Chapter 10- Chapter 10- Interest GroupsInterest Groups • (1). Define what an (1). Define what an Interest GroupInterest Group is, and contrast its functions with is, and contrast its functions with
political partiespolitical parties..• (2). Examine the role, characteristics, growth, and diverse types of (2). Examine the role, characteristics, growth, and diverse types of
Interest Groups.Interest Groups.• (3). Explain how Interest Groups are formed and maintained, and discuss (3). Explain how Interest Groups are formed and maintained, and discuss
the obstacles.the obstacles.• (4). Examine the (4). Examine the strategiesstrategies of Interest Groups and of Interest Groups and Political Action Political Action
Committees (PACs)Committees (PACs)..• (5). Discuss the role and function of (5). Discuss the role and function of lobbyistslobbyists & examine the & examine the various various
typestypes of of lobbyinglobbying..• (6). Examine the role of (6). Examine the role of Interest GroupsInterest Groups in in litigationlitigation,, and define and define amicus amicus
curiaecuriae..• (7). Analyze influence of Interest Groups, and contrast (7). Analyze influence of Interest Groups, and contrast externalexternal & &
internal factorsinternal factors..• (8). Assess the overall positive & negative impact of (8). Assess the overall positive & negative impact of Int. Groups Int. Groups on the on the
political process.political process.• (9). (9). Prepare for Midterm Exam (Chapters 1-10)Prepare for Midterm Exam (Chapters 1-10)..
InterestGroups
An organized group of people who share some goals and try to influence public
policy.
Defining Defining Interest GroupsInterest GroupsInterest Groups Versus Political Parties
Purpose & priorities of Political Party?
Purpose & priorities of Interest Group?
Five MainFunctions of
Interest Groups?
Represen-tation
PoliticalParticipation
Education
AgendaBuilding
ProgrammingMonitoring
Role & Functions of Role & Functions of Interest GroupsInterest Groups
• Five main functionsFive main functions of of Interest Groups:Interest Groups:– RepresentationRepresentation – – interest of membersinterest of members
– Political ParticipationPolitical Participation – – enable people to participateenable people to participate• Government and PoliticsGovernment and Politics
– EducationEducation – – members, public, & government officialsmembers, public, & government officials• About issues of interest & why IG goals should be supportedAbout issues of interest & why IG goals should be supported
– Agenda building-Agenda building- push new issues onto public agendapush new issues onto public agenda• Examples: Consumer protection & Veterans issuesExamples: Consumer protection & Veterans issues
– Program Monitoring-Program Monitoring- watch how laws are administeredwatch how laws are administered
• Assess Federal or State Government regulation Assess Federal or State Government regulation
The Growth of Interest GroupsThe Growth of Interest Groups • History & evolution ofHistory & evolution of “ “factionsfactions””
– De Tocqueville’sDe Tocqueville’s observations observations “forming associations”“forming associations”
– Anti-slavery association of 1833Anti-slavery association of 1833
– National Woman Suffrage Association of 1869National Woman Suffrage Association of 1869
– The Grange of 1860sThe Grange of 1860s (anti-Railroad monopolies) (anti-Railroad monopolies)
• Significant Significant Interest GroupInterest Group (IG) (IG) growth since 1942:growth since 1942:– From 600 From 600 IGsIGs in 1942 to => 7000+ in 1995 in 1942 to => 7000+ in 1995
Why the growth of Interest Groups?
Increased Demands on GovernmentIncreased Demands on Government
• More demands of public placed on Government:More demands of public placed on Government:– Civil Right & Anti-Vietnam War LegacyCivil Right & Anti-Vietnam War Legacy
– Improvements & advances in technologyImprovements & advances in technology
– Rise of Rise of new issuesnew issues almost every day almost every day
What are the different types of Interest Groups?
Diversity of Organized InterestsDiversity of Organized Interests
• Three general categories of Interest Groups:Three general categories of Interest Groups:– Economic Interest GroupsEconomic Interest Groups
– Citizen Interest GroupsCitizen Interest Groups
– Government Interest GroupsGovernment Interest Groups
• Examine each in greater detail=>Examine each in greater detail=>
Business Groups
Organized Labor
Agricultural Groups
Professional Associations
Economic Interest Groups (#1)Four types:
Economic Interest Groups (#2)Economic Interest Groups (#2)• 1.1. BusinessBusiness- (Chamber of Commerce, NAM) - (Chamber of Commerce, NAM)
– Trade AssociationsTrade Associations (Alliance of Automobile Man.) (Alliance of Automobile Man.)
