8.Infrastructure (Road Related)

Physical and urban

Infrastructure

H M K G G BandaraConsultant (Road & Transport)

Road and Highways

Development in Transportation• Transportation of Ceylon prior to 1850 remained as it had

for several centuries• Economy was one of local consumption• Distance were not great• Speed not essential

• A system of main roads did exist connecting principal towns

• With the shifting of economic climate towards export of raw material such as rubber, coffee, tea, coconut more rapid and efficient means of transport were required

• Marine shipments along coastal and inland waterways• Bullock cart and railway on land

22/04/2023 4

Road Network in Mid 19th Century

Source : The Colonial Economy on Track, Prof. Indrani Munasinghe

Based on Tea/Rubber as Export crops rather than those for local

consumption

Connected Administrative Centres

Centred on Port for Export/Import

Source : The Colonial Economy on Track, Prof. Indrani Munasinghe

Development in Transportation• Early in the 19th century the motor vehicle – Lorry

altered the concept of passenger and goods transportation

• Road construction preceded vehicles, because of the need for permanent roads which could withstand the torrential rains

• By 1905 there were 3765 miles of major roads in Ceylon ( Sri Lanka)

Road Development• The first passenger car was imported into Sri Lanka

(Ceylon ) in 1902

• By the time of the advent of the motor lorry in 1907, the beginnings of a planned constructed, all-weather, motorable road system had been started

• The road system was gradually and progressively extended and improved so that during the period after 1945, it was reasonably able to accommodate an unprecedented motor vehicle growth

1946 1963 1971 1981 1991 1996

All roads 10,730 20,123 21,496 65,890 94,651 100,000

“A” class 1,400 1,800 2,201 3,798 4,116 4,220

‘B’ class 1,300 2,700 3,100 5,059 6,465 6,908

‘C’ class 1,800 3,500 4,488 10,856 5,012 8,457

‘D’ class 2,600 3,800 2,972 7,606 9,078 5,346

Others 3,630 8,413 8,735 38,571 69,980 75,069

Road lengths in selected years

Sources: Arjuna Atlas Sri Lanka, RDA, Central Bank of Sri Lanka

Historical Land Marks• First car was imported to Ceylon in 1902• Motor Lorry came in 1907• Bridge of boats near Colombo to cross the Kelani River

was completed in the year 1822. The bridge of boats was used till 1895

• The Kandy road via Kurunegala and Galagedara was completed in the year 1831

• The Kandy road through Kadugannawa also completed in the year 1831. The construction of the road took about eleven years

• The first lattice girder bridge by the name Victoria Bridge was built in 1895 over the Kelani River

Bridge of Boats

Victoriya Bridge

Evolution of Kaleni Bridge • Japan-Sri Lanka Friendship Bridge

• Reasons to replace • To cater for the increasing traffic demand with enhanced capacity. Total

number of lanes 4nos.

• Japan – Sri Lanka friendship Bridge was built under two phases and open to traffic in September 2000.

•

12

The History of Formulation of Transportation Policies for Sri Lanka

Objectives of Road Construction – British Era

The British had several motives in developing a transport network in the island.

First three decades of the nineteenth century – Political and Military considerations.

• Roads constructed to hold the island together as a single unit.• Colombo-Trincomalee road was built to reduce the cost of moving troops and supplies round the island.• Roads constructed to link the garrisons in several inaccessible areas to Colombo.

The History of Formulation of Transportation Policies for Sri Lanka

• With the establishment of centralized political authority, Economic and Commercial considerations were given the priorityTrade Plantation AgriculturePeasant Agriculture

• However, possibility of toll revenue in the construction of many major roads was a major factor taken into consideration.

• The economic policies, tax, and land use policies made strong influence on the decisions related to road construction and maintenance

• However, it can be evidently proven that more money was spent and more roads were constructed in the plantation districts. They were also favored with better roads

22/04/2023 13

Land Transport -Road Network in Sri Lanka

Total Road length Approximately 116,000 km

National Highways------------------------------ 12,165 km• Class “A” Roads - 4220.0 km• Class “B” Roads - 7800.0 km• Class “E” Expressways – 160 km• Under Road Development Authority

Provincial Roads (Class C & D )----------------- 15,532 km

Pradeshiya Sabah/Local Government Roads--- 84,380 km

Other Sectors---------------------------------------- 4,000 km

(Mainly Irrigation, Mahaweli & Estate roads)

CountryRoad

Density in km/km2

Bangladesh 1.36Bhutan 0.05India 0.73Nepal 0.06Sri Lanka 1.50Pakistan 0.32

Road Densities of Selected South Asian Countries

Source: International Road Federation, World Road Statistics – 2001 Edition

Road distribution Class “A” & “B” Roads

Provincial Distribution of National Road Network

• Road lengths in kms

ProvinceRoads

A Class B Class Total Western 374.48 1208.75 1583.23 Central 408.57 1330.79 1739.36 Southern 346.88 1018.5 1365.38 Northern 734.49 524.12 1258.61 Eastern 619.55 551.13 1170.68 North Western 353.22 971.09 1324.31 North Central 495.20 698.64 1193.84 Uva 471.04 693.19 1164.23 Sabaragamuwa 415.57 804.18 1219.75

Total 4219 7800.39 12019.39

Proposed Expressway

NetworkIn addition to national Highway Network , it has been planned to

develop approximately

800kms of Expressway network

for Sri Lanka to augment the Road

Network & presently under different stages

of development

ACCESS AND MOBILITY

• Access is a fixed requirement, necessary at both ends of any trip.

• Mobility along the path of such trips is defined in terms of "level of service." It can incorporate a wide range of indicators:

• Road condition,• Travel speed, • Degree of congestion, and so forth.

Classification• Arterials- emphasize the mobility

function and should have the highest traffic volumes, the greatest amount of commercial traffic, and the longest average trip lengths.

• local roads- emphasize the land access function

• collectors -offer a compromise between both functions

Classification

PURPOSES OF FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION • Delineation of public responsibilities in the provision and standard of public

roads. • Assignment of a road’s ownership and responsibility for its management

and financing. • System planning for the road using travel modes, including non-motorized

traffic; access management (access control); and, coordination with other modes of transport.

