Bassett (1925) the Caesura. a Modern Chimaera
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76
THE CLASSICAL
WEEKLY
[VOL.
XVIII,
No.
10,
WHOLE
No.
487
THE
CAESURA-A
MODERN
CHIMAERA1
The first
reading
of
the Aeneid ought
to be
a great
adventure
in
poetry.
The "stateliest
measure
ever
moulded
by the
lips
of man"
ought
to take possession
of the student's
mind;
the "ocean
roar of
rhythm"
should fill his ears. But the boy or the girl who enters
for the
first
time
this
wonderful
foreign
land of
verse
finds
at
the start
a 'lion
in the way'.
This
monster
proves
to
be worse than
a lion;
it is a
Chimaera,
'its
head
a-lion,
its tail
a
serpent,
between
these
a
she-
goat'.
This
fantastic
creature
is
called
caesura;
it
will
mar
the
pleasure
of the journey
into
the
beautiful
realm
of classical
hexameter
poetry
unless
one
recog-
nizes
that it
is
only
a creation
of the mind,
and
that,
at
least
in
the form
in which
the doctrine
is usually
taught,
it never
existed.
The
object
of the
present
paper
is
to
lace
some
of the
evidence
for the
chimaerical
nature
of
caesura,
as
taught
to-day,
before
the teachers
of
Vergil,
and especially
before
the examiners
who
put on
their
papers
the
words
"Mark
the
caesura".
Some years
ago
the writer
spent
many
months
in
trying
to find
out
how
the
theory
of caesura
began
and
what
the
ancients
meant
by
the term.
The
quest
led
into the
dreary
and
barren
desert
lands
of the
Greek
and
the
Roman
grammarians.
The results
of
the
study
were
published
in an article
entitled Theory
of
the Homeric
Caesura
According
to
the Extant
Re-
mains
of
the Ancient
Grammarians,
in
the
American
Journal
of
Philology 40
(I919),
343-372,
where may
be
found
the references
to the ancient passages
which
form
the basis
of
the
conclusions
which will
be presented
briefly
here.
The
writer began
the investigation
be-
lieving
that
(i)
every
verse
must have
a
caesura;
(2)
the
caesura
must be
found
in the
third
or in
the
fourth foot,
or at
the end
of the fourth
foot; and
(3)
there
was always
at
least a slight
pause
at
the caesura.
But
his study
led
to a conclusion
that was
quite
(liffer-
ent;
caesura,
as
it
is
generally
taught
to-day,
was
found
to be
a
monstrous
creature
of the
imagination,
brought
into being
by
the uninspired
grammarians,
and
unknown
to Homer
and to Vergil.
It
was
a Chi-
maera
not only
because
it
never
existed,
but also
be-
cause
it was
an idea
of
triple
meaning-three-headed,
as
it were-an(d
the three rneanings
coul(d
not
be united.
Before
discussing
thlese
three
meanings
and
the
im-
')ossibilityof uniting them, let us look at the inherent
imrprobability
that Vergil
ever
intended
that a
pause
should
be
felt
in
the third
or
the fourtlih
oot
of cvery
hexanmeter, by
examining
a fev
familiar
verses
of
the
Aeneid.
(i)
Caesura
in
every
verse?
Aen.
I. 92
Extemiplo
Aenieae solvuntur
frigore
membra.
Aen.
I.
124
Interca
magno
misceri
murmure
pon-
tunI.
.
.
Aen.
I.
I32
Tantanle
vos
generis
telnuit
fiducia
vestri?
No reader who was entirely unfamiliar
with
the
theory
of caesura would ever think of making any appre-
ciahle pause anywhere in these verses except at the
end
of each. It is only the doctrine
of
caesura,
which
has been foisted upon us without
the
knowledge
or the
consent of the poet, that
makes us
look for
a
pause after magno and Aenteae and generis. The
syntactical relation of each of these words
with one or
more words towards the end of the verse rather unites
the
line than severs it into two distinct parts.
And
why must there be a caesura in every verse?
The
half
dozen
reasons that have been given, and
which
the
writer
has discussed in the article referred to above
(pages 343-345), fail to convince.
(2) Caesura regularly in the third or in the fourth
foot?
Aen.
