Transcript
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
AGE
© Fariba Chamani, 2015
Individual Differences
• Age• Intelligence• Aptitude• Anxiety• Introversion/ Extroversion• Attitude• Motivation
Age & L2 Acquisition
1. Critical Period Hypothesis
2. Access to UG
3. The effects of age on SLA
4. Differences between younger and older learners
5. Implications for teaching
Critical Period Hypothesis
• A biologically determined period of life when
language can be acquired naturally and
effortlessly, and after which language is
increasingly difficult to acquire.
• CPH Span: From birth to late adolescence
Origins of CPH
• The term originates in embryology & biology
• Certain developmental events can happen only in a limited period that has a specific closure, after that the organism has missed the chance.
• Example: Imprinting phenomenon among baby geese during the critical bonding period (36 hours after emerging from an egg).
CPH & L1 Acquisition• The CPH was first proposed by Penfield & Roberts (1959) and
popularized by Lenneberg (1967).
• L1 studies were based on:
1. Pathological studies of children who failed to acquire their L1 (Example: Genie) during critical period, such cases were not a reliable source.
2. Developmental data about deaf children learning a sign language, which support the existence of CPH.
GENIEA 13/5 year old kid who was locked alone in a room since her infancy by her psychic father.
Always strapped to a child's toilet or bound in a crib, and she was beaten up in case of making any sound so she only knew learnt a few words .
Neurological Considerations for CPH
• Hemispheric lateralization
• Biological timetables
• Right hemispheric participation
Hemispheric lateralization
As the brain matures, certain functions are assigned to either the left or right hemisphere.
Time of LateralizationLenneberg
(1967) Lateralization
begins at around 2 and is
completed around puberty
Geschwind (1970) Lateralization Is completed
much earlier
Krashen (1973) Lateralization Is completed at 5
years old
Scovel (1984) Lateralization
emerges at birth is evident at 5
is completed at around
puberty
Biological TimetablesScovel (1988)
Sociobiological critical period mammals
birds
human beings?
Socially bonding accent
(1) To form an identity with their own community as they anticipate roles of parenting and leadership
(2) To attract mates of “their own kind” in an instinctive drive to maintain their own specie.
The acquisition of an authentic
(native-like) accent
Right Hemespheric Participation
There is a significant right hemispheric participation particularly in early stages of language learning
Obler (1981)
Genesee (1982)
Scovel (1982)
Singleton and Ryan (2004)
supported
did not support
did not support
L2 learners, particularly adults, might benefit
from more encouragement of
right-brain activity in classroom context.
Cognitive Considerations
Piaget (1972)Intellectual development of a child:
•Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2)•Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7)•Operational stage (ages 7 to 16)• Concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11)• Formal operational stage (ages 11 to 16)
Pro CPH
Ausubel (1964) Grammar in adults is easier because of the relevance of connection in cognition
Children do learn L2 without formal operation thought
Affective considerationsAffective domains: • Empathy• Self-esteem • Extroversion • Inhibition • Imitation • Anxiety• Attitudes…
Children egocentricity
Adults inhibitions
Self identity second identity
One’s identity is inextricably bound up with one’s language
Younger children are less afraid because they are less aware of forms.
Peer pressure Adults tend to tolerate linguistic differences more than children so errors are easily excused
Critical Period & Sensitive Period
• In critical period, there is a clear end point for language learning beyond which it’s not possible to acquire a native like proficiency.
• In sensitive period, there is a gradual decline in the ability to learn the language yet still it’s possible to acquire a language.
CPH & SLA• SLA does not support the CPH as a specific
cut-off point for acquiring a native-like L2 proficiency (Ellis, 2008).
• The ability to learn a language (like most other things) declines gradually and steadily with age.
• Some studies show that there might be a critical period for acquiring native-like accent.
Significance of accent
“foreign accent”
Speech muscles gradually develop
control complex sounds
are sometimes not achieved until 5
Complete phonemic control before puberty
“Most of the evidence indicates that persons beyond the age of puberty do not acquire what has come to be called authentic pronunciation”. (Brown, 2007)
Of course… there are exceptions
•Neuromuscular plasticity•Cerebral development•Sociobiological programs•Environment of sociocultural influences
Access to UG1. Complete access view: adult L2 learners have
access to the same language faculty as L1 learners
2. No access view: general learning strategies replace UG
3. Partial access view: Learners have full access to principles but not to full range of parameters
4. A dual access view: having access to UG plus general learning strategies
The Effect of age on SLA
• In formal learning settings: the older learners progress faster than the younger ones in the short term where explicit learning is concerned.
• In naturalistic SLA situation: the younger learners who receive sufficient input ultimately can achieve higher levels of proficiency.
Age Inspired language Teaching Methods
Total Physical Response
The Natural Approach
Differences between younger and older learners
1. Implicit vs. explicit learning: children learn best through implicit learning while adults learn better through explicit learning
2. Discipline and cooperation: Adult classes tend to be more disciplined and cooperative while children are more impatient and intolerant of tedious practice
3. Concentration span: teachers can not get children to concentrate on certain learning activities as they can get older learners to do so.
4. Motivation: adults are usually learning voluntarily so they feel more motivated and committed to their studies
Implications for the teaching of young learners
1. Use learning tasks that help implicit learning2. Motivate the students through activities &
materials. 3. Plan lessons with a variety of components,
each of which does not last too much4. Use pictures, stories and games to
implement the above principles.
Implications for the teaching of adolescents ( learners’ comments)
1. Dress nicely & look good2. Care a lot about your teaching3. Control the class firmly4. Treat your students with fairness5. Be warm & friendly toward students6. Know & use the students’ names7. Make sure students have fun in lessons8. Get students to work hard
1. Do younger learners learn language better? In SLA naturalistic context yes, but not in formal schooling.
2. Does human language learning capacity change with
age, and if so, how and why?
learner’s age influences the SLA process, however, it’s not easy
to establish the exact pattern or nature of age-related change
because age issue involves a complex dynamic interplay
between various learner characteristics and environmental
factors.
References• Brown, H. D. (2014). Principles of language learning and teaching. New
York: Pearson Education, Inc.
• Dornyei, Z. (2009). The psychology of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Ortega, L. (2009). Understanding second language acquisition. London: Hodder Education.
• Pacheco, S. (2012). Age and acquisition. Retrieved from: slideshare.net
• Ur, P. (2012). A course in English language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Thank You
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