Instructional Strategies - Autism State Conference

Instructional Strategies to Increase Academic

Achievement in Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Jennifer Alward, M.EdTrube Miller, M.Ed

Tawana Stallworth, M.Ed

DSM IV-TR Criteria for Autism

Qualitative impairment in social interaction

Qualitative impairments in communication

Restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities

A total of 6 or more from each of these 3 areas, with 2 from the social area and 1 each from communication and behavior:

American Psychiatric Association. (2000).

Dividing Line To be diagnosed with Autism, the child must have delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the previous areas, with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play. For Aspergers Disorder to be diagnosed, there must be an absence of a clinically significant general language delay, and Absence of a clinically significant delay in cognitive development.

American Psychiatric Association. (2000).

Defining Characteristics of AS

I have trouble being organized and setting my priorities. Sometimes smells, sounds, or lights will bother me. I don’t always know others’ personal space boundaries. I may have a large vocabulary, but not comprehend the words I use.

I sometimes have terrible handwriting. It is very tiring for me to think and write at the same time. I have trouble recognizing stress. By the time I recognize it, I may be already displaying inappropriate behaviors.

Rationale for providing learning supports

Students with AS frequently experience significant academic problems, which are often related to social and communication deficits, obsessive and narrowly defined interests, concrete and literal thinking styles, inflexibility, poor problem-solving skills, poor organizational skills, and difficulty in discerning relevant from irrelevant stimuli (Frith, 1991; Siegel, Minshew, & Goldstein, 1996). Moreover, they frequently experience difficulty with generalizing information.

What does “impaired social interaction” look like?

Marked impairment in the use of nonverbal behaviors:

Eye-to-eye gaze, Facial expressions, Body posture, Gestures to regulate

social interactions, (i.e. waving hi and

bye)

Failure to establish peer relationships appropriate to developmental level.Lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interest, or achievements with other people. Lack of social or emotional reciprocity.

What does “qualitative impairments in

communication” look like?Delay in, or total lack of, the development of spoken language. In individuals with speech, marked impairment in the ability to initiate or sustain a conversation with others.

Stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language. (Echolalia).Lack of varied, spontaneous make-believe play or social imitative play appropriate to developmental level.

What does “restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped

patterns of behaviors…” look like?

Encompassing preoccupation with one or more items of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or focus. Apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals.

Stereotypic and repetitive motor mannerisms (hand-flapping).Persistent preoccupation with parts of objects.

Defining Characteristics of Aspergers Syndrome (AS)

I find social situations confusing.I find it hard to make “small talk.”I say what is on my mind. I find it hard to figure out what others are thinking and feeling.I take things literally. I have difficulty making friends even though I want them.

I follow the rules and expect everyone else to do the same.I have very specific ways that do things. I sometimes have unusually narrow interests.I am good at picking up details and facts. I do not enjoy imaginative storytelling.

Academic Characteristics

When I am uncomfortable or uncertain of a subject I will do anything to avoid it. I may need some extra time to process instructions. Visual aids may help me understand even more.I can get over-stimulated or exhausted with lengthy activities. This can lead me to get anxious, angry, or frustrated.

I need to understand WHY something is meaningful to learn.

Learning Characteristics of Students with ASD

A tendency to be easily confused by ambiguous assignments that may have multiple components (Jackal, 1996)

Present content in a controlled fashion by structuring the lesson around key ideas to minimize ambiguity

Highlight the most important concepts Establish alternate modes for completing

assignments If task is complex with multiple components, break

the assignment down into clear and manageable pieces

Clearly specify your expectations for the assignment

We Know All This Now....

What Can We Do?

Instructional StrategyOrganization of an alphabetizing activity: materials are placed in containers and stabilized on tray; limited letters (A-E); no extraneous information; work space is defined.

Hume, K. (2006). Get engaged! Designing instructional activities to help students stay on-task. Reporter 11(2), 6-9.

Present content in a controlled fashion by structuring the lesson around key ideas to minimize ambiguity

Instructional StrategyOrganization of a math worksheet: limited number of problems and limited amount of space; worksheet is organized so student knows where to put responses.