I
I8o-i88:
i8o Aeneas scopulum interea conscendit
I
et omnem
prospectum late pelago petit,
I
Anthea si quem
iactatum vento videat I Phrygiasque biremis,
aut Capyn,
I
aut celsis
in
puppibus
arma
Caici.
Navem in
conspectu nullam,
I
tris
litora
cervos
I85 prospicit errantis; hos tota armenta sequuntur
a
tergo,
I
et longum per vallis pascitur agmen.
Constitit hic;
I
arcumque manu celerisque sagittas
corripuit,
I
fidus quae tela gerebat
Achates.
Again let us forget for the moment that there is any
such
thing as caesura, and notice only those pauses
which the sense requires as we read these nine verses.
We
find that only four-less than half-show the
chief pause in sense at any one of the places where the
ancients located the caesura, viz.,
bucolic
diaeresis
(i8i),
hephthemimeral
(I82,
I84),
and penthemimeral
(185). The chief pauses in sense in the other five
verses
are, respectively, feminine of
the fifth
foot(i8o),
first
diaeresis (I83, i86), and masculine
of the
second
foot
(I87, I88). None of these was recognized
as
the
caesura
in
the ancient formulation of the theory.
And one naturally queries why one should call the
chief
pause
in
sense by the name, caesura, and
what is
the use
of
marking it. Sometimes
it
may be necessary,
for
the
full
understanding
of
the
meaning,
to
point
out
where the
chief
pause occurs, but
this has
to do
with
interpreting
the
thought alone. Who,
for
example,
ever
thought of requiring the student to mark
the
pauses in Caesar or in Cicero?
These
illustrations, it is hoped, have aroused
the
suspicion
in the
reader's mind
that
there
is some-
tlhing factitious-if not fictitious-in the present
conception
of
caesura, and have
made
him
ready
to
examine
with the
writer
this
three-headed
curiosity
as
it
is
exhibited
in
the
modern
grammatical
Zoo.
The
modernt
heory
of
caesura
is a little more
than a
century
old
(see pages 345-346
of
the
article
referred
to
above);
it
includes
three
different and
conflicting
views
of
the
meaning
of
caesura,
as follows.
(i) Caesura is a
pause or
a
hold, occurring
in the
third or
possibly
in
the fourth
foot,
and
marking
the
end
of the
first of two rhythmical phrases or
cola into
which
the
hexameter is supposed to be divided.
This
may
be
called rhythmical caesura.
The
doctrine
of the
cola
belongs
to music
and
hence to
lyric poetry.
In
this
'As is sta-ted at the close of the preceding article, Professor
Bassett returned,
in
this article,
to
the discussion
of the caesura at
my
very urgent
iovitation.
It
seemed
to me that his
scholarly
dis-
cussion
of a matter
which has
long
disturbed teachers ought be
made pedagogically
available.
C. K.
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JANUARY
5,
1925]
THE CLASSICAL WEEKLY 77
kind
of
poetry
neither a pause in sense nor
even a word-
end is required
to mark the end of a colon.
Hence a
few modern
scholars have gone so far as
to hold that
the caesura of the hexameter
may
be
found in the
middle of a word.
(2)
Caesura
in general is
the
cutting
of a foot
by
a
word-end, but
the caesura is
where
a
word ends in
the
third or in the fourth foot.
For reasons which will be
given
later this caesura may properly
be
called metrical
caesura.
Unless
it
occurs
where the
sense
calls
for a
stop,
there is no reason whatever for
making
caesura a
pause,
unless we hark back
to the
theory
of the rhyth-
mical caesura.
(3)
Caesura is a pause in sense. This
I call logical
caesura.
This is a
very
reasonable definition,
but it
leads to disquieting
results. One
of
the chief
pauses
in
sense
is at
the
bucolic diaeresis,
which is not caesura
at
all
in
that
it
does
not cut a foot
in two.
Furthermore,
if
one
will examine the first two feet of the verse of
the
Aeneid or of the Iliad, one will be surprised to find how
often
a
pause
in
sense
is found
there,
and
yet
few
grammars
and works on
metric find the
caesura here.
Finally, as was queried
above, what
justification
is
there for calling these pauses
caesurae,
and what is
the
use
of
'marking'
them?
