Transcript
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Welcome to Chapter 15
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MAJOR EPISODES IN THE HISTORY OF LIFE
• Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago.
• Prokaryotes
– Evolved by 3.5 billion years ago
– Continue in great abundance today
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• Single-celled eukaryotes first evolved about 2.1 billion years ago.
• Multicellular eukaryotes first evolved at least 1.2 billion years ago.
Paleozoic Mesozoic Cenozoic
Bacteria
Archaea
Plants
Fungi
Animals
Pro
ka
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sE
uk
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s
Pro
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Oldest eukaryoticfossils
Origin ofmulticellularorganisms
Oldestanimalfossils
Plants andsymbiotic fungicolonize land
Extinction ofdinosaurs
First humans
Millions of years ago
Cambrianexplosion
2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0
Figure 15.1b
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• All the major phyla of animals evolved by the end of the Cambrian explosion, which began about 540 million years ago and lasted about 10 million years.
• Plants and fungi
– First colonized land about 500 million years
– Were followed by amphibians that evolved from fish
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• We can use a clock analogy to look at the major events in the history of life on Earth
Humans
Origin of solarsystem and Earth
1 4
0
2 3
Present
Animals
Colonizof land
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Mu
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Sing
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Figure 15.2
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THE ORIGIN OF LIFE• We may never know for sure how life on Earth began.
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Resolving the Biogenesis Paradox• All life today arises by the reproduction of preexisting life, or
biogenesis.
• If this is true, how could the first organisms arise?
• From the time of the ancient Greeks until well into the 19th century, it was commonly believed that life regularly arises from nonliving matter, an idea called spontaneous generation.
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• Today, most biologists think it is possible that life on early Earth produced simple cells by chemical and physical processes.
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Stage 2: Abiotic Synthesis of Polymers
• Researchers have brought about the polymerization of monomers to form polymers, such as proteins and nucleic acids, by dripping solutions of organic monomers onto
– Hot sand
– Clay
– Rock
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From Chemical Evolution to Darwinian Evolution• Over millions of years
– Natural selection favored the most efficient cells
– The first prokaryotic cells evolved
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PROKARYOTES• Prokaryotes lived and evolved all alone on Earth for 2 billion
years before eukaryotes evolved.
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They’re Everywhere!• Prokaryotes
– Are found wherever there is life
– Far outnumber eukaryotes
– Can cause disease
– Can be beneficial
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• Prokaryotes live deep within the Earth and in habitats too cold, too hot, too salty, too acidic, or too alkaline for any eukaryote to survive.
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• Compared to eukaryotes, prokaryotes are
– Much more abundant
– Typically much smaller
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• Prokaryotes
– Are ecologically significant, recycling carbon and other vital chemical elements back and forth between organic matter, the soil, and atmosphere
– Cause about half of all human diseases
– Are more typically benign or beneficial
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The Structure and Function of Prokaryotes• Prokaryotic cells
– Lack true nuclei
– Lack other membrane-enclosed organelles
– Have cell walls exterior to their plasma membranes
Plasma membrane(encloses cytoplasm)
Cell wall (providesRigidity)
Capsule (stickycoating)
Prokaryoticflagellum(for propulsion)
Ribosomes(synthesizeproteins)
Nucleoid(contains DNA)
Pili (attachment structures)
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Figure 4.4
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• Prokaryotes come in several shapes:
– Spherical (cocci)
– Rod-shaped (bacilli)
– Spiral
Procaryotic Forms
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Figure 15.8a
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Figure 15.8b
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Figure 15.8c
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• Most prokaryotes are
– Unicellular
– Very small
• Some prokaryotes
– Form true colonies
– Show specialization of cells
– Are very large
Video: Cyanobacteria (Oscillatoria)
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• About half of all prokaryotes are mobile, using flagella.
• Many have one or more flagella that propel the cells away from unfavorable places or toward more favorable places, such as nutrient-rich locales.
Video: Prokaryotic Flagella (Salmonella typhimurium) (random)
Plasmamembrane
Cell wall
Rotary movement ofeach flagellum
Flagellum
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Figure 15.10
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• Most prokaryotes can reproduce by binary fission and at very high rates if conditions are favorable.