• 2.2. Organized LaborOrganized Labor – (AFL-CIO, Amer. Fed. Of – (AFL-CIO, Amer. Fed. Of Teachers)Teachers)
• 3.3. Agricultural GroupsAgricultural Groups-- – (American Farm Bureau(American Farm Bureau-large farms)-large farms)– (National Farmer’s Union(National Farmer’s Union – smaller farms – smaller farms))– Specific commodities – (corn, hog, etc.)Specific commodities – (corn, hog, etc.)
• 4.4. Professional AssociationsProfessional Associations-- – (AMA, ABA, American Optometric Assoc.)(AMA, ABA, American Optometric Assoc.)– Also for advancement of women & minorities:Also for advancement of women & minorities:
• American Association for University WomenAmerican Association for University Women
• National Association for Black AccountantsNational Association for Black Accountants
Interest groups, also known as public interest groups,
dedicated to promoting a vision of good
public policy rather than the economic interests of their
members.
Citizen Groups
Citizen Groups- promote group vision of public good=>American Civil Liberties Union & NRA
Single issue groups (NAACP, Greenpeace, NOW)
StateGovernments
Government Interest Groups
ForeignGovernments
LocalGovernments
Coalitions and DivisionsCoalitions and Divisions
• Groups of similar interests join in Groups of similar interests join in coalitionscoalitions– The Military CoalitionThe Military Coalition => military & VA benefits => military & VA benefits
– Environmental & Nature Conservation groupsEnvironmental & Nature Conservation groups
• Groups might also divide or realign on various Groups might also divide or realign on various issuesissues– Politics & strange bedfellows – Politics & strange bedfellows – NAFTANAFTA issue issue
Interest Group Formation and Interest Group Formation and MaintenanceMaintenance
• Reasons why interest groups form?Reasons why interest groups form?• Disturbance TheoryDisturbance Theory => =>
– Usually in response to Government policyUsually in response to Government policy– Threat to the Threat to the status quo – The Cat Motherstatus quo – The Cat Mother response response
• IGs IGs form mostly in response to some government policy:form mostly in response to some government policy:– Policies affecting or potentially affecting members’ interestsPolicies affecting or potentially affecting members’ interests– Most are directly related to politics => influence gov. policyMost are directly related to politics => influence gov. policy– Also some Also some IGsIGs formed for reasons unrelated to politics formed for reasons unrelated to politics
• Whose interest is usually represented?Whose interest is usually represented?– Rich & powerful - Rich & powerful - why?why?
Social-economic status => political activism
A dilemma created when people can obtain the benefits of interest
group activity without paying any of the costs associated with it.
(In this situation, the interest group may not form because everyone has an incentive to let someone
else pay the costs of group formation.)
The Collective Goods Dilemma?
ObstaclesObstacles of Interest Group Formation of Interest Group Formation
People who benefit w/o paying are called?*
Free Riders
People or groups who benefit from the efforts of others
without bearing any of the costs.
So how are such obstacles to IG formation overcome?
Overcoming Obstacles to Interest Overcoming Obstacles to Interest Group FormationGroup Formation
• Political entrepreneursPolitical entrepreneurs=> => – Cat Mother (local) vs. Ralph Nader (National)Cat Mother (local) vs. Ralph Nader (National)
• Government or wealthy sponsor funds IGGovernment or wealthy sponsor funds IG
• Or – Or – IGs IGs attract & motivate prospective membersattract & motivate prospective members
• How are new members potentially attracted? How are new members potentially attracted? – New members are offered what?New members are offered what?
– Selective benefitsSelective benefits (vs. (vs. collective benefitscollective benefits) ) – What are the What are the three typesthree types of of selective benefits?*selective benefits?*
Material(stuff)
Solidarity(identity)
Expressive(purpose)
Three Benefits from Three Benefits from Interest GroupsInterest Groups
The actual goods and services that come from belonging to an
interest group.
Material?
Examples?
Solidarity
The emotional and psychological enjoyment that comes from
belonging to an interest group whose members share common
interests and goals.
The feelings of satisfaction people derive from working for an interest
group cause they believe is just and right. Also known as purposive
benefits.
Expressive
Selective Benefits:
Any benefit given to a
member of a group, but denied to
nonmembers
Material
Solidarity
Expressive
Interest Group (IG) MaintenanceInterest Group (IG) Maintenance
• IG Maintenance can be difficultIG Maintenance can be difficult– How can this difficulty be overcome?How can this difficulty be overcome?