These
three
definitions,
rhythmical, metrical,
and
logical,
interfere with one another,
and
introduce un-
certainty
and confusion
with
regard
to the
nature of
caesura and
the reason for its importance.
They pre-
vent both teachers
and
taught
from
concentrating
attention
on
the
flow
of the verse.
They
form
that
triple-headed monster which bars
the path leading to
the poetic beauties of the Iliad, the Odyssey, or the
Aeneid. If
the
reader will
now have
the
patience
to
join
in
hunting
the monster
to
his
lair
in the
dry
desert of
the ancient
grammarians,
that
is,
in
tracing
how
the
doctrine arose and
how it was
applied,
perhaps
he may be
willing to throw overboard
the
whole doc-
trine of caesura
as
something
of no use
whatever in
the
elementary teaching
of
Vergil
and
Homer.
It
is very important to notice,
in the
first place,
that
the doctrine grew up very late,
in fact after Vergil
composed
the Aeneid. Aristotle
does
not mention
it;
no more
do
the
Alexandrians.
Varro was ignorant
of
it,
Dionysius
of Halicarnassus, who lived about
the
time of
Vergil, had occasion to mention it (if it existed), but
does
not
do so. But
by about
I50
A. D. the doctrine
was fully established. Four
caesurae were recognized,
btut there
was a difference of opinion
which these four
were.
Some held that they
were the feminine and the
masculine of the third foot,
the masculine of the fourth
and
the
bucolic
diaeresis.
Others
followed
a
theory
that caesura must divide
the verse into unlike, that is,
inito
odd,
parts;
hence they rejected
the
bucolic diaere-
sis,
and
substituted for it, as
the fourth caesura, the
feminine
of the
fourth foot.
This was unfortunate, for
of all
possible
breaks in the hexameter
the one
after the
first short
syllable
of the
fourth
foot is most carefully
avoided by Homer; and as for Vergil, a Latin writer
found so much difficulty in discovering an
example of
this
caesura
that he had to make one
up: Quae pax
longa remiserat arma
I
novare
parabant. This verse was
used by
many
of
his
successors to
illustrate the 'for-
bidden' caesura.
Thus confusion
and unreason mark
the doctrine from
the
earliest
formulation of it
that has
come
down
to
us.
Who was
the
originator
of the doctrine?
Undoubted-
ly he was
a Greek,
for a
large
part
of
the termi-
nology is
Greek,
e.
g.
penthemimeres, hephthemimeres,
diaeresis.
I
have
suggested
that Heliodorus
was the
man, for he lived at
exactly
the time
when the
doctrine
seems to have been
developed,
that
is, during
the first
century
of our
era;
he
was
one of
the
most
famous
metricians of his
time, and, above all, he was
much
interested
in
dividing
verses into
their
respective
cola. But,
however
uncertain we
may
be
about
the
author
of the
theory,
we
can be sure
from
existing
fragments
of
treatises that
the
theory
itself
grew up in
the
following way.
A
certain school of
metricians de-
rived all lyric verses from
the
hexameter.
They noticed
that
in
the hexameter a
word
always
ended
in
the
third
or the fourth foot or at the end of the fourth foot.
Now
it
happened
that
in
Greek
lyric poetry
there
were
dactylic
verses which
exactly
cotresponded
in form
and length
to the
first
part of the hexameter cut off
by
the
word-ends
just
mentioned. These verses
were
the trimeter catalectic
ending
in
one syllable
('penthe-
mimeres'),
or in
two
syllables ('third
trochaic'); the
tetrameter
catalectic
ending
in one
syllable
('hephthe-
mimeres'),
or in two syllables
('fourth trochaic'),
and
the
tetrameter
acatalectic
('tetrameter').
These
were the
tomae
of the
hexameter. Tome is the
Greek
word
to
which
the Latin word
caesura
corresponds.
It
means either
the
thing
cut
off,
or the
cutting
itself.
At first the tomae were the parts of the hexameter cut
off
by
the
word-ends
in
the third
or the
fourth
foot.
They
were thus neither
places
nor
pauses,
but
segments
of
the
verse.
Thus the
penthemimeres
tome,
which
is
translated into
Latin by caesura
penthemimeris, was
originally
a
lyric
verse of
two
and one-half
dactylic
feet which the
Derivationist School found
in
the first
half
of the hexameter.
