• Percentage Of Farmers In The Labor

Force• Use Of Machinery• Farm Size• Relationship Of Farming To Other

Businesses

Classifying Agricultural Regions

LDCs = subsistence agricultureMDCs = commercial agricultureSubsistence vs. commercial agriculture

Subsistence agriculture is the production of food primarily for consumption by the farmer’s family

Commercial agriculture is the production of food primarily for sale off the farm

Practice Purpose Labor force Machinery Farm size Off farm contact

Subsistence agriculture

LDCsPersonal

consumption

On average 55% of workforce engaged in

farming

Human and animal powered

toolsVery small Occasional surplus sold

Commercial agriculture

MDCs

Grow crops and raise animals

primarily for sale off the farm for

profit

On average 5% of workforce

engaged in farming

Mechanized farm machines, computer

technology and science

Large [US average in 2008 =

418 acres]

agribusiness – farms one part of a large food production industry

including food processing, packaging, sorting, distributing, and

retailing

Agricultural Workers

Figure 10-5

Area of Farmland Per Tractor

Figure 10-6

Farmland Loss in Maryland

Fig. 10-1-1:

Overlaps of soil quality, environmental and cultural features, and population growth may show areas of greatest threat of farmland loss in Maryland.

Baltimore and Washington DC population concentrations have merged over time.

A serious problem in the United States has been the loss of the most productive farmland, known as prime agricultural land, as urban areas sprawl into the surrounding countryside.

Baltimore

Washington DC

Classifying Agricultural Regions

Mapping agricultural regionsWorld Agricultural Regions: Derwent Whittlesey, 1936

11 main agricultural regions 5 important to LDCs 6 important to MDCs

Climate influences the crop that is grown and/or animals raised Relationship exists between climate and agriculture

Dry climate often equates to livestock ranching rather than farming Culture influences agriculture

Hog (pig/swine) production low to nonexistent in predominantly Muslim (and Jewish) regions due to religious taboo on pork.

World Agriculture Regions

World Climate Regions

Koppen Climate Regions Map

Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs?

Shifting cultivation Most prevalent in low-latitude, A-type climates Two features:

Land is cleared by slashing and burning debris Slash-and-burn agriculture

Land is tended for only a few years at a time Types of crops grown vary regionally Traditionally, land is not owned individually

World Agriculture Regions

Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs?

Pastoral nomadism (herding domesticated animals) Found primarily in arid and semiarid B-type

climates Animals are seldom eaten (“products” sold)

The size of the herd indicates power and prestige Type of animal depends on the region

For example, camels are favored in North Africa and SW Asia

Transhumance practiced by some pastoral nomads Vertical (mountains to valleys during seasons) Horizontally (across land – affected by politics, war, climate, economy, etc.)

World Agriculture Regions

Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs?

Intensive subsistence Found in areas with high population and

agricultural densities Especially in East, South, and Southeast Asia To maximize production, little to no land is wasted

Intensive with wet rice dominant Intensive with wet rice not dominant

World Agriculture Regions

Rice Production

Figure 10-12

Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs?

Plantation farming Found in Latin America, Africa, and Asia Products are grown in LDCs but typically are

sold to MDCs Plantations specialize in one or two cash crops

Important crops = coffee, sugarcane, cotton, rubber, tobacco, aaaaaaand pineapple…

A large labor force is usually needed in sparsely settled regions

World Agriculture Regions

Where are Agricultural Regions in MDCs?

Mixed crop and livestock farming Most land = devoted to crops Most profits = derive from the livestock

Dairy farming Regional distribution: the milkshed Two primary challenges

Labor-intensive Expense of winter feed

World Agriculture Regions

Corn (Maize) Production

Figure 10-15

Milk Production

Figure 10-17

Where are Agricultural Regions in MDCs?

Grain farming The largest commercial producer of grain =

the United StatesLivestock ranching

Practiced in marginal environmentsMediterranean agriculture

Based on horticulture Commercial gardening and fruit

farming Truck farms

World Agriculture Regions

Wheat Production

Figure 10-19

Grain Imports and Exports

Figure 10-32

Meat Production

Figure 10-21

3 Agricultural Revolutions

Neolithic Revolution OR Agricultural Revolution

Industrial RevolutionGreen Revolution & Bioengineering Revolution

NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION

NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION

NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION

NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION

THE STONE

AGE WAS VERY

RANDOM

NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION

Transition from hunter/gather society into systematic agriculture and domestication of animals.

c. 8000ish BC or 8000-12000BC It allowed people to begin to settle down and

build surpluses of food (food security) which allowed specialization, and inevitably civilizations.

Mid East/Fertile Crescent/Mesopotamia/SW Asia

Improves CBR, decreases CDR.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

STEAMPUNK STAR WARS

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Advancements to transportation and technologies that resulted from the Industrial Revolution greatly increased access to food, production, preservation.

