3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 1 of 43 Session I.2.6 Part I Review of Fundamentals Module 2Basic Physics and Mathematics Used in Radiation Protection Modes.

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 1 of 43

Session I.2.6

Part I Review of Fundamentals

Module 2 Basic Physics and MathematicsUsed in Radiation Protection

Session 6 Modes of Radioactive Decay and Types of Radiation

IAEA Post Graduate Educational CourseRadiation Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources

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Introduction

Modes of radioactive decay and types of radiation emitted will be discussed

Students will learn about alpha, beta, and gamma decay; positron emission; differences between gamma rays and X-rays; orbital electron capture; and internal conversion

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Content

Alpha, beta, and gamma decay

Decay spectra

Differences between gamma rays and X-rays

Positron emission

Orbital electron capture

Internal conversion

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Overview

Modes of radioactive de and types of radiation emitted will be discussed

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Radioactive Decay

Spontaneous changes in the nucleus of an unstable atom

Results in formation of new elements

Accompanied by a release of energy, either particulate or electromagnetic or both

Nuclear instability is related to whether the neutron to proton ratio is too high or too low

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Alpha Emission

Emission of a highly energetic helium nucleus from the nucleus of a radioactive atom

Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too low

Results in a decay product whose atomic number is 2 less than the parent and whose atomic mass is 4 less than the parent

Alpha particles are monoenergetic

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Alpha particle

charge +2

Alpha Particle Decay

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Alpha Particle Decay

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Alpha Decay Example

226Ra decays by alpha emission

When 226Ra decays, the atomic mass decreases by 4 and the atomic number decreases by 2

The atomic number defines the element, so the element changes from radium to radon

226Ra 222Rn + 4He28688

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Beta Emission

Emission of an electron from the nucleus of a radioactive atom ( n p+ + e-1 )

Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too high (i.e., a surplus of neutrons)

Beta particles are emitted with a whole spectrum of energies (unlike alpha particles)

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Beta particlecharge -1

Beta Particle Decay

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Beta Particle Decay

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Beta Decay of 99Mo

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Beta Spectrum

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Rule of Thumb

Average energy of a beta spectrum is about one-third of its maximum energy or:

Eav = Emax13

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Positron (Beta+) Emission

Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too low ( p+ n + e+ )

Emits a positron (beta particle whose charge is positive)

Results in emission of 2 gamma rays (more on this later)

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Positron (Beta+) Emission

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Positron Decay

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Positron Decay

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Positron Decay

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Positron Annihilation

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Orbital Electron Capture

Also called K Capture

Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too low

Form of decay which competes with positron emission

One of the orbital electrons is captured by the nucleus: e-1 + p+1 n

Results in emission of characteristic X-rays

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Orbital Electron Capture

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Orbital Electron Capture

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radiationpath

-1

ejectedelectron+1

ionizedatom

Ionization

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characteristicX-rays

X-Ray Production

electronejected

electron fillsvacancy

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Electromagnetic Spectrum

X- and -raysInfra-red

Ultra-violet Visible

Increase in wavelength : decrease in frequency and energy

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Gamma Ray Emission

Monoenergetic radiations emitted from nucleus of an excited atom following radioactive decay

Rid nucleus of excess energy

Have characteristic energies which can be used to identify the radionuclide

Excited forms of radionuclides often referred to as “metastable”, e.g., 99mTc. Also called “isomers”

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Gamma Radiation

Gamma Ray Emission

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Gamma Ray Emission

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Photon Emission

DifferenceBetween

X-Rays andGamma Rays

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Internal Conversion

Alternative process by which the excited nucleus of a gamma emitting isotope rids itself of excitation energy

The nucleus emits a gamma ray which interacts with an orbital electron, ejecting the electron from the atom

Characteristic X-rays are emitted as outer orbital electrons fill the vacancies left by the conversion electrons

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Internal Conversion

These characteristic X-rays can themselves be absorbed by orbital electrons, ejecting them.

These ejected electrons are called Auger electrons and have very little kinetic energy

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Internal Conversion

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Internal Conversion

Electron emitted

about 10%

Internal Conversion

137Cs Emits Betas

0.946 x 0.898 = 0.85

Gamma Ray emitted during 85%

of 137Cs transitions

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Summary of Radioactive Decay Mechanisms

DecayMode

Characteristicsof Parent

Radionuclide

Change in Atomic Number

(Z)

Change inAtomic Mass Comments

Alpha Neutron Poor -2 -4 Alphas Monoenergetic

Beta Neutron Rich +1 0 Beta Energy Spectrum

Positron Neutron Poor -1 0 Positron Energy Spectrum

ElectronCapture

Neutron Poor -1 0K-Capture; Characteristic

X-rays Emitted

GammaExcited

Energy StateNone None Gammas Monoenergetic

Internal Conversion

Excited Energy State

None NoneEjects Orbital Electrons; characteristic X-rays and Auger electrons emitted

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Summary

Modes of radioactive decay were discussed (including alpha, beta, gamma, positron emission, orbital electron capture, and internal conversion)

X-ray production and the differences between gamma rays and X-rays were described

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Where to Get More Information

Cember, H., Johnson, T. E., Introduction to Health Physics, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York (2008)

Martin, A., Harbison, S. A., Beach, K., Cole, P., An Introduction to Radiation Protection, 6th Edition, Hodder Arnold, London (2012)

Jelley, N. A., Fundamentals of Nuclear Physics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1990)

Firestone, R.B., Baglin, C.M., Frank-Chu, S.Y., Eds., Table of Isotopes (8th Edition, 1999 update), Wiley, New York (1999)