For
example,
a Latin
metrical
writer
illustrates
this
caesura
(that
is, tome,
in
its
original
sense of
'segment') by
quam Juno
fertur,
and adds that
by doubling
this caesura the
so-called
pentameter
is
obtained:
quam Juno fertur, quam Juno fertur.
No other
tomae of the
hexameter than these four or
five
were
recognized. There did not exist
in
lyric
a
short
dactylic
verse
corresponding
in
length
to the
part
of
the
hexameter
cut
off
by
what we call the
triemimeral
caesura,
and hence
this tome was not
known. It
was
not
till
centuries after the
doctrine of caesura
was
fully
de-
veloped
that
we find
a
reference to this
caesura, by
Ausonius
(fourth century
A.
D.),
and he
calls
it
'the
caesura after the
first
dactyl
and a half-foot'.
The
above
seems to be the
only possible explana-
tion
of the
origin
of the
doctrine of
caesura.
If it
is
correct,
then
there is no
reason whatsoever for
making
a
pause at 'caesura'. Nor is there good reason for calling
a
pause
in
sense a 'caesura'.
Most
of the earlier treatises
make a
word-end
all
that
is essential
to caesura. It
is
true that in
these treatises there is sometimes
added
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JANUARY
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1925]
THE CLASSICAL WEEKLY 79
ever
made a
pause
which the thought
did
not require.
The best
that can
be said
for such
a
pause
in the third
or
the fourth
foot
of every
hexameter
is that
both Homer
and Vergil
so
frequently
do makea pause
in sense
there,
that
we come
to
expect it:
our sense
of rhythm,
wrongly
trained, too, by
thc
traditional
teaching
of
caesurae,
makes
us
fail
to detect the many
subtle
varieties
of modulation
for which
Homer
was famolus
among all
poets.
This brings
us
to
another
point
which perhaps ies
at
the
root of the
whole doctrine
of caesura.
Why
are
caesura
and
pause in
sense so
much more frequent
in
the
third and
the fourth
feet,
or
at the
end of the
fourth,
than
elsewhere
in the
verse?
If
you
will
examine
a
hundred
or
more verses
of the Aeneid or
of the
Iliad,
vou
will find that
the
conflict
between words an(d
eet,
and likewise
the
pauses
in
sense,
are
much
more
sought
after
by
the
poet
here
than
in the other
four
feet.
What is
the reason
for
this?
Why,
for
example,
should
not caesuraand pause in sense occutr t the ened f the
third foot?
The
answer
is really
quite
simple.
If a
poet
has only
one
kind
of
verse
in
which
to write
a
poem
of thousands
of
lines,
he must
use
many
devices
to avoid
monotony.
The
most
important
of
these
we
havc mentioned above.
And
yet
at the same time
the
)oet must
take care
that
his verse
shall
always
have
the unmistakable
swing
of the
hexameter.
If he makes
a
pause
anywhere
within
a
foot,
he
thereby
to
some
extent
destroys
the dactylic
rhythm.
An
ancient
rhetorician
called
attention
to a
verse
like Aen. I
237, pollicitus.
I
Quae
te, gentitor,
sententia
vertit,
saying
that the
pause
in the second
foot made
the
rest
of the verse readlike an anapaesticdimeter .
So
the
masculine
'caesura'
of
the
third foot
leaves
the so-called
paroemiac
verse,
which
is
the last
verse of
the anapaestic
system
or
stanza. If a pause
in sense
thus
disturbs
the
regular
rhythm,
the poet
must get
back
to
the
rhythm.
Hence
the popularity
of the
pause at
the
end
of
the fourth
foot,
even in
Homer
and the
Aeneid.
It is much
the
same in
the
case
of
mere 'caesurae',
that
of word-ends
cutting
the feet.
The hexameter
must
always
be
felt
as
a
single
solidly-built
verse.
It must
not
show
any
tendency to
break in
two in
the middle
or
near the
middle.