• Retain mbrs by upgrading Retain mbrs by upgrading selective benefitsselective benefits– Add or modify benefits (bigger & better & more) Add or modify benefits (bigger & better & more)
• Increase or decrease reliance on patronsIncrease or decrease reliance on patrons
• Redefine group’s mission Redefine group’s mission (March of Dimes)(March of Dimes) – From Polio of 1950s to heart disease & cancer todayFrom Polio of 1950s to heart disease & cancer today
Interest Group BiasInterest Group Bias
• Affluent & better educated over =>Affluent & better educated over =>– Poor and less educated- Poor and less educated- Why?Why?
– The higher the The higher the socioeconomic statussocioeconomic status=> the=> the more more likely to be actively involved in politicslikely to be actively involved in politics
• Some exceptionsSome exceptions – – Cesar ChavezCesar Chavez against=> against=>– Wealthier California grape growers during ’70sWealthier California grape growers during ’70s
– Chavez was soon joined by young idealistic activistsChavez was soon joined by young idealistic activists
• Still raises questions about=>Still raises questions about=>– Democracy & political influence of few elite over Democracy & political influence of few elite over
many non politically involved many non politically involved
Interest Group StrategiesInterest Group Strategies
• Four major Four major IGIG Strategies: Strategies:– Political Action CommitteesPolitical Action Committees ((PACPACs)s)
– Lobbying Lobbying the Governmentthe Government
– MobilizingMobilizing Public Opinion Public Opinion
– LitigatingLitigating
Let’s examine each strategy in greater detail=>
IG Strategy #1:IG Strategy #1: Political Action CommitteesPolitical Action Committees
Organizations that Organizations that solicit contributionssolicit contributions from from members of interest groups and channel those members of interest groups and channel those contributions to election campaigns- contributions to election campaigns-
(usually for those (usually for those candidates supporting candidates supporting policies favorablepolicies favorable to members of the to members of the Interest Interest Group- Group- though not always).though not always).
Creating Creating Political Action Committees (PACs)Political Action Committees (PACs)• Since election reforms of early ‘70s =>Since election reforms of early ‘70s =>
– PACPACs grew significantly at different rates (Fig. 10-1)s grew significantly at different rates (Fig. 10-1)• Various categoriesVarious categories of of PACPACss grew at different rates grew at different rates
– CorporateCorporate (most growth) (most growth)– Non-connectedNon-connected– Trade, MembershipTrade, Membership, & , & HealthHealth– Labor Labor (in decline)(in decline)– Other PACs (Table 10-1 examples)Other PACs (Table 10-1 examples)
• PACPAC spending has also changed spending has also changed wrtwrt the Political the Political climateclimate– Examine these changes is following charts and tables*Examine these changes is following charts and tables*
Growth in Political ActionGrowth in Political ActionCommittees (PACs), 1974-2004Committees (PACs), 1974-2004
PAC PAC Spending 2003-2004Spending 2003-2004
34
66
RepublicansDemocrats
PACs gave nearly two-thirds of their congressional
campaign contributions to Democratic candidates when
the Democrats were the majority party on Capitol Hill.1993-1994
Changes in PAC Contributions to CongressChanges in PAC Contributions to Congress
5347
RepublicansDemocratsWhen the Republican
Party gained control of Congress, that donation pattern
reversed. During the 1997-1998 election cycle, Republican
candidates received a majority of PAC
contributions. 1997-1998
Changes in PAC Contributions to CongressChanges in PAC Contributions to Congress
Changes in PAC Contributions to Changes in PAC Contributions to Congress- Congress- Recent ComparisonRecent Comparison
Trying to influence governmental decisions,
especially the voting decisions legislators make on proposed
legislation.
Lobbying?:
IG Strategy #2IG Strategy #2::LobbyingLobbying the Government the Government
Lobbying the Government (#2)Lobbying the Government (#2)• lobbying lobbying && lobbyists lobbyists, & , & direct lobbyingdirect lobbying
– Targeted attempts to influence policyTargeted attempts to influence policy– Through Through personal contactpersonal contact of government officials of government officials
• Plead clients case directly to officialPlead clients case directly to official
• Credible informationCredible information key to effectively lobbying key to effectively lobbying– Usually lobby officials of similar viewsUsually lobby officials of similar views– Support draft legislation & researchSupport draft legislation & research
• Lobbyists Lobbyists know howknow how government process works government process works– Many are former Executive appointees or Many are former Executive appointees or
CongressmenCongressmen
– Problem: potential Problem: potential conflict of interestconflict of interest What are the different ways to lobby?