• Present content in a controlled fashion by structuring the lesson around key ideas to minimize ambiguity

• Highlight the most important concepts

Instructional StrategyOrganization of an art activity: steps are listed sequentially for student to follow


• Establish alternate modes for completing assignments

• If task is complex with multiple components, break the assignment down into clear and manageable pieces

Instructional StrategyClarifying the sequence of steps: numbers (along with the container) are used to identify the order of steps in setting the table.


• If task is complex with multiple components, break the assignment down into clear and manageable pieces

Alternate Strategies for Older Students

Having the student make a list of adjectives or vocabulary words, as opposed to a writing assignment that has students use those vocabulary words in an essay or story

Giving the option of audio-or videotaping the assignment

Allowing students to use the computer to take notes or complete an assignment. Require some of the project to be written, but parts may be typed, audio taped, video taped or dictated orally


Students with ASD may have difficulty interpreting the importance of information and give undue attention to details (Mesibov et al., 2005).

It may be necessary to emphasize the most important aspects of the task or activity in an effort to make the meaning more salient. This may require the use of color coding, numbering, highlighting, or adding additional visual cues.

Instructional Strategy Clarifying the item to recycle: both pictures and an example of the actual object are used to highlight what item should be placed in each drawer

Emphasize the most important aspects of the task or activity, while using multiple examples for each skill is essential if generalization is to occur (Horner, Dunlap, & Koegel, 1988)


Instructional StrategyOrganization of desk area: all materials are placed in color coded folders and binders; school supplies are placed in a container on the desk.


Presenting materials by color coding, numbering, highlighting, or adding additional visual cues


Provide the student with visual material that allows him or her to follow along when the teacher is speaking:

When reading a book aloud to the class, give the student a copy of the book so he or she can read and follow along.

Write everything the student needs to know on a flash card. This can also be used later to study for tests.

Send home a summary sheet which emphasizes the most important information contained in the next day’s (or week’s) lesson.

Write out a step-by-step list of instructions that are sequential for the student. Show a completed model so the student knows what the completed assignment should look like.


Difficulty with processing high amounts of auditory information (Grandin, 2001; Klin & Volkmar, 2000)

There is substantial evidence that students with ASD have strengths in processing visual information in comparison to processing language or auditory information (Mesibov et al., 2005; Quill, 1997).

Instructional StrategyThe materials define the task in this activity capitalizing on the strengths of the student and providing more opportunities for practicing the skill independently (without relying on verbal directives from staff).


Decreases amount of auditory stimulation while proving instruction through visuals

Instructional StrategyGraphic and Visual Organizers

Students with ASD benefit more from having one already developed for them.

http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/specconn/main.php?cat=instruction&section=main&subsection=udl/graphic

This also helps with maximizing comprehension and content retention.

http://www.mayerjohnson.com/



Graphic Organizers cont.

Hierarchical- can also provide a concise visual representation of key concepts and their supporting concepts and ideas, but enable this information to be described in a linear manner.Unit Organizer-can be used to tie information from a unit of study together into one document. GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/specconn/main.php?cat=instruction&section=main&subsection=udl/guidednotes#examples

Additional Strategies for Older Students

Send home outlines of upcoming curriculum topics or a book that will be presented to the class.

Suggest background (reference) material, such as a video that goes along with the book or the topic.

Have the students read up on a future content area at home so they have a basic understanding of what will be presented in the lesson.

Provide the student with extra set of texts for home to prevent forgetting needed academic materials.

Instructional StrategyGuided Notes – http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/specconn/main.php?cat=instruction&section=main&subsection=udl/guidednotes#examples

http://www.do2learn.org/disabilities/diagnosis/autism_strategies.htm





Students with ASD may find it challenging to pay attention to classroom instruction, particularly when the content is not related to their particular area of interest (Marks et al., 2003).

Incorporating the unique interests of students with ASD into the content and/or layout of instructional activities may increase both engagement and meaning.

Instructional StrategyReading comprehension activity using Thomas the train.


Instructional StrategyFine motor lacing activity incorporating Dora the Explorer.


Instructional StrategyPackaging activity featuring McDonalds products.



