1 Lecture Outline nExtra Credit experiment nStereotypes defined nDiagnostic ratio revisited nOrigins of stereotypes nModels of stereotype change/maintenance.
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Lecture Outline
Extra Credit experiment
Stereotypes defined
Diagnostic ratio revisited
Origins of stereotypes
Models of stereotype change/maintenance
Prejudice defined
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Ashmore & Del Boca (1981)
A stereotypes is…...
“A set of beliefs about the personal attributes of a
group of people”
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Ashmore & Del Boca (1981)
Limitation:
Many attributes are perceived as typical of a group and yet are not part of people’s stereotypes
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Stereotypes include attributes that are perceived as:
TYPICAL
and
DISTINGUISH
BETWEEN GROUPS
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Diagnostic Ratio
DR = % of group (with attribute)
% of reference (with attribute)
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Diagnostic Ratio
When DR = 1 (or close to 1), attribute does not distinguish between groups
attribute not part of stereotype
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Diagnostic Ratio
When DR substantially > than 1
attribute distinguishes between groups
attribute is stereotypic of group
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Diagnostic Ratio
When DR substantially < than 1
attribute distinguishes between groups
attribute is counterstereotypic of group
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McCauley & Stitt (1978)
Purpose:
1. Show utility of DR
2. Measure (in)accuracy of stereotype about African Americans
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McCauley & Stitt (1978)Sampled five groups
Created DR’s based on perceptions of African Americans and Americans
Created criterion DR’s based on census information
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Results: McCauley & Stitt (1978)
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Attribute Criteria HS College Union Choir SW
HS .65 (.68) (.73) (.67) (.68) (.60)
Illegitimate 3.10 (1.80) (1.70) (2.10) (1.90) (2.30)
Unemployed 1.90 (1.90) (1.60) (1.80) (2.60) (2.30)
Victims 1.50 .83 (1.80) (2.00) 1.50 2.30
Welfare 4.60 (2.30) (1.90) (1.60) (1.80) 1.40
Kids 1.90 (1.60) (1.40) 1.60 (1.30) (1.30)
Female head 2.80 (1.70) (1.90) (1.70) (1.50) (1.70)
(Green) DR’s: different from 1 (p < .05); n = 30
Black DR’s not different from 1 (p > .05); n = 5
Underlined DR’s = different from criteria (p < .05); n = 16
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Results: McCauley & Stitt (1978)
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Attribute Criteria HS College Union Choir SW
HS .65 (.68) (.73) (.67) (.68) (.60)
Illegitimate 3.10 (1.80) (1.70) (2.10) (1.90) (2.30)
Unemployed 1.90 (1.90) (1.60) (1.80) (2.60) (2.30)
Victims 1.50 .83 (1.80) (2.00) 1.50 2.30
Welfare 4.60 (2.30) (1.90) (1.60) (1.80) 1.40
Kids 1.90 (1.60) (1.40) 1.60 (1.30) (1.30)
Female head 2.80 (1.70) (1.90) (1.70) (1.50) (1.70)
Most DR’s different from one (green): People held stereotype of African Americans
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Results: McCauley & Stitt (1978)
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Attribute Criteria HS College Union Choir SW
HS .65 (.68) (.73) (.67) (.68) (.60)
Illegitimate 3.10 (1.80) (1.70) (2.10) (1.90) (2.30)
Unemployed 1.90 (1.90) (1.60) (1.80) (2.60) (2.30)
Victims 1.50 .83 (1.80) (2.00) 1.50 2.30
Welfare 4.60 (2.30) (1.90) (1.60) (1.80) 1.40
Kids 1.90 (1.60) (1.40) 1.60 (1.30) (1.30)
Female head 2.80 (1.70) (1.90) (1.70) (1.50) (1.70)
Some DR’s different from criteria [underlined]. Other DR’s not different from criteria [not underlined]: People’s stereotypes were both inaccurate [underlined] and accurate [not underlined]
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Results: McCauley & Stitt (1978)
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Attribute Criteria HS College Union Choir SW
HS .65 (.68) (.73) (.67) (.68) (.60)
Illegitimate 3.10 (1.80) (1.70) (2.10) (1.90) (2.30)
Unemployed 1.90 (1.90) (1.60) (1.80) (2.60) (2.30)
Victims 1.50 .83 (1.80) (2.00) 1.50 2.30
Welfare 4.60 (2.30) (1.90) (1.60) (1.80) 1.40
Kids 1.90 (1.60) (1.40) 1.60 (1.30) (1.30)
Female head 2.80 (1.70) (1.90) (1.70) (1.50) (1.70)
When DR’s indicated inaccurate stereotype [underlined], difference was smaller than criteria: People’s stereotypes underestimated real differences. They did not exaggerate real differences
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McCauley & Stitt (1978): Summary
People endorsed a stereotype of AAmost DR’s different than 1
AA stereotype was accurate & inaccuratesome DR’s different from criteria (inaccurate)
other DR’s not different from criteria (accurate)
AA stereotype underestimated real differencewhen DR different from criteria, it was smaller
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Origin of Stereotypes:Where do they come from?