• Assistance to road users for selecting a travel route from origin to destination.

• Assignment of (uniform) minimum standards, including permissible vehicle axle loads, weights and dimensions.

• Determination of the size of the public road network and its quality commensurate with what the country can afford at the time.

CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE AND PROCESS

• Location of centers considering• for administration, social and economic activities such

as education and health, commerce and trade, manufacturing, private and public services, and important transport junctions such as ports, rail stations and border crossings.

• Divide them into groups by their importance at national, regional, provincial, and district level

• Provide standards-It is important that the standards adopted are linked to current road standards and what the country can afford at the time.

ACCESS AND MOBILITY

Functional Classification• Demand for road access changes with economic growth

and increasing prosperity, with relocation of population, economic activities and trade routes, and with expansion of urban areas and concerns for the environment.

• The functional classification must thus be updated periodically to take account of changes in transport demands and the road network to fulfill its role as a management tool.

26

Vehicle Trips between Districts/day2011 2031

Source :Prof. A. Kumarage

Classification system • Countries often have their own names for classes

• Arterials:• Motorways and other divided arterials; • Principal arterials; • Minor arterials

• Collectors: • Major collectors; • Minor collectors

• Locals: • Public local roads; • Private local roads;

• Other: Bicycle and pedestrian paths

Road network Sri Lanka• We have very good access function• But Mobility is very limited• Need to carry out functional clasification

Dominant Modes of Land Transportation in Sri Lanka

1. Road2. Rail

Demand Road RailPassenger Demand 92% 8%

Freight Demand 98% 2%

Demand Share

TRANSPORT DEMAND FOR ROADS

• Passenger Transport = 92%• Freight Transport = 98 %Road Transport has advantages over Railway

- Well spread road network- Personalized use of road transport- Reliability attached to road transport- Deterioration of rail transport -Low direct and indirect cost involve in road transport

TRANSPORT DEMAND FOR ROADS Cont….• Increase in Vehicle

PopulationVehicle increase by

- Capacity (GVW)

- Size

- Speed

Vehi-population

0

500000

1000000

1500000

2000000

2500000

3000000

3500000

4000000

1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Year

Vehi

cle

popu

latio

n

Vehi-population

Increase in income of the people

Deterioration of public services- Start of using motor bicycle 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

0200400600800

10001200140016001800

GDP pre Capita (US$)

STRATAGY FOR MEETING THE DEMAND CONSIDERED • Major rehabilitation and improvements including

realignment and deviation to existing trunk & main roads

• Construction of system of Ring Roads / Bye-Pass to city , Major Towns and Urban Centres

• Construction of Expressways / Highways as alternative to supplement the trunk roads

• Improvement to Urban Traffic Flows

Proposed Expressway

NetworkIt has been planned to

develop approximately 800kms of Expressway network for Sri Lanka to augment the Road Network. Presently, construction of Expressway network is under different stages of development.

Development of expressways• With the liberalization of vehicle imports in 1978, the active

vehicle fleet has increased in very rapid rate • Traffic volumes on the trunk road system of the country has

increased considerably• It has been realized that rehabilitation of existing trunk

route system to cope up with future traffic needs at a meaning full level of service is a daunting task mainly due to the inherent deficiencies in their alignment and widths that cannot be rectified without resorting to large scale acquisition and demolition of buildings and re-locating service utilities involving greater social and economic repercussions.

Development of expressways• The existing system to trunk roads will not be

adequate to cater for the increasing traffic demand as some of the important trunk roads have reached the capacity at that time

• To provide this additional capacity the expressway network was development

Construction of Expressways/Highways • Construction of first ever Expressway in Sri Lanka , Southern Expressway- From Colombo

to Galle has been completed and opened to public on 27th of November 2011 and Balance section from Galle to Matara opened for public on 15th March 2014.

• Colombo – Katunayake expressway opened for the public on 27th October 2013.

• Phase I of Outer Circular Highway opened for public on 8th March 2014.

• The other Expressway and Highway projects which are at various stages of construction at the moment are;

• Balance sections of Outer Circular Highway to the city of Colombo• Southern Expressway Extension with link to Hambantota• Expressway to Kandy and Northern • Hambantota - Batticaloa Expressway• Expressway link to Ratnapura

Southern Expressway

The location map of Southern

Expressway(STDP)

Total length =126.3 km +4.0 km Galle access roadTotal cost = Rs 95.3 bn

Interchangers = 11 nos

For the use of the expressway it is necessary to pay a fee. The fee is based on the length of use of the expressway

5.93 7.745 21.112 11.213 21.575 12.2 16.105

9.3

Kot

taw

a

Kah

atud

uwa

Dod

ango

da

Wel

ipen

na

Bad

dega

ma

Pin

nadu

wa

Gel

anig

ama

Kuru

ndga

hahe

tekm

a

All distances in km

Bandaragama (HO)

Galle

Ben

tota

Gan

ga

Brid

ge (5

2.98

0 km

)

6.98 14.595

Police Patrolling RDA Patrolling Crew

Interchanges, Traffic Operation Centre & Emergency Centres

Interchange(IC)

IC with Emergency Center

IC with Operation Center

OUTER CIRCULAR HIGHWAY

Second section has a length of 8.9 km ( 4.9km Elevated). Construction works are in progress under JICA funding. Contract Price is Rs 44.88 bn

The project will be implemented on 3 sections

The third section from Kadawatha to Kerawalapitiya has a length of 9.2 km. (5.9 elevated) The tentative cost of this section is Rs. 66.69 bn. It is expected to get funding assistance from China for the construction of the section

Construction is ongoing for the first section of 11 km (3.2 km elevated) with funding assistance from JICA. Cost for this section is Rs.24.9bn.

OCH Project Phase I

Via duct Section

OCH Project Phase I

Kottawa IC

KATUNAYAKE I.C

JA – ELA I.C.