Embed additional activities within the lesson to increase the student’s interest and motivation for listening to the class lecture.

Develop a list of words that might be said during a lecture. Give the student a marker and a list of those words. Every time a word is spoken, the student should highlight the word they hear.

Relate the material to the student’s preoccupations (interests).

For a student excited by dates, have him or her answer questions about what date a given event occurred.

Importance of Time on Task

The amount of time a student with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is actively attending to and interacting with his/her environment has been cited as one of the best predictors of positive student outcomes (Iovannone, Dunlap, Huber, & Kincaid, 2003).

Increasing Time on Task

Minimize adult interactions during the times that the student is off task.

Set up alternative “cueing” systems for bringing the student back to the task at hand.

Secret signal.

Use white boards to write down directions or instructions. As the student finishes with each direction they can cross it off the board.

Nonverbal prompting.


Students on the spectrum may demonstrate rigidity or inflexible behavior if classroom scheduling is inconsistent or absent.

Providing a predictable environment and routine is an important component of classroom programming for students on the autism spectrum (Iovannone, Dunlap, Huber, & Kincaid, 2003).

Provide concrete and specific information and expectations.

Provide specific concrete beginning and ending points, even with activities that may continue over several days or class periods.

Prepare the student ahead of time.

Instructional StrategyVideo priming for field trip to zoo.

Additional visuals to support comprehension

Instructional StrategyA product sample.

Provide specific concrete beginning and ending points, even with activities that may continue over several days or class periods

Instructional StrategiesAntecedent Management Strategies.

Antecedent intervention approaches focus on structuring the environment to prevent problems and enhance motivation (Kerns, & Clemens, 2007).

Picture or written schedule http://www.mayerjohnson.com http://www.do2learn.org/disabilities/diagnosis/auti

sm_strategies.htm

http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/specconn/main.php?cat=assessment&section=main&subsection=ddm/event

http://www.behaviordoctor.org/files/tools/BehaviorCountExample.doc


Antecedent Strategies for Stress/Anxiety

Use of predetermined quiet spot.Use of a social story to explain the quiet spot. Use visuals for a reminder of quiet spot. Use stress barometer to determine realization of feelings of stress. Have a “safe place and person” assigned to student. Teach relaxation and problem solving skills.

Concrete Problem Solving Formula

Name the problem (what is the problem, why is it a problem?)Claim the problem (whose problem is it?)Aim the problem (what can I do about it?)Tame the problem (what is the plan to resolve the situation?)

Moyes, 2004


Priming: method of previewing information or activities that a student is likely to have difficulty with before the student is engaged in the challenging situation.

Modified Social Stories

Video Priming

HomeworkAssist the family in developing an appropriate homework setting.Create a homework schedule and limit the amount of time required. Modify the amount of homework required. Review the student’s schedule for opportunities to complete the homework during the school day. Provide a written checklist of the homework requirements with the tasks broken down into smaller parts.

Ernsperger, 2004; Myles, 2005

Florida PBS

Basic Principles of Behavior

Behavior DefinedAnything we SAY or DOIt is HOW WE REACT to our environmentBehaviors are often LEARNED and continue because they serve a PURPOSE or FUNCTIONWe engage in behaviors because we have learned that a DESIRED OUTCOME occurs

Florida PBS

Defining Behavior

Poor impulse controlAngry, hostile, resentfulPaying attentionStubborn

Lying on the floor and refusing to moveHigh pitched screamsHitting with fistKicking over chairsCompleting workcrying

Observational Definition From primary to precise

Primary s:“There is too much fighting at our school

PreciseThere were 30 more ODRs for aggression on the playground than last year, and these are most likely to occur from 12:00-12:30 during fifth grade’s recess because there is a large number of students, and the aggression is related to getting access to the new playground equipment.