DirectLobbying
EducationCampaigns
Grass-Roots
Lobbying
Types of Lobbying
AdvocacyAdvertising
Trying to influence public policy through
direct contact with government officials.
DirectLobbying
Lobbying to Lobbying to Mobilize Public OpinionMobilize Public Opinion
• Education CampaignsEducation Campaigns => => – Key tool for education of Public: Key tool for education of Public: advocacy advertisingadvocacy advertising
– Educate public by publishing research studiesEducate public by publishing research studies• Normally supporting Normally supporting Interest Group’sInterest Group’s policy positions policy positions
• Grass-Roots LobbyingGrass-Roots Lobbying – – very effective with Congressvery effective with Congress– Petition drivesPetition drives (Which Amendment Right?) (Which Amendment Right?)
– Letters, phone calls, or e-mailLetters, phone calls, or e-mail to Congress or to Congress or Admin Admin
– Effective way to get elected officials attentionEffective way to get elected officials attention
– Marches & demonstrations Marches & demonstrations
– Get out the vote Get out the vote effortsefforts
Various methods used to mobilize Public Opinion:
Interest groups try to mobilize the public
through education hoping that the public will demand
government action.
EducationCampaigns
Newspaper, television, and radio advertisements that promote an interest group's political views.
AdvocacyAdvertising
Trying to influence public policy indirectly by
mobilizing an interest group's membership and
the broader public to contact elected officials.
Grass-Roots
Lobbying
AstroturfLobbying
CivilDisobedience
Other Types of Lobbying
&
AstroturfLobbying
Efforts, usually led by interest groups (or Corporations) with deep financial
pockets, to create synthetic grass-roots movements by aggressively encouraging
voters to contact their elected officials about specific issues.
Civil disobedience is the practice of breaking laws
in order to pressure legislators to change perceived unjust laws.
CivilDisobedience
IG Strategy #3: IG Strategy #3: LitigatingLitigating
• When you lose with the Congress => When you lose with the Congress => then whatthen what??– You can always sueYou can always sue
– Last action in a continuing cycle – Last action in a continuing cycle – • (There’s always next year)(There’s always next year)
• Examples: Examples: – 1950s 1950s De Jure Segregation-De Jure Segregation- NAACP NAACP
– Clean Air Act & Endangered Species ActClean Air Act & Endangered Species Act
– Campaign ReformCampaign Reform
• Amicus Curiae briefAmicus Curiae brief??
Interest Group InfluenceInterest Group Influence
• Two factors determining degree of IG influence?Two factors determining degree of IG influence?• External & Internal FactorsExternal & Internal Factors• External FactorsExternal Factors – – those beyond group’s controlthose beyond group’s control
– Party in power (President and/or Congress)Party in power (President and/or Congress)• Business & tax cuts more likely when who’s in power?Business & tax cuts more likely when who’s in power?• Union interests more likely to be + considered by who?Union interests more likely to be + considered by who?
– Opposition Interest Groups => Opposition Interest Groups => generated in responsegenerated in response• Opposing IGs tend to cancel each other outOpposing IGs tend to cancel each other out• Better chance with no opposition (Veterans’ Groups)Better chance with no opposition (Veterans’ Groups)
– (Budget proposal to cut Veterans’ Health Care- chance?)(Budget proposal to cut Veterans’ Health Care- chance?)
Membership
Leadership
FinancialResources
Objectives
Internal Factors ofInterest Group Influence?
Internal FactorsInternal Factors => (4): => (4): • MembershipMembership- - (size (size and and commitment) – esp. who votes!commitment) – esp. who votes!
– (Recall demographic factors & socio-economic status)(Recall demographic factors & socio-economic status)
• LeadershipLeadership- must - must understand how Washington worksunderstand how Washington works– Effectively manages group’s interestsEffectively manages group’s interests– Able to maintain focused & cohesive membershipAble to maintain focused & cohesive membership
• Financial ResourcesFinancial Resources-- in general more $ better than lessin general more $ better than less– Contribute to political campaigns => buys Contribute to political campaigns => buys accessaccess to lawmakers to lawmakers– Hire lobbyist who give parties that Congressmen attendHire lobbyist who give parties that Congressmen attend– Conduct media campaigns (Insurance companies defeat Conduct media campaigns (Insurance companies defeat HRCHRC))– Buy state of the art equipment – Buy state of the art equipment – direct maildirect mail operations operations – What do less funded groups do to compensate?What do less funded groups do to compensate?
• (How to get free media & capture public’s attention?)(How to get free media & capture public’s attention?)