Socio-cultural perspective
Kernel of Truth hypothesis
Illusory correlations
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Socio-Cultural Perspective
Premise: Individuals are socialized into a particular culture
(e.g., media or significant others)
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Socio-Cultural Perspective
1. People are born into a culture
2. People are rewarded/punished for their beliefs, values, behaviors
3. People act in accord with norms
4. People internalize norms
5. Internalization perpetuates the norms
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Socio-Cultural Perspective
Two versions of socio-cultural view
Structuralist-Functionalist
Conflict theory
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Structuralist-Functionalist Version
A single culture accepted throughout a society
i.e., individuals in a society are similar in their beliefs, values and behaviors
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Structuralist-Functionalist Version
Function of stereotypes:
stereotypes communicate expected behavior
stereotypes communicate how different people should be treated
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Structuralist-Functionalist Version
More evident in more homogeneous
and collectivist societies
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Conflict Theory Version
Multiple subcultures within society
People accept norms of their subculture
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Conflict Theory VersionPeople within a subculture are similar in their
beliefs, values, behaviors
People in different subcultures are different in their beliefs, values, behaviors
The more different two subcultures, the greater the conflict in their beliefs, values, behaviors
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Conflict Theory Version
Function of stereotypes:
stereotypes justify prejudice
incompetence justifies lower pay
laziness justifies poverty
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Conflict Theory Version
More evident in more
heterogeneous societies
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Kernel of Truth Hypothesis
Premise: Stereotypes are exaggerations that exist in some measure in a group
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Kernel of Truth Hypothesis
1. The larger a real difference between groups, the more likely the attribute will be in the stereotype
Example: Circumscribing and non-circumscribing tribes
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Kernel of Truth Hypothesis
2. Stereotypes become more accurate as contact between groups increases
Example: women/men v.s. African Americans/Whites
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Kernel of Truth Hypothesis
3. Behaviors punished in one group, but not in another, tend to be in a stereotype
Example: nudity and bathroom practices
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Kernel of Truth Hypothesis
4. Similar behaviors that groups perform in different situations tend to be in stereotypes, but connote different valences.
Example……...
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Kernel of Truth Hypothesis
We are loyal.
We are brave and progressive.
We are thrifty.
They are clannish.
They are aggressive and expansionistic.
They are cheap.
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Kernel of Truth
Cautionary Statements
Perceived differences are not veridical
Perceived differences are exaggerated
Perceived differences reflect social
factors, not genetic differences
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Illusory Correlations
Definition: People overestimate how strongly two things are related
(e.g., arthritis pain and changes in the weather)
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Illusory correlations & stereotype formation
People associate a group with an attribute (African Americans & crime)
Cognitive biases “corroborate” the perceived association
confirmation biases in hypothesis testing
remember consistent information better
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Illusory Correlation
People most susceptible to illusory correlations when:
group is relatively smallattribute is rare in population
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Illusory Correlation
ExampleAfrican Americans are a minority in the
US. Whites are the majority
Being a media superstar is rare
Illusory correlation likely……More AA (small group) superstars (rare event)
than White (large group) superstars (rare event)
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Illusory CorrelationNegative behavior more rare than positive
behavior
Implication: Negative behavior by minority more memorable
and salient than same behavior by majority
Negative behavior becomes part of stereotype of minority
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Stereotype Change
Consensual stereotypes change over time, across individuals.
Very little known about stereotype change over time, within individuals (see Weber & Crocker, 1983, for an exception)
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Models of Stereotype Change
Bookkeeping Model
Conversion Model
Subtyping Model
Focus on stereotype-inconsistent information
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Bookkeeping Model
Stereotype change is incremental
Each instance of inconsistent information
modifies the stereotype
Single instance = small change
Accumulation = large change
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Bookkeeping Model
Implication:
Stereotype change will be similar
regardless of whether inconsistent
information is concentrated or dispersed.
Amount (not dispersion) matters.
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Conversion Model
Stereotype change is dramatic
Stereotypes change in response to
large and salient inconsistent info.
Stereotypes remain unchanged by
minor inconsistent information
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Conversion Model
Implication:
Stereotype change will be greater
when inconsistent information is
concentrated v.s. dispersed
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Subtyping Model
Stereotypes hierarchically structured
Rare, inconsistent instances lead to creation of
subtypes.
Instances regarded as “exceptions”
Stereotype protected from change
Common, inconsistent instances result in stereotype
change
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Subtyping Model
Implication:
Stereotype change will be greater
when inconsistent information is
dispersed v.s. concentrated
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Weber & Crocker (1983)
Purpose:
Tested the three models of stereotype change
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Weber & Crocker (1983)
Procedure:
Given information about corporate lawyers
Rated each lawyer on stereotypic traits
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Weber & Crocker (1983)Manipulations:
Dispersion of Inconsistent info: Dispersed across all members Concentrated in 1/3 of members
Group size: 6 members v.s. 30 membersAmount of inconsistent info higher in larger group
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Weber & Crocker (1983)Predictions
Dispersion has no effect on stereotype change, but amount does (bookkeeping)
Stereotype change greater when inconsistent info concentrated (conversion)
Stereotype change greater when when inconsistent info dispersed (subtyping)
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Weber & Crocker (1983)
Operationalization of Stereotype Change
More change = lower stereotypic judgments
Less change = higher stereotypic judgments
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Which stereotype change model does this result support?