The ABC’s of Behavior: A = AntecedentB = BehaviorC = Consequence

Florida PBS

The ABC’s of Behavior:

Understanding the function of behavior is the first step in changing the behaviorUnderstanding comes from repeated observation of:

A – Antecedent (stimulus/trigger before the behavior) B – Behavior (the observable and measurable act) C – Consequence (occurrence after the behavior that serves to maintain or increase frequency of behavior)

Florida PBS

Antecedent Interventions

Rules, procedures, high levels of structurePrecorrection – errorless learningProvide reminders

Picture schedules Pictures of appropriate behaviors Timers

Provide choicesEnsure high levels of academic success

Opportunities to respondProvide effective and functional instruction Teach student to self-monitor desired behaviors

Scheuermann, Sherman Professional Development, 2007

Applied Behavior Analysis Operant Conditioning Behavior Principles

Reinforcement is the KEY!

Positive Reinforcement Implemented directly after

behavior You are adding something Increases behavior

Negative Reinforcement Implemented directly after

the behavior You are taking away

something aversive Increases Behavior

Punishment Implemented directly &

consistently after behavior

Adding or taking away Decreases behavior Natural consequences

for behavior Used as a LAST resort

Extinction Where a previously

reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced

Decreases behavior

Three Procedures to Reduce Behavior

Eliminate the Behavior’s Motivative Operation

Terminate the Behavior’s Reinforcement Contingency

Replace the Behavior with an Alternative Response

Effective Delivery of Reinforcers

Value/Motivation Effort/ContingencyRate/Schedule Magnitude/SizeImmediacy

Functions of BehaviorThe purpose or reason the behavior occurred

Why is it important for us to know the function/purpose of the problem behavior?

To understand why the behavior is occurring To find an appropriate replacement behavior To develop the best behavior support plan To target the appropriate antecedents and

consequences

Florida PBS

Functions of Behavior

Behavior has two major functions: To get something

To get a preferred task or activity To get the attention of an adult or peer To get a specific item or object

To get away from something (avoid) To get away from a specific task or activity To get away from an adult or child To get away from a specific item or object

Florida PBS


ATTENTIONTANGIBLE

(objects & activities)

SENSORY

GET AWAY

GET

Florida PBS

Functions of BehaviorOne behavior can have multiple functions

Example: John can hit at home in order to get out of cleaning his room and other times he can hit in order to get adult attention.

Florida PBS

Functions of BehaviorSeveral behaviors can have the same function

Example: John can use multiple behaviors such as hitting, screaming, and running away in order to get out of cleaning his room.

Florida PBS

Children misbehave for a reason

Many students have learned that their inappropriate behavior is the most effective, more predictable, most efficient way to get attention, power, or status. Also, these students learn at a young age, that they can sometimes avoid difficult, disliked tasks or activities as a result of their inappropriate behavior


Misbehavior sometimes represents a failure to learn a more appropriate alternative

A good rule of thumb: If you seldom or never see the student behave

appropriately in similar situations, assume he does not know HOW to exhibit the expected behavior.


Children of all ages behave best when the environment is clear and predictable

When they can predict success; When they can predict reinforcement; When they understand what is expected of them; When they know the rules and limits.



Remember, the goal is to understand the function or purpose of the problem behavior in order to develop an effective behavior support plan

Florida PBS

Behavioral Objectives Components

Identify the Learner

Identify the Target Behavior

Identify the Conditions of Intervention

Identify Criteria for Acceptable Performance

ExampleGoal: Jason will master basic computation facts at the first-grade level.

Objective: Given a worksheet of 20 single-digit addition on problems in the form 6 + 2 and the written instruction “Find the sums,” Jason will complete all problems with 90% accuracy for 3 consecutive math sessions.

“Without data, you’re just another personwith an opinion”

Leahy & Muniz, APBS Conference, 2008

Data Collection Data may be collected on:

entire classroom of students select individuals within classroom

Target those select individuals that are responsible for the bulk of incidences ORTarget the entire class to obtain more specific information if many students are engaged in problem behavior or to help clarify problem areas Herrmann & White, APBS Conference, 2008

Identify & Analyze the Problem

Direct Observation Data Frequency/Event Recording Duration Recording Scatter Plot Anecdotal/ABC Time Series Recording

Herrmann & White, APBS Conference, 2008

Steps in Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA)

Collect data A. Indirect: opinions about behavior B. Direct: observation in contexts where behavior occurs

Analyze dataDevelop hypothesesDevelop intervention (Behavior Intervention Plan)