Hence
the two-fold
conflict, introduced
be-
tween the schematicrhythmand the variedmodulation
on
the one hand,
and
between the
metrical
feet and
the
phenomenon
of caesura
on the
other, keeps
both
the
rhythmical
and
the
metrical
sense of
the reader
in
suspense,
and therefore,
as
Professor
Humphreys
has
observed, actually
helps
to bind
the long
verse into
one.
Eustathius,
in the
passage
from
which I quoted
above, said
much the
same thing:
'The
ancient
gram-
marians
liked
to have
the metrical
feet
boundtogether
in
such a
way that
no foot
ended with
a word'.
Let
me repeat in
the form
of a summary
the
con-
clusions
of this article.
(i)
Caesura
in
modern
times
may be one
of three
things, (a) a rhythmical modulation or hold,
withlout
reference to
the thought;
(b) a
word-end,
occurring
n
the middle
third of the
hexameter,
again
with little
or
no
reference
to
the thought;
and (c)
a pause in
thought,
no matter where
t
occurs, but
the
pause
which
comes
in
the middle third of the verse is usually regarded as
the caesura. In anicient times, beginning
with
about
IOO . D., the term came to have
much
the same mean-
ings, except that
rhythmical
caesura, without regard
to
the thought, is not vouched
for
in
coninection with
recitative
poetry.
The three definitions resulted in
great confusion in both ancient
and
modern timnes.
(2)
The doctrine of caesura arose in the time of the
grammarians hrough the discovery that the end of a
word
in
the two middle feet of Homer's hexameter cut
off a
sectiotnwhich
was a lyric dactylic measureused by
the
Greek
poets.
In
applying
this
discovery, some
famous
metrician,
possibly
Heliodorus,
but at
any
rate
some one
who
lived at about his
time,
the
middle
of the
first century A.
D.,
lai(d
down a rule that caesura
must occur in olne of four
places
in the two middle
feet of
the
verse.
The
metricians then began to
look
for word-ends
at
these
places, and made caesura
nothingbut the occurrenceof the end of a wordin one
of these four places. There was difference of opinion
about
the
fourth
caesura,
some
holding that
it
was
the
fenminine
f
the fourth foot
(the
forbidden caesura
in
Homer and Vergil),
and
others the so-called bucolic
diaeresis.
But
caesura
in the
strict
sense
never
oc-
curred elsewhere, according
to
all
the treatises up
to
the
time of
Ausonius (fourth century A. D.),-the
reason being, obviously,
that
there existed
no shorter
dactylic
verses
in
lyric poetry which could
be found
before
the end
of
a word in
any
foot before
the third.
The rhetorical study
of
Homer led to the observation
that the
pauises
n
sense coincided with the caesurae.
Hence the term was extended by some grammarians o
include
a
pause
in
sense, and in late treatises
oftein
meant
nothing
else.
(3)
There
s no
evidence hat
the
ancients
ever made
a
pause
itn
the recited
hexameter
which
was not
required y
the
sense. And it
is
certain
that
caesura,regarded
s
the
mere
occurrence
f
a
word-end
n
the middle third
of
the
vterse,
wvas evermarked
by
a
pause.
(4)
Therefore
here
s
no
reason or making
a
pause
in
the
verse
of
Homer or
Vergilanywhere
hat the sense
does
not
require
t.
A
nd
there is
quite
as little reason
for
marking
the
pauses
in
sense,
and
calling
them
caesurae,
in
Vergil als
there
is in Cicero or
in Caesar.
UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT
SAMUELE.
BASSETT
THE
NEW
YORK
CLASSICALCLUB
Dr. Grant Showerman, of the University
of Wis-
consin,
Director of the Summer School of Classical
Studies
at the
American
Academy
in Rome, addressed
The New
York
Classical
Club at its first meeting of the
year
1924-1925, November 6, on The Meaning of
Rome.
He traced
America's connection
with
Europe
through
the
English,
the Norman-French, and the
Romans,
the
influence
of Rome
especially showing
itself
through
the
Renaissance,
the
afterglow
of
which
is still
seen to-day.
He
stated that for
sources
of our modern
life we
should study
our
ancestry, that our cultural and
spiritual
ancestry is English, that
we are
Anglo-
Saxon
and Roman,
that
is, Anglo-Latin or Anglo-
Roman.
He
added
that Rome
had been
the
labora-
tory
of law for centuries and
that Roman law had
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