PELIYAGODA I.C.

NEW KELANI BRIDGE I.C.

LOCATION MAP

Colombo – Katunayake Expressway Project

46

• Loan Funding: Exim Bank of China• Loan Amount: US$ 248.2 Mn• Total Project Cost: US$ 292 Mn• Total Length (km): 25.8• Numbers of lanes: 4• Maximum allowable Speed : 100 km/h• Contractor: China Metallurgical Group

Corporation (MCC)

• Photographs

Colombo – Katunayake Expressway Cont’d

Southern Expressway Extension

EXTENSION OF SOUTHERN HIGHWAY AND LINK TO HAMBANTOTA

• Length : 96 km from Godagama (Matara) to Mattala and Hambantota

• Numbers of Lanes : 4• Numbers of interchanges : 8• Current Status :

• Four commercial contracts has been signed and arrangement of funding is in progress

49

50

Extension of Southern Expressway

Colombo - Kandy Highway with Kurunegala Link

Colombo - Kandy Highway with Kurunegala Link )

• Total Length : 202 km (including Kurunegala Link)

Stage Name Lengt

h (km)

InterchangeNos Name

IEnderamulla / (Kadawatha)- Ambepussa

53 5 Enderamulla/(Kadawatha), Gampaha, Veyangoda, Mirigama, Ambepussa

II Mirigama - Kurunegala 38 4 Mirigama, Nalakagamuwa, Danbokka, Kurunegala

III Pothuhera – Kandy 51 5 Pothuhera, Rambukkana, Galagedara, Aladeniya, Gannoruwa

IV Kurunegala - Dambulla 60 4 Kurunegala, Melsiripura, Galewela, Dambulla

Colombo - Kandy Highway with Kurunegala Link

HAMBANTOTA – BATTICALOA EXPRESSWAY

• With the growing importance of Batticaloa as a tourist destination, requirement of high speed link between Batticaloa and Hambantota has been identified in the National Physical Planning Policy.

• Accordingly, it has been decided to start this Expressway from Mattala Airport linking Southern Highway Extension and to end about 11km away from Batticaloa town with the view of continuing towards the city of Trincomalee in the future.

HAMBANTOTA – BATTICALOA EXPRESSWAY

• It is required to carry out a comprehensive feasibility study to identify most appropriate trace for the expressway

• Length will be around 182km • It is proposed to provide minimum of 4-lane facility• Cost will be around Rs 150 billion

National Physical Planning PolicySettlement-2030

25 million people70% urban (17.5 m)30% rural (7.5 m)80% in Metro Cities and District

Capitals (14 m)20% in other towns and villages

(3.5 m)Protect Agricultural LandReduce Land fragmentation Reduce cost of InfrastructureProtect the environmentCreate a strong network of

cities, towns and villages

Road Transport

• Develop bus networks to improve inter-city and intra-city connections.

• Maintain and rehabilitate the existing road network

• Construct regional highways between Metro Cities and District Capitals.

Understanding of Expressways• Roads are not pure public goods• Expressways do not have the mechanism of the market

which decides the supply, demand and therefore price• Expressway construction is planned according to the

national policy.• Expressways are consume large part of funds• It provides speed, safety and convenience• By reducing travel time expressway stimulate the

distribution of the population and increase the mobility of the road network.

Understanding of Expressways• Expressway provides better regional and economic

communication• Provide industrial and agriculture developments• Expressways encourage tourism development• It create new jobs

Road Maintenance

Road Maintenance• Roads, and means of transport, make a crucial

contribution to economic development and growth and bring important social benefits. Poorly maintained roads constrain mobility, significantly raise vehicle operating costs, increase accident rates and their associated human and property costs, and aggravate isolation, poverty, poor health, and illiteracy in rural communities.

Road Maintenance• Roads are among the most important public assets

in many countries. Road improvements bring immediate and sometimes dramatic benefits to road users through improved access to hospitals, schools, and markets; improved comfort, speed, and safety; and lower vehicle operating costs.

• For these benefits to be sustained, road improvements must be followed by a well-planned program of maintenance. Without regular maintenance, roads can rapidly fall into disrepair, preventing realization of the longer term impacts of road improvements on development,

Road Maintenance• many countries have tended to favor new

construction, rehabilitation, or reconstruction of roads over maintenance.

• Much of the capital cost of road construction is financed by donor funds, with low perceived cost to the country but high real costs, while maintenance is funded locally, requiring difficult and unpopular tax mobilization.

Timely and appropriate management offers benefits to everyone

• When roads are in poor condition every dollar not spent on road conservation will cost:

• $ 3 to road users in additional vehicle operating costs and

• $ 2 to the road administration (or the tax payer) in reconstruction and rehabilitation costs.

Road Maintenance

WHAT IS MAINTENANCE?• The goal of maintenance is to preserve the asset, not

to upgrade it. Unlike major road works, maintenance must be done regularly.

• Road maintenance comprises “activities to keep pavement, shoulders, slopes, drainage facilities and all other structures and property within the road margins as near as possible to their as-constructed or renewed condition”

• For management and operational convenience, road maintenance is categorized as routine, Recurrent, periodic, and urgent.

Managing the Life Cycle • There are many options

• Good Asset Management is about making the right choices

No Routine Maintenance

With Routine Maintenance

With Preventative Maintenance

Cond

ition

TimeMin

ac

cept

able

Exce

llent

Classification of maintenance activities

Can be classified depending on the nature of the each activity and the frequency of applying

Routine maintenanceRecurrent maintenancePeriodic maintenanceUrgent and emergency maintenance

Road surface elements may change on class of roads ,terrain, alignment, situation &

environmental conditionCarriagewayShouldersVerges(between shoulder & drain)DrainsRoad reservationsEmbankment slopesCut slopesFoot walksCentre medians

MAINTANANCE ACTIVITIES 0F A ROAD

ROAD MAINTANANCE

ROUTINE URGENT

Restoration of Flood

damages including

Earth slips & diversions.