• Some prokaryotes
– Form endospores, thick-coated, protective cells that are produced within the cells when they are exposed to unfavorable conditions
– Can survive very harsh conditions for extended periods, even centuries
Procaryotic Reproduction
Endospore
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Figure 15.11
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Procaryotic Nutrition
• Prokaryotes exhibit four major modes of nutrition.
– Phototrophs obtain energy from light.
– Chemotrophs obtain energy from environmental chemicals.
– Species that obtain carbon from carbon dioxide (CO2) are autotrophs.
– Species that obtain carbon from at least one organic nutrient—the sugar glucose, for instance—are called heterotrophs.
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• We can group all organisms according to the four major modes of nutrition if we combine the
– Energy source (phototroph versus chemotroph) and
– Carbon source (autotroph versus heterotroph)
MODES OF NUTRITION
Light Chemical
ChemoautotrophsPhotoautotrophs
Photoheterotrophs Chemoheterotrophs
Energy source
Elodea, an aquatic plant
Rhodopseudomonas Little Owl (Athene noctua)
Bacteria from a hot spring
Org
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Figure 15.12
The Two Main Branches of Prokaryotic Evolution: Bacteria and Archaea
• By comparing diverse prokaryotes at the molecular level, biologists have identified two major branches of prokaryotic evolution:
– Bacteria
– Archaea (more closely related to eukaryotes)
– clip
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• Some archaea are “extremophiles.”
– Halophiles thrive in salty environments.
– Thermophiles inhabit very hot water.
(a) Salt-loving archaea (b) Heat-loving archaea
Figure 15.13
(a) Salt-loving archaeaFigure 15.13a
(b) Heat-loving archaeaFigure 15.13b
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Bacteria and Humans• Bacteria interact with humans in many ways.
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Bacteria That Cause Disease
• Bacteria and other organisms that cause disease are called pathogens.
• Most pathogenic bacteria produce poisons.
– Exotoxins are poisonous proteins secreted by bacterial cells.
– Endotoxins are not cell secretions but instead chemical components of the outer membrane of certain bacteria.
Haemophilusinfluenzae
Cells of nasallining
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Figure 15.14
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• The best defenses against bacterial disease are
– Sanitation
– Antibiotics
– Education
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• Lyme disease is
– Caused by bacteria carried by ticks
– Treated with antibiotics
“Bull’s-eye” rash
Tick that carries theLyme disease bacterium
Spirochete that causesLyme disease
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Figure 15.15
Tick that carries the Lyme disease bacteriumFigure 15.15b
Figure 15.15c
Spirochete that causes Lyme diseaseFigure 15.15d
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Bioterrorism
• Humans have a long and ugly history of using organisms as weapons.
– During the Middle Ages, armies hurled the bodies of plague victims into enemy ranks.
– Early conquerors, settlers, and warring armies in South and North America gave native peoples items purposely contaminated with infectious bacteria.
– In 1984, members of a cult in Oregon contaminated restaurant salad bars with Salmonella bacteria.
– In the fall of 2001, five Americans died from the disease anthrax in a presumed terrorist attack.
Figure 15.16
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The Ecological Impact of Prokaryotes• Pathogenic bacteria are in the minority among prokaryotes.
• Far more common are species that are essential to our well-being, either directly or indirectly.
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Prokaryotes and Chemical Recycling
• Prokaryotes play essential roles in
– Chemical cycles in the environment
– The breakdown of organic wastes and dead organisms
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Prokaryotes and Bioremediation
• Bioremediation is the use of organisms to remove pollutants from
– Water
– Air
– Soil
• A familiar example is the use of prokaryotic decomposers in sewage treatment.
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• Certain bacteria
– Can decompose petroleum
– Are useful in cleaning up oil spills
Figure 15.18
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PROTISTS• Protists
– Are eukaryotic
– Evolved from prokaryotic ancestors
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The Diversity of Protists• Protists can be
– Unicellular
– Multicellular
• More than any other group, protists vary in
– Structure
– Function
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• Protists are not one distinct group but instead represent all the eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi.
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• The classification of protists remains a work in progress.
• The four major categories of protists, grouped by lifestyle, are
– Protozoans
– Slime molds
– Unicellular algae
– Seaweeds
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Protozoans
• Protists that live primarily by ingesting food are called protozoans.
• Protozoans with flagella are called flagellates and are typically free-living, but sometimes are parasites.
