(7.1) C HAPTER 9, T HOSE WHO KNOW, THE ‘ ULAMĀ ’. The development of the scholarly tradition, the training and roles of the ‘ulamā’, the “clergy” of Islam.

(7.1) CHAPTER 9, THOSE WHO KNOW, THE ‘ULAMĀ’.

The development of the scholarly tradition,

the training and roles of the ‘ulamā’, the “clergy” of Islam.

‘ilm = knowledge, learning, science‘ulūm (plural) = sciences, scholarly disciplines‘ālim = one who knows, scholar, a learned

person‘ulamā’ (plural) = those who know, scholars,

the learned, clergy(±)

Other terms: mullah, mawlana, moulvi

The virtues of ‘ilm and the ‘ālim 

“God will raise up those of you who have faith and those who have been given ‘ilm to high ranks. (Qur’an 58:11)

“Heaven and earth pray for forgiveness for the ‘ālim.”

(Hadīth, quoted by al-Ghazali in Iḥyā’ ‘Ulūm al-Dīn)

“The superiority of the ‘ālim over the mere worshippers is like the superiority of the full moon over the stars.”

(Hadīth, quoted by al-Ghazali in Iḥyā ‘Ulūm al-Dīn)

“Seek ‘ilm, even as far as China.” (oft-quoted ḥadīth)

Two kinds of ‘ilm and ‘ulūm

The transmitted sciences (al-‘ulūm al-naqliyya) Based on divine revelation Transmitted from scholar to scholar as much as

possible without change Necessary for safe passage to the future life Qur’an, Ḥadīth, fiqh

The rational sciences (al-‘ulūm al-‘aqliyya) Accessible to human reason and experience Useful for this life Philosophy, medicine, etc.

‘Ulamā’

Primary competence and role: Interpreting the Sharī‘a and fiqh (Islamic law)Other roles: Teaching Ritual (leading ṣalāh, reciting Qur’an) Preaching Serving in government Supervising trusts Guardians Notaries Scribes

Functions of ‘ulamā’ in the mosque. Imam Khaṭīb Wā‘iẓ Qāri’ (Qur’an reciter; also outside the

mosque) Mu’adhdhan (Muezzin)

Kuttāb (maktab)

Memorization of Qur’an, reading, writing (sometimes other subjects)

Approach to learning: first memorize (implant in heart), then understand

Relatively unstructured

Shaykh (teacher); usually an ‘arīf (monitor or assistant)

Supported mainly by the parents Low status

Kuttāb Sabīl of ‘Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda , Cairo, eighteenth century. The upper story was a kuttāb and the lower part a public drinking fountain.

Development of Higher Level Teaching

Teaching circles: for Qur’an and Ḥadīth Often in mosques Scholars travel to hear ḥadīth ‘llm at this early stage means Qur’an and

Ḥadīth Later, circles for fiqh and other subjects Fiqh at this stage means understanding and

making deductions from ‘ilm

Khans connected with mosques Hostels for students

Development of Higher Level Teaching ctd, 

Madrasas (10th /11th centuries) Fiqh (now a “science”) was primary subject,

along with uṣūl al-fiqh Initially taught one madhhab, later some taught all

four Sunni madhhabs. Other subjects included tafṣīr, ḥadīth, grammar,

literature, theology, possibly aspects of philosophy (e.g. logic, astronomy), medicine

Often funded by waqf Close personal relationship between teachers and

students But students may travel from place to place to

study under different teachers Nizamiyya madrasa, Baghdad, 1067

Development of Higher Level Teaching ctd,

Ṭālib (student) abbreviated from ṭālib al-‘ilm (who one seeks knowledge).

Development of Higher Level Teaching ctd,

Typical ways of teaching Professor reads text and makes comments Students copy and/or memorize text, recite it

back to the professor (later copies are available),

Students take notes on professor’s comments

Students may discuss or debate the text Process repeated with another text Student receives ijāza (permission) to teach

the texts mastered

Development of Higher Level Teaching ctd,

Important assumptions: Memorize first (especially basic texts), then

understand. Oral-aural transmission is privileged over written

texts.E.g. “Strive eagerly to obtain ḥadīths and get them

from the men themselves, lest they be affected by the disease of corruption of the text.” (Ḥadīth in Messick, 23)

Knowledge grows via commentaries on basic texts (and then supercommentaries, i.e. commentaries on commentaries).

The next frame has a page of the commentary of al-Zamakhshari on the Qur’an. The line at the top has the text of the Qur’an. Below the first line is the commentary of al-Zamakhshari and below the second line is the supercommentary of Ahmad al-Iskandari. This is a modern edition; in older editions the commentaries would probably be around the sides.

Other teaching institutions Private teaching (including philosophy) Mosques Some Sufi khanqahs and tekkes. Dār al-‘ilm (to about 12th century, for

philosophy)

Pesantrens (in Java, Malay-speaking areas)

Kiai is teacher and spiritual guide Students (santris) board Usually founded by a kiai Financially supported by students and local

community Usually in rural areas Continuation of pre-Islamic tradition of

schools

Pesantren Pabelan, Java: ṣalāh at the mosque.

In modern times: Kuttābs: replaced by secular schools in many

places

Madrasas: Have largely survived, with modernizing changes Have often come under more government control Have usually lost students because of

competition from Western style schools and universities (including sometimes government run theological schools), but, e.g.: Deobandis (beginning 1867) and Barelvis established

madrasas in S. Asia. In Pakistan the number has grown greatly since

independence. Indonesia: pesantrens have remained strong

Often now admit women

‘Ulamā’ and government

Umayyad period ‘ulamā’ begin to emerge as a distinct group Some stay aloof from, criticize government, e.g.,

Hasan al-Basri Some cooperate with government, e.g., Sufyan al-

Thawri

Early Abbasid period Abbasids patronize ‘ulamā’ Al-Ma‘mun and successors fail to impose doctrine

of created Qur’an Becomes recognized in principle that ‘ulamā’

control interpretation of doctrine and law.

‘Ulamā’ and government ctd

Later situations (generally) ‘Ulamā’ claim right/duty to advise rulers ‘Ulamā’ can influence the people for or

against rulers Needed to legitimate rulers Can bring the people’s concerns to the rulers Rulers have the use of force, Thus needed to

enforce the laws Siyāsa gives rulers practical scope for

legislation Rulers can give material support to ‘ulamā’

and control certain appointments, e.g. qaḍīs

Some sayings:

“A religious man who goes to see a ruler loses his religion”. (Zilfi, 1988, 28)

“Of three qadis two are in hell” (Messick, 143)

“The best of rulers is he who keeps company with ‘ulama’, and the worst of the ‘ulama’ is he who seeks the society of the king.” (Sufyan al-Thawri in Zilfi, 227)

“Kings are rulers over the people and the ‘ulama’ are rulers over the kings.” (‘Ali et al.)

“Thirty years of tyranny are better than one day of anarchy.” (well known ḥadīth)

Two thoughts:

“If a shoe thief is caught he should be made imam so that he will have a profession and not have to steal and so that everyone can keep an eye on him.” (Iranian anecdote, Fischer & Abedi 301)

“Know that learning leaves a trail and a scent proclaiming its possessor . . . the learned man is esteemed in whatever place or condition he may be, always meeting people who are favourably disposed to him, who draw near to him and seek his company, gratified in being close to him.” (Scholar from Salah al-Din’s time, Makdisi, 1981, 91)