PERIODICBase & surface

corrections;Surface

applications.Grading &

regravelling of Road

shoulders;

RECURRENTRepairing ruts,depressions,cracks,po

t holes, & surface

irregularities

Corrections to the road

edges ; shoulder

edges;

Routine / Recurrent maintenance• comprises small-scale works conducted regularly,

aims “to ensure the daily passability and safety of existing roads in the short-run and to prevent premature deterioration of the roads”

.

Routine Maintenance• Activities carried out for general upkeep of the road

network irrespective of road characteristics and the traffic.

• Cutting grass, weeding, jungle clearing, filling scoured area and planting grass

• Clearing and re-cutting drains• Cutting scupper drains and building scour controls• Cleaning and de-silting culverts• Cleaning and painting of bridges and structures• Cleaning and painting of road furniture

Recurrent maintenance• Activities to be carried out throughout the year but

frequency depend on damaging effect of traffic and rain fall

• Paved roads• Repair potholes, rutting, depressions, cracks and surface

irregularities• Correction of edges of pavement and shoulder edges

• Unpaved roads• Repair potholes, rutting, depressions and erosion gullies• Dragging, brushing and lightly grading to remove

unevenness and corrugations

Periodic maintenance• This covers activities on a section of road at regular and

relatively long intervals, aims “to preserve the structural integrity of the road. These operations tend to be large scale, requiring specialized equipment and skilled personnel. They cost more than routine maintenance works and require specific identification and planning for implementation and often even design.

• Activities can be classified as preventive, resurfacing, overlay, and pavement reconstruction. Resealing and overlay works are generally undertaken in response to measured deterioration in road conditions.

• For a paved road repaving is needed about every eight years; for a gravel road re-graveling is needed about every three years.

TYPICAL DISTRESSES IN ASPHALT PAVEMENTS

Roughness Severe damageSurface DeformationEdge DamageCracking Potholes

Roughness

• Macro level undulation of the surface

• Measured in m/km in International Roughness Index

Severe Damage-Paved RoadsSevere Damages in paved roads can be due to several reasons

1.Due to landslips

2.Due to extensive potholes and poor maintenance of drains

3. Due to tidal waves

4.Due to un-maintained drains and lack of vegetation control

SURFACE DEFORMATION AND RUTTING-PAVED ROADS

Deformation is a change in a road surface from the constructed profile.

Deformation types:

Corrugation Depressions Raveling Shoving

SURFACE DEFORMATION WITH DEPRESSIONS

Deformation

Depression

Corrugation

SHOVING RAVELLING

CORRUGATION

•ASSOCIATED WITH SLIPPAGE MECHANISM•POOR BOND BETWEEN THE SURFACE AND UNDERLAYING LAYER•TOO MUCH OR TOO LITTLE TACK COAT•STEEP GRADES/INTERSECTIONS.•ACCELERATION/BRAKING EXERT SURFACE TRACTION FORCES•EG:BUS STOPS & INTERSECTIONS

DEPRESSION/RUTTING

DEPRESSION• Reasons for depressions

• Poor drainage of underneath layers• Use of excessive filler materials• User of too many rounded partials in coarse and fine

aggregates• High asphalt content of the mix

POTHOLEPothole formation is often related to problems of drainage. However ,if extensive pothole formation is observed then the cause may be due to general pavement deterioration or inadequate pavement thickness.

Shallow pothole -depth<20mm

Medium pothole -20mm<depth<75mm

Deep pothole -depth>75mm

POTHOLE

POTHOLE REPAIR PROCESS

Step 1 - the edges are cut by a disc saw to achieve a good joint between the new material and existing road surface

Step 2 - the defective road surface is broken away and loaded on to lorry for safe disposal

Step 3 - the area is swept clear of any further loose material and water

Step 4 - the vertical edges are painted with a bitumen based edge sealant to achieve a good bond and waterproof the joint

Step 5 - the hot surfacing material is laid into the patch to the required level

Step 7 - The surfacing material is compacted to the required standard

Step 6 - the work area is swept clean of debris and overspill

Step 8 - Overbanding tape is used to seal the joint and stop the ingress of water

Edge Cracking• Description• Edge cracking is similar to

alligator cracking only located within 1 to 2 feet of the edge of the pavement. Failure begins at the edge of the pavement and progresses toward the wheel path. Pavement edge distress can result in worsening of the wheel path condition and allow moisture into the subgrade soils and base materials.

• Possible Causes• Traffic Loading • Environmental• Construction Related • Low Shoulder • High Shoulder Holding

Water

• Maintenance Treatments• Crack Fill • Thin Cold Mix Overlay • Shoulder Maintenance

EDGE FAILURES

Sangupitty Jetty on Navatkuli – Kerative – Mannar RoadEDGE SUPPORT IS NECESSARY

CRACKING-PAVED ROADSTypes of pavement cracks:• Block and Alligator

(crocodile ) cracking• These cracks occurs in

rectangular or cells or blocks • Spacing of the blocks/cells

varies for crocodile cracking and for block cracking

• Longitudinal, diagonal and transverse cracking

• These cracks are usually reflective cracks caused by shrinkage or movement in the base, sub base or sub grade.

ALLIGATOR CRACKING

ALLIGATOR CRACKS ARE GENERALLY CAUSED BY THE MOVEMENT OF THE PAVEMENT LAYERS OR OF THE SUBGRADE.ANOTHER REASON FOR THIS CRACK IS PROBABLY DUE TO POOR SUPPORT FROM THE UNDELAYING LAYERS MAY BE CAUSED BY MOISTURE IN THE SUBGRADE.ALSO FAILURE OCCURS DUE TO LIMITS OF ITS FATIGUE LIFE BY REPETITIVE AXLE LOAD APPLICATIONS.

CRACKING-PAVED ROADS

Crocodile Cracking Transverse Crack (advance stage)

Longitudinal Cracking Transverse Cracking

CRACK SEALING

DRAINAGE MAINTENANCE

The Objectives of road drainage could be broadly classified as Prevention of accumulation of water on or by the roadway Interception of ground water from entering the road structure from beneath Interception of surface water from flowing into the roadway. Prevention of erosion of the roadway edges, drains, embankment slopes, cut slopes and the road side. Convey river and stream water across the road.