Modify antecedents Teach new skills Reinforce prosocial alternatives Use behavior reduction interventions

Monitor interventionAdjust if needed


Frequency/Event RecordingSpecial Connections

http://www.behaviordoctor.org/files/tools/BehaviorCountExample.docA method of recording a tally or frequency count of behavior occurring during an observation periodUsed to track specific problem behavior(s)Example:

Counting the number of times students yell out in class or how often students are out of their seat in

class.


http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/specconn/main.php?cat=assessment&section=main&subsection=ddm/event



4 Strokes for Every PokeLanyard

20 beadsStart in the morning with all 20 beads on your left side

Every time you compliment a child on their appropriate behavior move a bead to the right side.

Every time you reprimand a child move 4 beads back to the left side.

permission to use & copy with credit to original author

copyright Riffel 2008

Paper clipsPut 30 paper clips in your left pocket or a cup on the bus.Every time you compliment a child, move a paper clip into the other pocket or cup. Every time you “get after” a child, move 4 paper clips back to where they started.

3x5 index cardTears for positives

Tears for negatives

11 to

5

Duration RecordingSpecial Connections

A method of recording the amount of time that a behavior occurs – Define with clear beginning and end of behaviorUsed for behaviors that last more than a few secondsExamples:

Recording the time spent off task Recording the time spent out of seat Length of time taken to comply with a request


http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/specconn/main.php?cat=assessment&section=main&subsection=ddm/duration#ques5

Scatter PlotSpecial Connections

A method of recording occurrence and nonoccurrence of behavior across activities, routines, and time periods, providing a visual display of patterns – Identifies patterns of responding in natural settings – May suggest possible sources of environmental controlExample

Record occurrence of talking out and the specific times of the occurrence/subject being taught when the behavior is exhibited.


http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/specconn/main.php?cat=behavior&subsection=fba/teachertools

ABC RecordingSpecial Connections

A method of recording the antecedents and consequences of specific target behaviors.

Identify events that precipitate the behavior Identify variables that maintain the behavior Identify behavior and environmental patterns Aides in determining function of the behavior

http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/specconn/main.php?cat=behavior&section=main&subsection=fba/abc

ABC

AntecedentBehavior

ConsequenceBehavior

What happened before the behavior? What triggered the behavior?

What a person says or does (Define)

Immediately follows the behavior.

Under what circumstances does the behavior occur?

What outcomes are produced?

Baseline Data Collection Guidelines

Define the behavior that you wish to observe.

Be specific…Observational Definition Decide which type of behavioral recording is best suited to monitor the behavior.Determine if observation data should focus on select individuals or the entire classroom.Decide who will observe the behavior.Decide how long your observations will last.Observe and record classroom behavior.Collect observation data until patterns emerge.

Transition Strategies Dim the lights when a new activity is about to occur, provide a 5 minute verbal warning, or cue card. Allow the student to move through a transition before other students. Provide a visual schedule and place question mark or other signal to alert that a change will be taking place. Provide picture cues of what is coming next.

Social Interventions Two social skill interventions from Carol Gray (TheGrayCenter.org).

Comic Strip Conversations Social Stories

Comic Strip Conversations

Uses simple drawings to illustrate conversations between two or more people.Uses eight symbols to represent basic conversational skills. Uses different colors to describe emotional content of statements, thoughts and questions.May provide insight into a student’s perspective of a situation. May be uses as a prerequisite activity before developing a social story.

Social StoriesDefined by Carol Gray in 1991. The story is a process that ends in a product. Product is a short story that describes social situation, concept or social skill in a format that is meaningful to the student. Results strive to create a sensitivity in students and improved social responses or social behaviors.

Formula 1 directive sentence:

identify a response or choice to a situation by gently guiding the person’s behavior.

make sure to develop these sentences paying careful attention to literal interpretation.

begin sentence with “I will,” “I can,” or “I will try.” may also be a series of response options.

Formula Continued…2 – 5 descriptive, perspective, and affirmative sentences.

Descriptive: free of opinion, truthful statements of fact, majority of the story, and contains answers to the “wh” questions.