This can include: railroads and trains, better refrigeration, advanced factory systems to speed up production, new methods of crop rotation, better equipment (iron plows, cotton gin, spinning jenny, flying shuttle, etc.).

AD 1650-1900Began in England and spread mostly to

MDCs.

Green & Bioengineering Revolutions

Green Revolution

Green Revolution had massive advancements of genetically modified organisms in agriculture.

This has allowed greater yields of crops, more productivity from animals and greatly increased agricultural output.

Beginning in the 1940s. Primarily affects LDCs (India, China, Latin

America) with the diffusion of higher-yield seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and biotechnology.

Still not completely affecting Africa (Monsanto…)

Green Revolution

Green Revolution had massive advancements of genetically modified organisms in agriculture.

This has allowed greater yields of crops, more productivity from animals and greatly increased agricultural output.

Beginning in the 1940s. Primarily affects LDCs (India, China, Latin America) with the

diffusion of higher-yield seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and biotechnology.

This revolution sought to eradicate famine in many nations and massively increase food production, by effectively ending subsistence agriculture and replacing it with commercial agriculture. 

The idea was to transplant many of the systems, ideas and technology of Western farming into (mainly) Asian agriculture, whilst researching and utilizing the resources Asian countries had.

Bioengineering Revolution

The Green Revolution could not have happened without the major advancements of MDCs in Genetically Modifying Organisms (GMOs).

In agriculture, currently marketed genetically engineered crops have traits such as resistance to pests, resistance to herbicides, increased nutritional value, or production of valuable goods such as drugs (pharming).

Products under development include crops that are able to thrive in environmental conditions outside the species' native range or in changed conditions in their range (e.g. drought or salt resistance). 

Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties?

Challenges for commercial farmers Access to markets is important

The von Thünen model (1826) The choice of crop to grow is related to the

proximity to the market

Contains six assumptions

1. There is only one market available, self-sufficient with no outside influence.

2. All farmers are market oriented, producing goods for sale. (Not subsistence.)

3. The physical environment is uniform; there are no rivers or mountains.

4. All points at equal distances from the market have equal access to the market.

5. All farmers act to maximize profits.6. The dietary preferences of the population

are those of Germanic Europeans.

Land rent

The main concept is land rent or land value, which will decrease as one gets farther away from central markets.

Rent is highest in the closest proximity to urban markets. (Bid-Rent Theory) Thus, agricultural products that have intensive

land use, have high transportation costs and were in great demand would be located close to urban markets.

Major concepts:

Distance from the cityPreservation of foodAmount of space

So……….

1. Dairying and gardening of fruits and vegetables would be closer to the urban market while…

2. Timber and firewood for fuel and building materials would be in the second zone.

3. Mixed farming, commercial grain and orchards and extensive cattle ranching would be located farther away. Transportation is cheap: the animals can walk to the city for butchering.

Why?

Some products spoiled more quickly, needed more sensitive transportation, or generate higher prices at market

These products mean the farmer can afford higher land rent.

It doesn’t always look the same:

Inference of Von Thunen’s Model to Continental United States

Vegetables

Dairy

Cotton andTobacco

Corn andSoybeansWheat

Beef Cattleand Sheep

Forest

Corn andSoybeans

Wheat

Beef Cattleand Sheep

Cotton andTobacco

Forest

SpecialtyCrops

SpecialtyCrops

DairyVegetables

Assumptions1. New York City the only market2. Crops ranked by rent paying ability3. No terrain or climatic variation

Assumptions1. New York City the only market2. Crops ranked by rent paying ability3. No terrain variation 4. Climatic variation consideredA B

What is ridge tillage? Ridge tillage resembles

contemporary and traditional cropping systems in which plants grow on a hill or bund. Cotton, for example, is often grown on ridges for purposes of irrigation. In ridge tillage the ridges are a product of cultivation of the previous crop and are not tilled out after harvest. The planter may remove part of the ridge top, but before planting there is no tillage. This provides potential advantages in soil conservation and weed management.

Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties?

Challenges for commercial farmers Overproduction

Agricultural efficiencies have resulted in overproduction Especially commodity crops like corn Government subsidies encourage specific production

Demand has remained relatively constant As a consequence, incomes for farmers are low

Sustainable agriculture Sensitive land management Integrated crop and livestock Less usage of pesticides and chemicals

Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties?

Challenges for subsistence farmers Population growth International trade Drug crops Changes in land usage (ie. Brazil livestock)

Drug Trade

Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties?

Strategies to increase food supply Expanding agricultural land Increasing productivity

The green revolution: The application of science to increasing agricultural productivity, including the breeding of high-yield varieties of grains, the effective use of pesticides, and improved fertilization, irrigation, mechanization, and soil conservation techniques. The impact on environment, geopolitics or the world economy are not completely understood yet.

Identifying new food sources Cultivating oceans, developing higher-protein cereals,

and improving palatability of foods Increasing trade

Agricultural Land and Population

Figure 10-28