Drainage is most important aspect that determine the performance of a road and failure of roads is often attributed to poor drainage

DRAINAGE

When water enter in to the road structure it weaken the road structure and damage with Traffic

Strom water to surface – too fast erosion, too slow penetrate to structure

Surface slopes• Paved road cross falls- 2-3 %• Gravel road cross falls-4-6 %• Shoulders – Desirable maximum 6%

• Type of Drains• Scupper Drains• Side drains

TYPE OF DRAINSAngle Drains

Saucer Drains

Drainage Ditches

Catch Drains

FOR HIGH WATER TABLE

SUBGRADE

SURFACE DRAINAGE• ActivitiesConstruction of a culvert, Catch pits and Cascade to divert

surface water.Construction of trench drains,Removal of over burden at head of landslide,Filling “toe” to give a toe support,Construction of surface drain, landscaping and turfing.Construction of gabion walls along the streamConstruction of horizontal drains.Clearing and training the stream,

Gabion wall

Horizontal Drains

Trench drain

Surface Drains

DRAINAGE PROBLEM

DRAINAGE PROBLEM

Periodic Maintenance• Surface strength is evaluated and suitable

treatment is decided • SBST• DBST• AC• The period of application is decided based on type

of pavement, design life, traffic load

Maintenance of unpaved roads

• Earth roads• Gravel roads• Defects

• Loss of shapes• Rutting• Formation of potholes

and depressions• Formation of

corrugations• Formation of erosion

gullies

• Maintenance works • Pothole patching• Grading• Re-graveling

MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGEs, CAUSEWAYS AND CULVERTS

Important of bridge maintenance• Bridges are key element in road network and is a major

investment of resources• Due to their strategic locations over natural or manmade

obstacles any failure of bridges may limit or severely disrupt traffic flow in the network creating economic losses

• Over the time bridge will deteriorate and become unfit for its intended purpose if no actions are taken to maintain, rehabilitate or strengthen

• LIFE SPAN IS 75-100 YEARS• Bad maintenance will reduce life drastically

Inspection of Bridges• Substructure all

bridgesScour of river bedsSettlement of

foundationDevelopment of

cracks in abutments, wing walls, piers and corrosion of steel supports

Growing of vegetation

• Superstructure steel bridgesJammed or

defective bearingCorrosion of

membersWater leakageExpansion joints

faulty or ineffective Paint scaling off

from steel girders

Inspection of Bridges- Concrete Bridges-superstructure• Cracks of components• Blocking of expansion

joints• Spoiling of concrete

Culvert damage

Culvert Sinking of pavement (about 1m×1m)

Primary reinforcement has broken. Concrete top slab has been damaged.

Damage situation under top slab. Exposure of reinforcement bars.All almost reinforcement bars are exposed by the cover concrete's coming off.

The corrosion of the reinforcement proceeds, and bars are broken.

Corrosion of steel is advanced. Concrete is deteriorated.

Comments :Immediate reconstruction (replacing slab) is necessary

The surface of concrete and reinforcement bars peels off when touching by the hand and falls..

Routine ActivitiesCleaning / Clearing:

Minor Repairs (Structural): Repair of loose / missing connectors and fixings Replace damaged planks Painting   Wood PreservationPainting MasonryRepair Barriers and safety features

Periodic Activities:

Major Repairs:

· Random Stone Filling

· Retaining Wall · Riverbed Scour Apron · Gabions

Transportation

Transport• Transport is essential to the functioning of any society • It influences the location and range of productive and

leisure activities

• It influences range and the provision of goods and services

• It influences the quality of life• Development of society is closely related with the

improved transport technology

Transport• Car became marvelous instrument of personal

mobility• It allow man to go where he likes, when he likes,

whatever the weather condition• This created a situation of increase mobility

Transportation system• Transportation activities take place on five major

systems• Highways• Railways• Air• Water• Pipelines

• Each is divided in to specific modes

Transport of the country Present Transport system consists of Land, Sea

and Air transportTransport in Sri Lanka is based mainly on the road network

which is centered on Sri Lanka's capital, ColomboUnder gone several changes with the socio

economic policies to come to present situation Up to 1950 it was a compact and simple In 1956 it was formed to government institutions

and continued till 1970 In 1977 with implementation of open economic

system the transport was de-regularized and privatised

22/04/2023 134

Policy of the Colonial Government- Railway Construction• The Government considered that the

construction of railways was necessary for the advancement of production, trade and commerce of the island.

• The reduction of transport costs were of importance as cart charges were very high in 1870s.

• It is evident that the policy towards the construction of railways in Sri Lanka was generally based on advancing the economic prosperity of the island.

22/04/2023 135

22/04/2023 136

Roads & Rail During Early

20th Century

• Source : The Colonial Economy on Track, Prof. Indrani Munasinghe Source : The Colonial Economy on Track, Prof. Indrani Munasinghe

Rail Transport• The railway network is largely a legacy of British

colonial rule and today only handles a small fraction of the country's transport needs

• Service began in 1864, with the construction of the Main Line from Colombo to Ambepussa, 54 kilometers

• The Railway was initially built to transport coffee and tea from the hill country to Colombo for export.

• For many years, transporting such goods was the main source of income on the line.

• In the 1960s, passenger traffic overtook freight as the main source of revenue. The railway is now primarily engaged in the transport of passengers, especially commuters to and from Colombo.

138

Cost of transport per ton mile

By cart By railway

Savings per ton

mile

Rs. Cts. Cts. Rs.cts

Railway rate as a % of cart

rate

Coffee 0.62 14.5 0.47 23.4% Rice 1.25 17 1.08 13.6%

Manure 1.14 8.5 1.05 7.4%

Source: Roads & Railways in Sri Lanka By Prof. Indrani Munasinghe

Savings on cost of transport per ton mile 1860

139

Revenue & Working Expenditure (1905) Revenue Rs. As a %

of total

Revenue

Working Exp. Rs.