Perspective: describes an individual person’s internal thoughts, feelings, beliefs, opinions, motivations, and physical conditions, may describe internal state of student whom story is being written for.

Affirmative: enhance meaning of other statements, express a shared value or opinion of a culture, usually immediately follows a descriptive, perspective, or directive sentence.

Back to School IdeasCreate a student profile for students with ASD.Develop a list of reinforcements. Create reinforcement bags or buckets for students. Color code school subjects and folders.Map of school (if new to building).Make checklists for each class (includes class schedule & required materials). List peer buddies and/or trusted adults. Written classroom rules and teacher expectation. Ernsperger, 2004; Myles, 2005

6 Core Elements of Effective Educational Programming

Individualized supports & services for students and families;Systematic instruction; Comprehensible/structured learning environments;Specialized curriculum content; Functional approach to problem behavior; and Family involvement.

Iovannone, Dunlap, & Huber, 2003

Target Behaviors & Interventions of Individualized Supports & Services

Increase social engagement with peers

Functional use of children’s unique obsessive behaviors as play themes

Increase engagement in tasks & schedules

Picture activity schedules & graduated guidance

Target Behaviors Interventions

Self-initiation of question-asking & generalization

Motivational procedures (incorporation of preferred items, natural reinforcers)

Decreasing rates of disruptive behavior & increasing engagement in instruction

Task interspersal (difficult/easy); least to most prompting; progressive time delay

Increase engagement & on-schedule behaviors

Photographic activity schedules and graduated guidance

Target Behaviors & Interventions of Systematic Instruction

Increase on-task behaviors & school performance

Self-management

Increase discrete behaviors (language, social behaviors, motor skills, etc.)

Intensive DTT compared to eclectic treatment


Target Behaviors & Interventions of Comprehensible Environment


Facilitating transitions between activities

Visual schedules, sub-schedules, “finished” boxes, and timers

Increase acquisition of daily living skills

Pictorial self-management system

Decrease disruptive behavior during transitions

Video priming

Target Behaviors & Interventions of Specific Curriculum Content


Effects of switch training on functional communication

Least-to-most prompts

Increase conversational exchanges

Script-fading with embedded textual cues as stimulus

Increase social participation with peers

Peer mediation

Target Behaviors & Interventions for Problem Behavior


Decrease challenging behaviors & increase appropriate behaviors

School team-based functional behavior assessment

Reduction in challenging behavior

Functional analysis & antecedent manipulations

Decrease challenging behavior

Functional behavior assessment

Target Behaviors & Interventions in Family Involvement


Decrease challenging behavior and increase appropriate behavior

Parent training of functional behavior assessment

Prevention of challenging behavior

Social stories as antecedent intervention in home setting

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References American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author

Barnhill, G. P. (2001). Social attribution and depression in adolescents with Asperger Syndrome. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16, 46–53.

Ozonoff, S., Rogers, S. J., & Pennington, B. F. (1991). Executive function deficits in high functioning autistic individuals: Relationship to theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1107–1122.

Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autisitc child have a “theory of mind”? Cognition, 21, 37–46.

Myles, B. S., & Adreon, D. (2001). Asperger syndrome and adolescence: Practical solutions for school success. Shawnee Mission, KS:Autism /Asperger Publishing

Frith, U. (1991). Autism and Asperger syndrome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Myles, B. S., & Southwick, J. (1999). Asperger syndrome and difficult moments: Practical solutions for tantrums, rage, and meltdowns. Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism/ Asperger Publishing.

Siegel, D., Minshew, N., & Goldstein, G. (1996). Weschler IQ profiles in diagnosis of high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26, 389–406.

Barnhill, G. P., & Myles, B. S. (2001). Attributional style and depression in adolescents with Asperger syndrome. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 3, 175-183.

.


Iovannone, R., Dunlap, G., Huber, H., & Kincaid, D. (2003). Effective educational practices for students with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 18, 150-166

Williams, K. (1995). Understanding the student with asperger syndrome: guidelines for teachers. Focus on Autistic Behavior, 10, 9-16.

Instructional Strategies - Autism State Conference

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Instructional Strategies - Autism State Conference