Video: Euglena Motion
A flagellate: Giardia
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Figure 15.21a
Another flagellate: trypanosomes
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Figure 15.21b
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• Amoebas are characterized by
– Great flexibility in their body shape
– The absence of permanent organelles for locomotion
• Most species move and feed by means of pseudopodia (singular, pseudopodium), temporary extensions of the cell.
Video: Amoeba Pseudopodia
Video: Amoeba
An amoeba
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Figure 15.21c
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• Apicomplexans are
– Named for a structure at their apex (tip) that is specialized for penetrating host cells and tissues
– All parasitic, such as Plasmodium, which causes malaria
An apicomplexan
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Figure 15.21e
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• Ciliates
– Are mostly free-living (nonparasitic), such as the freshwater ciliate Paramecium
– Use structures called cilia to move and feed
Video: Paramecium Vacuole
Video: Paramecium Cilia
Video: Vorticella Habitat
Video: Vorticella Detail
Video: Vorticella Cilia
A ciliate
LM
Figure 15.21f
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Slime Molds
• The two main groups of these protists are
– Plasmodial slime molds
– Cellular slime molds
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• Plasmodial slime molds
– Can be large
– Are decomposers on forest floors
Video: Plasmodial Slime Mold
Video: Plasmodial Slime Mold Streaming
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• Cellular slime molds have an interesting and complex life cycle that changes between a
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Unicellular and Colonial Algae
• Algae are
– Photosynthetic protists
– Found in plankton, the communities of mostly microscopic organisms that drift or swim weakly in aquatic environments
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• Unicellular algae include
– Diatoms, which have glassy cell walls containing silica
– Dinoflagellates, with two beating flagella and external plates made of cellulose
(a) A dinoflagellate, with its wall of protective plates
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Figure 15.24a
(b) A sample of diverse diatoms, which have glossy walls
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Figure 15.24b
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• Green algae are
– Unicellular
– Sometimes flagellated, such as Chlamydomonas
– Colonial, sometimes forming a hollow ball of flagellated cells, as seen in Volvox
Video: Volvox Flagella
Video: Volvox Daughter
Video: Volvox Colony
Video: Chlamydomonas
(d) Volvox, a colonial green alga
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Figure 15.24d
(a) A dinoflagellate, with its wallof protective plates
(c) Chlamydomonas, a unicellulargreen alga with a pair of flagella
(b) A sample of diverse diatoms,which have glossy walls
(d) Volvox, a colonial green alga
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Figure 15.24
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Seaweeds
• Seaweeds
– Are large, multicellular marine algae
– Grow on or near rocky shores
– Are often edible
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• Seaweeds are classified into three different groups, based partly on the types of pigments present in their chloroplasts:
– Green algae
– Red algae
– Brown algae (including kelp)
Green algae Red algae Brown algae
Figure 15.25
Green algaeFigure 15.25a
Red algaeFigure 15.25b
Brown algaeFigure 15.25c
Figure 15.UN01
Bacteria
Archaea
Prokaryotes
Eukarya
Protists
Plants
Fungi
Animals
Bacteria
Archaea
Prokaryotes
Eukarya
Protists
Plants
Fungi
Animals
Figure 15.UN02
Major episode Millions of years ago
All major animal phyla established
Plants and fungi colonize land
Origin of Earth
First multicellular organismsOldest eukaryotic fossils
Accumulation of O2 in atmosphereOldest prokaryotic fossils
5005301,2001,800
2,4003,5004,600
Figure 15.UN03
Inorganic compounds
Abiotic synthesisof organic monomers
Abiotic synthesisof polymers
Formationof pre-cells
Self-replicatingmolecules
Membrane-enclosed compartment
Complementarychain
Polymer
Organic monomers
Figure 15.UN04
Spherical Rod-shaped Spiral
Figure 15.UN05
Nutritional Mode Energy Source Carbon Source
Photoautotroph
Chemoautotroph
Photoheterotroph
Chemoheterotroph
Sunlight
Inorganic chemicals
Sunlight
Organic compounds
CO2
Organic compounds
Figure 15.UN06
Bacteria
Archaea
Prokaryotes
Eukarya
Protists
Plants
Fungi
Animals
Figure 15.UN07
Bacteria
Archaea
Prokaryotes
Eukarya
Protists
Plants
Fungi
Animals
Figure 15.UN08
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