As a % of total

W. Exp.

Profits Rs.

As A % of total profit

Main line 5,283,849.00 54.5 1,930,572.00 40.7 3,353,277.00 67.7

Southern line 1,672,294.00 17.2 1,098,312.00 23.2 573,982.00 11.5

Uva Line 1,419,985.00 14.6 833,272.00 16.6 586,713.00 11.8

Matale Line 178,240.00 1.8 153,953.00 3.3 24,287.00 0.5

Nothern Line 538,760.00 5.6 385,813.00 8.2 152,947.00 3.1

Kelani Valley

Line

446,864.00 4.6 220,234.00 4.6 226,630.00 4.6

Uda-Pussellawa

Line

150,622.00 1.6 114,387.00 2.4 36,235.00 0.7

Total 9,690,614.00 100 4,736,543.00 100 4,954,110.00 100

Source: Roads & Railways in Sri Lanka By Prof. Indrani Munasinghe

140

Land Transport - Rail• Opened in 1864

• Total Track length Broad gauge – 1293km

• Double Track – 258 km• Train km operated-

9.88 mn (2012)• Passenger km -5039.3

mn(2012)

Source; National Transport statistics-2012- NTC

Rail Transport

Rail Transport-Lines• Main line• Coastal Line• Puttalam Line• Kelani Valley Line• Matale Line• Northern Line• Mannar Line• Batticaloa Line• Trincomalee Line• Mihintale Line An model of narrow gauge line

Metro transit and tram• Early Trams• The northern and central areas of the city of Colombo

had an electric tram car system, operated by the Colombo Electric Tram Car and Lighting Company Ltd.

• This system commenced operations around 1900.• For half a century, the trams dominated Colombo's

roads, carrying thousands of commuters.• The tram system operated with 42" gauge track, that

was sunk into the road. The system had two tram models in its rolling stock.

• After an infamous tram car strike, the Colombo Municipal Council took over operations. Subsequently, the tram car system was phased out and the system was discontinued by 1960.

Land Transport -VehiclesVehicle Population 4,877,027 at the end of

year 2012 as per Registration.

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Goods vehicles2 axle3 axle4 axle5 axle6 axle

In the year 2012 397,295 new vehicles added to the fleet

10.25%

15.72%

52.21%

1.88%

5.74%6.64% 6.47% 1.09%

Registered vehicle fleet -2012

Motor cars

Motor Tricycle

Motor Cycles

Buses

Dual purpose vehicles

Lorries

Land vehicles-Tractors

Land vehicles-Trailers

Land Transport – Bus IndustryHistory

Cater to 94 % of demand Under gone several changes in the past in

response to socio economic policy changes In 1935 about 2000 buses were operating as

private venture In 1951 formation of private companies and

public companies 1958 Nationalised all companies 1979 Open to private sector again

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Land Transport – Bus IndustryHistory• The history of Sri Lanka Transport Board goes back

to 1 January 1958, at the time known as the Ceylon Transport Board (CTB).

• At its peak, it was the largest omnibus company in the world - with about 7,000 buses and over 50,000 employees. With privatization in 1979, it underwent a period of decline.

Land Transport – Bus Industry Present system

Two categories of operators Government owned 93 boards having 50 to 150

buses now converted to SLCTB Provide service to all level of routes even in

uneconomical routes with pre-arranged time tables Private bus providers mainly with single bus

owner Mainly operation on profitable routes Urban and Intercity routes Not to a time table operate at peak period

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148

Bus OperationOperational data

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

SLTB Fleet 9018 9326 9125 8403 7821 7756

Avg. Buses operated/day

4129 4246 4482 4441 4365 4314

Operated km-mn 304.9 313.7 335.86 341.62 340.84 337.83

Private Fleet 17,731 18665 18665 19805 19699 20444

Avg. Buses operated/day

12610 13116 13066 15884 16602 17129

Operated km 607.2 631.8 629.5 765.3 799.9 825.3

Source; National Transport statistics-2012- NTC

Land Transport – Freight Internal freight transport is dominated by road

transport catering to 98 % of the demand

Operated by private tracking

Rail takes only 1 % of the demand at present

Coastal shipping cater to balance freight transport

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04/22/2023 150

Sea TransportPorts Vessels arrived

(2012)Cargo handled (MT(000))-2012

Colombo 3970 61,669Galle 69 522Trincomalee 161 2,859Hambantota 34 20

Total 4134 65,070Total container traffic =4,187,000 TEU (2012)Transshipment container Traffic = 3,167,000 TEU (2012)

Dikkowitta Fishery Harbour –is the biggest fishery harbor in Asia

22/04/2023 151

Air Transport Total 19 air

ports in the country

Two international Airport

17 domestic airports

22/04/2023 152Mattala Rajapaksa International Airport.

Air Transport

Airports with paved runways

Runway length Numbers

Over 3,047m 2 International

1,524 m to 2,437m

6

914 m to 1,523m

7

Total 15

Airports with unpaved runways

Runway length Numbers

1,524 m to 2,437m 1

Under 914m 3

Total 4

Other Transport• Water Transport

• Sri Lanka has around 160 km of inland waterways (primarily on rivers in the southwest), navigable by shallow-draught boats

• Pipelines• Sri Lanka has 62 km of pipelines for crude oil and

petroleum products (1987 figures)

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Dutch Canal SystemCentred on the Port of

Colombo Over 200kms in length

Development of Coconut as an Export Industry Eg. Dutch Canal, St. Sebastian

Canal , Hamilton Canal etc.

Urban Development

Urbanization• With the industrial revolution civil life changed. Villages

became towns. Towns became cities. Population migrations and population explosion

• As population increase need for efficient public transport became evident.

• Advent of motor car about end of 19th century had little affect mass movement and town development due to affordability for cars

• With the mass production of cars after world war I changed this situation

Urban Transport Planning• Urban transport is an extremely complex area. It

has many dimensions, all of which need to be taken into account if comprehensive solutions are to be found to the Problems stemming from the growth of cities.