3
4
5
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Dispersed Concentrated
Dispersed
Ste
reot
ypic
Jud
gmen
ts(lo
wer
= m
ore
chan
ge)
Subtyping Model
Weber & Crocker (1983)
Effect of Dispersion
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Weber & Crocker (1983)
Effect of Group Size
Which stereotype change model does this result support?
3
4
5
6
Small group Large group
judge
Ste
reot
ypic
Jud
gmen
ts(lo
wer
= m
ore
chan
ge)
Bookkeeping Model
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Weber & Crocker (1983)
Supported subtyping model:stereotype change > dispersed
Supported bookkeeping model:stereotype change > large group
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Stereotype Maintenance
Subtyping ModelSubtypes help to maintain stereotype
Cognitive BiasesBetter memory for stereotype-consistent information
Confirmation biases in hypothesis testing
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Cognitive Biases
Cognitive biases maintain stereotype by increasing confidence in the stereotype’s accuracy
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Cohen (1981)96 participants watched video of a
librarian or waitress and her husband
Some attributes fit stereotype of librarian or waitresses (see next slide for examples), others did not
Recalled as many of the woman’s attributes as they could
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Example of woman’s attributes
Half fit stereotype of librarianswore glassesate roast beef
Half fit stereotype of waitressesaffectionate with husbandate hamburger
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Cohen (1981)
60.00%
65.00%
70.00%
75.00%
80.00%
85.00%
90.00%
ConsistentInformation
InconsistentInformation
Immediaterecall
% r
ecal
led
corr
ectly
Conclusion: Better recall for stereotype-consistent information
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Confirmation Biases in Hypothesis Testing
Definition: Search for information that confirms one’s expectations (stereotype)
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Snyder and colleagues
Through series of studies showed that people engage in this bias
Example…...
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Snyder and colleagues
Told participants they would interview another individual
Told to figure out if other person was introverted or extroverted (initial hypothesis)
Given suggested questions to ask1/2 introverted; 1/2 extroverted……..
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Example questions
Introverted:“What factors make it hard for you to really open up to people?”
Extroverted:“What kind of situations do you seek out if you want to meet new people?”
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Snyder & Colleagues
Results
Participants preferentially chose to ask questions that would confirm their initial hypothesis
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Prejudice
Definition of Prejudice
A positive or negative attitude, judgment or feeling about a person that is generalized from attitudes or beliefs held about the group to which the person belongs.
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Prejudice
Negative forms of prejudice studied more because has greatest potential to create social problems
Cautionary statement: preferential treatment (positive prejudice) can also cause problems
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Zanna (1994)
Purpose:
Demonstrate that prejudice is made up of different components
Correlated prejudice scores with three proposed components of prejudice
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Zanna (1994)
Components of prejudice:
Stereotypic beliefs: typical attributes
Symbolic beliefs: values, traditions, customs
Emotions: affective reactions (e.g., disgust)
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Zanna (1994)Procedure
1) Participants indicated their stereotypic beliefs, symbolic beliefs, and emotions about these social groups:
English Canadian (ingroup)French CanadianNative IndianPakistaniHomosexual
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Zanna (1994)
Procedure continued
2) Participants rated how favorable each group was (i.e., prejudice)
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Zanna (1994)
Results
1) On average, prejudice correlated positively with each component (all p’s < .05)
2) But, correlations varied by target group…….
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Zanna (1994)
Correlation between prejudice and components of prejudice
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
EC FC NI P H
Stereotypic beliefs Symbolic beliefs Emotion
Zanna (1994)
Correlation between prejudice and components of prejudice by group
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Result 1: weakest correlation b/t prejudice and components for English Canadians overall
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
EC FC NI P H
Stereotypic beliefs Symbolic beliefs Emotion73
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Result 2: strongest correlation b/t prejudice and components for French Canadians overall
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
EC FC NI P H
Stereotypic beliefs Symbolic beliefs Emotion74
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Result 3: prejudice correlated with stereotypic beliefs most strongly for French Canadian and Homosexual
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
EC FC NI P H
Stereotypic beliefs Symbolic beliefs Emotion75
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Result 4: prejudice correlated with symbolic beliefs most strongly for French Canadian
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
EC FC NI P H
Stereotypic beliefs Symbolic beliefs Emotion76
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Result 5: prejudice correlated with emotion most strongly for Pakistani
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
EC FC NI P H
Stereotypic beliefs Symbolic beliefs Emotion77
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Zanna (1994)Conclusions:Prejudice consists of at least three
componentsstereotypic beliefssymbolic beliefsemotion
The components most central to prejudice varies across groups
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