• It is not simply a matter of building a highway or a metro rail system. There must also be an assessment of numerous other factors.

Urban Transport

Terrain Safety Energy Use Land use Environment

Health

AffordabilityLivelihoods

TechnologyEngineering

FinancePolicies

Human Behavior

Disabilities

Gender

Economics

Land Use• Most planned cities have a master plan that lays out

how the land in different parts of the city will be used. Some parts are designated primarily as business districts and others as largely residential.

• Most well planned cities also have sections that have trees, plants, and other green cover, such as parks.

• Some cities are sprawling –spread out over a large area—where as others are compact and dense.

Land Use• Cities with heavily segregated residential and business

districts have longer Travel distances. Sprawling cities also have long travel distances. In both cases, providing transportation systems requires significant infrastructure investments when compared to the requirements in more compact cities.

• Many cities have adopted land use planning in which business and residential districts are more closely interspersed. This is known as mixed use planning. This type of planning tends to reduce travel distances. Shorter travel distances often mean that trips can be made by walking or cycling instead of using motorized modes. This, in turn, results in lower energy use and less pollutants.

Environment• Urban transport mode choices affect the environment. Cities

with a high level of dependence on personal motor vehicles have a higher level of emissions and worse air Quality than those that are less dependent on them.

• Cities with a higher share of public transport or non motorized transport use have a lower level of emissions and thus benefit from cleaner air.

Environment• Cities that have policies to ensure that their

vehicle fleets are well maintained tend to have less pollution.

• Policies regarding fuel quality and regulations relating to the amount of emissions allowed by a motor vehicle also impact the environment.

• The major pollutants from motor vehicle exhaust namely sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter have all been a concern in large cities, though the intensity of their impact has varied across countries and pollutants.

Environment• Today, climate change is becoming a global

concern. • Transport accounts for around 14 percent of

human generated green house gas emissions. These emissions contribute substantially to global climate change.

• Unfortunately, most fuels used in meeting transport demands are carbon based. Thus, urban mobility is a growing contributor to green house gas emissions and climate change.

Health

Air quality has a Substantial impact on Human health.Estimates by the World Health Organization show that polluted air is responsible for approximately 800,000 deaths in urban areas every year.

Health• The negative health impact tends to be more

severe on the poor, who are more exposed to polluted air, as they often live on foot paths and walk or cycle to meet their travel needs.

• Walking and cycling increases their exposure to the polluted air, and the effort exerted by the body entails harder breathing and, thus, a greater intake of pollutants.

Affordability• The cost of transport systems, and therefore

affordability, represents an important factor in urban transport planning because people use the systems so often.

• People need to use urban transport everyday, unlike the case of intercity transport.

• Urban transport is used to reach workplaces and educational institutions, markets, and doctors

• Cities with relatively lower per capita income cannot afford to have expensive systems.

Affordability

Ensuring affordability means charging relatively low fares, which, in turn, means the operator may not be able to recover operating costs. This creates the need for subsidies.

Livelihoods• Urban transport is important to livelihoods because large

numbers of trips in urban areas are made for the purpose of reaching a workplace.

• If transport costs are high, people are able to seek jobs only within a limited area. Lower transport costs allow them to look for job opportunities farther away from where they live.

• The kind of transport systems in use also affect livelihoods by affecting employment in the public transport system. For example, large and extensive bus systems tend to employ more people than do metro rail systems.

Technology• Urban transport often involves a choice between multiple

technologies.• Technology choices also involve decisions about fuel type,

kind of vehicle, and soon, making this an other dimension of urban transport planning.

Technology• The range of technology choices offered by public

transport runs the spectrum from buses sharing road space with cars and bicycles to heavy rail underground metro systems.

• Choices among technology options need to be made on the basis of several factors, such as spatial pattern, load factor, life cycle costs, and environmental sensitivity.

Engineering• The availability of sound engineering and project management

capabilities is another dimension of urban transport planning since number of infrastructure facilities must be built to meet travel demand.

Amount of space Required

Economics• Urban transport has an economics dimension. What makes

economic sense and what does not? What is the value of urban transport to society as a whole, not just its users? Questions such as these need to be answered to assess if we are getting the best value for the investment made

Finance• Money and financing are factors in the urban transport

planning process that raise important questions:

Finance• What kind of additional taxes or levies need to be

imposed to raise resources for urban transport? What other revenue streams exist?

• Who should pay for these investments?• At what point in time should these investments be

made?

• Money and financing questions need to be answered for a successful out come.

Politics• Politics and governance play important roles in urban transport planning,

particularly in democracies.• Any government in power will tend to be attracted toward investments that

can help it in upcoming elections, even if it means a larger than necessary expenditure on the facility to be created. Large and visible projects have often helped candidates win elections.

• Fragmented governance—with responsibilities spread across multiple agencies—can lead to serious problems in coordination. Such situations must be corrected through reduced fragmentation and consolidation of responsibilities among the different areas of urban transport.

Human Behavior

• Human behavior and social image should be taken into account in the planning process.

• In some countries, cycling and traveling by bus are viewed as modes of transport for the poor. Therefore, any one who has sufficient income is likely to acquire and use a personal motor vehicle —viewed as a status symbol—to demonstrate their higher income.

Human Behavior• In other countries, people like the experience of being in their

own cars, even if having more cars on the road means being stuck in traffic for hours.

• In yet others, cycling and walking are fashionable and viewed as healthy and environmentally friendly modes of travel.

Human Behavior

• Issues of human behavior are also important when determining such factors as

• How far people are willing to walk to reach a public transport station,

• How much difficulty they are willing to tolerate in finding a parking space,

• How much they are willing to pay for the use of facilities, and • How much they value the physical exercise of walking.

Disabilities• In every city, a proportion of residents with disabilities confront inherent

difficulties with regard to transport.• They may have a physical disability or be elderly, frail, or very young. Women

and others carrying babies might also require facilities or arrangements that meet their particular needs.

• The transport system must not ignore the special needs of the segments of the population with disabilities.

Gender• Gender is an important dimension in urban transport planning.• Studies have shown that the travel times of women and the nature of their

trips are different from those of men. In some societies ,women need to be protected from harassment. In others, social customs require that women and men not share seats.

• Urban transport should take in to account the different travel needs of women and men.

Terrain

• Terrain is important in determining the kind of transport system in a city.

• Most cities have a flat terrain and therefore have a wide range of transport options.

• Cities with a hilly terrain have more limited possibilities. Thus, a city’s terrain must be thoroughly considered in the urban transport planning process.

Terrain

• Terrain and geographical features—such as the sea, a river, hills—constrain some places, putting limitations on the design of transport systems.

Safety• Safety is an important concern in many parts of the world. Traffic

accidents cause 1.2 million deaths world wide annually. About 40 people under the age of 25 are estimated to die in road incidents every hour. Each day nearly 3,500 people die in traffic accidents, making them a leading cause of death. Children, pedestrians, cyclists, and the elderly tend to be the most affected by accidents.

• The incidence of accidents in cities is rapidly increasing, resulting in death and injury.

• The design of urban transport facilities needs to ensure high standards of safety.

Energy Use• Transport systems are large consumers of energy.

Any intervention that is chosen relates to energy use, including land use patterns, mode of travel, technologies adopted for public transport, policies relating to fuel price, or various demand management strategies.

• The amount of energy required by urban transport is an important consideration during planning.

The many dimensions of urban transport• Here are the many dimensions of urban transport.

Collectively they demonstrate the complexity of urban transport systems. Often, cities have made the mistake of dealing with only some of these elements. These cities have not been able to realize the full benefits of a comprehensively planned system.

Summary

Colombo Metropolitan area• As the largest metropolitan area in Sri Lanka, the

population of Western Province had 5.84 million inhabitants in 2012. It is estimated that the total population of Western Province will increase to 7.9 million persons in 2035 and economic growth with urban development plans are also expected.

A000 – 72,101

Average Daily Traffic at Colombo Entry Points

B062 – 34,210

A001 – 90,548

A003 – 47,079

B435 – 25,339

A002 – 62,917

A004 – 44,182

B084 – 38,970

B152 – 13,531

TRAFFIC PATTERN OF COLOMBO

• Daily Traffic Volume - 567,405 Veh/day• Vehicle categories

• Cars - 31.32 % (177,700.07 Veh/Day)

• Vans - 11.31% ( 64,146.98 Veh/Day)

• Busses - 5.64 % ( 32,004.69 Veh/Day)

• Goods Vehicle - 45.78 % (259,813.39 Veh/Day)

• Heavy Goods vehicle - 5.95 % ( 33,739.15 Veh/Day)

• Average speed - 20 – 25 km/hr• No of Signalized junctions

Maintain by RDA - 31 NosMaintained by CMC - 48 Nos

Problems in Road network• Insufficient Road Network

• Current traffic demands mean that the roads are almost at capacity or exceed capacity at several points during the peak hours

• Especially, road traffic between the CMC and the eastern part of suburban area, such as Battaramulla, depends on one major arterial road and no alternative roads parallel to the major arterial road have been developed yet.

• As a consequence the road network forms a "fish bone" shape and excessive traffic flows are concentrated on the one major arterial road. Merging points at major intersections in suburban areas become bottleneck intersections

Problems in Road network• Lack of Pedestrian Space

• Almost none of the roads have sufficient space for sidewalks and shoulders under the existing conditions

• Most urban roads lack space for pedestrian traffic. • Only a few arterial roads provide sidewalks for

pedestrians and this lack of sidewalks might cause frequent and serious traffic accidents involving pedestrians.

• Establishment of design standards for urban roads is needed and it is essential to improve the urban roads in accordance with the urban road design standards for road traffic safety.

Problems in Road Network

• Lack of Road Design Standards for Urban Roads• Highway design standards for interurban road

have been established and have been applied for road development and maintenance.

• The characteristics of urban traffic are different than intercity traffic.

• Traffic speed of interurban traffic is generally higher than urban traffic and pedestrian traffic is more important in urban areas.

• It is desirable to develop a highway design standard specifically for urban roads.

• Accommodation of public transport not considered

Problems in Road Network• Lack of Road Network Master Plan for the CMA

• The arterial road network has been developed and maintained by the Road Development Authority and CMC, however, no coordinated arterial road network development plan has been established for the whole of CMA.

• The road network master plan which considers a comprehensive development with public transport should be established.

Problems in Road Network• Low Accessibility of the Existing Expressway Network• The existing Southern Expressway (SEW) and on-going Outer

Circular Highway (OCH) will form a circumferential expressway network which will run in the fringe area of the metropolitan area.

• At present it is a considerable distance from the existing Kottawa interchange to the City centre of Colombo and it takes around one hour, depending on traffic condition.

• Car drivers and passengers cannot fully enjoy express service on the expressway due to the long distance from the nearest interchange.

• Accessibility between expressway's interchanges, the suburbs and centre of Colombo should be enhanced.

• Traffic flows on the existing ordinary road network should also be distributed to secure proper travel time and speed

Problems in Road Network

• Need to Enhance Access to Colombo Port for Cargo Transport

• In terms of cargo transport, there is no expressway access to the Port of Colombo at this moment.

• Although the Port Access Road functions as a main access road to the Port as an exclusive road for the port-related vehicles, the Port Access Road does not connect with the expressway network of the Colombo Katunayake Expressway (CKE) and the Southern Expressway. Congestion is, therefore, observed in the area around the entry points of the Port Access Road

• The situation might be similar or even aggravated after the completion of on-going expressway projects, the Outer Circular Highway (OCH) and the Northern Expressway, as there is no direct access from the Port to the expressway network.

• This can significantly contribute to worsen the congestion along with the projected surge in the number of private vehicles in urban areas.

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203

204

Highest level of Passengers in Kandy corridor

205

Vehicle population in Western province

Source : Colombo Urban Transport study -JICA

206

Urban Air Pollution -

Source : Colombo Urban Transport study -JICA

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End of the Presentation

THANK YOU

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