• ObjectivesObjectives => the => the narrower & less knownarrower & less know the better – the better – – Why?Why? (Recall (Recall Disturbance TheoryDisturbance Theory))
The Balance Sheet on Interest GroupsThe Balance Sheet on Interest Groups
• Americans have Americans have love/hate relationshiplove/hate relationship with with IGs IGs– Another case of Theory versus Reality- why?Another case of Theory versus Reality- why?
• In Theory: In Theory: general disdain for factions or general disdain for factions or “Special Interest”“Special Interest”
• In Reality:In Reality: Support (at various levels) for specific interests Support (at various levels) for specific interests– ((see see Figure 10-4)*Figure 10-4)*
• Disagreement over virtues of different Interest Groups Disagreement over virtues of different Interest Groups – Many times generated opposition Many times generated opposition (disturbance theory)(disturbance theory)
– Great diversity & interests interact and conflict Great diversity & interests interact and conflict (Figure 10-4)*(Figure 10-4)*
• One common thread appears throughout:One common thread appears throughout:– Wealthy & more powerful better representedWealthy & more powerful better represented – Why? – Why?
Public Attitudes Towards Interest Groups
Calls for ReformCalls for Reform • Complaints re. rich & powerful interest favored over restComplaints re. rich & powerful interest favored over rest
• Prompt calls for reforms to change rules (& outcomes)Prompt calls for reforms to change rules (& outcomes)– Limited changes made by Congress:Limited changes made by Congress:
• Limit $$$ gifts to Congress mbrs (but also raised pay at same time)Limit $$$ gifts to Congress mbrs (but also raised pay at same time)
• Greater disclosure policies – must identify lobbyists (Text cartoon)Greater disclosure policies – must identify lobbyists (Text cartoon)
• See Text - (Box 10-2): Lobbyists’ influence on CongressSee Text - (Box 10-2): Lobbyists’ influence on Congress
– Early Early Campaign Finance ReformCampaign Finance Reform – – limited reforms madelimited reforms made• Limited Limited PAC $$$ & increase individual contributionPAC $$$ & increase individual contribution
• 1st Amendment Rights1st Amendment Rights – – challenge by opponents- always sue challenge by opponents- always sue
• All citizens have Constitutional right to All citizens have Constitutional right to petitionpetition the government the government
• Problems: also unintended consequencesProblems: also unintended consequences – (loop holes) – (loop holes)– For example: 1970s reforms resulted in Growth of For example: 1970s reforms resulted in Growth of PACPACss
– Recent Reforms & Court rulings => growth of Recent Reforms & Court rulings => growth of Soft MoneySoft Money
The Contributions of Interest Groups:The Contributions of Interest Groups:
• Represents viewsRepresents views of IG members to Government of IG members to Government
• Enables people to Enables people to participate in political processparticipate in political process
• Educates publicEducates public about potential issues affecting them about potential issues affecting them
• Pushes Pushes new issuesnew issues onto the onto the political agendapolitical agenda
• Monitors GovernmentMonitors Government action & action & pushes for changepushes for change– Examples: Women’s suffrage & civil rights lawsExamples: Women’s suffrage & civil rights laws
• Upholds rightUpholds right of Americans to of Americans to petition Governmentpetition Government– (First Amendment right upheld)(First Amendment right upheld)
• IGs IGs now ingrained as integral part of American political now ingrained as integral part of American political processprocess
Next Class AssignmentNext Class Assignment
• Quiz 2 (Chapters 6-10 Key Terms)Quiz 2 (Chapters 6-10 Key Terms)– Preparation for Key Terms section of Preparation for Key Terms section of MTX examMTX exam
• (Quiz 1 => Part 1) + (Quiz 2 -> Part 2) => MTX Key Terms (Quiz 1 => Part 1) + (Quiz 2 -> Part 2) => MTX Key Terms sectionsection
– Learn in context with Chapter Learn in context with Chapter LOLOss & class discussions & class discussions
• MTX essay preparationMTX essay preparation (hand out) (hand out)
• Preparation for upcoming MTX Review (next Monday)Preparation for upcoming MTX Review (next Monday)– (Last chance to clarify questions about Chapters 1-10)(Last chance to clarify questions about Chapters 1-10)
– Review for Quiz 1 & 2Review for Quiz 1 & 2
• MTX (Wednesday):MTX (Wednesday):– Bring 100/W SCANTRON with #2 pencil and pen (essay)Bring 100/W SCANTRON with #2 pencil and pen (essay)
– (1 essay question and 100 Key Terms/Multiple Choice)(1 essay question and 100 Key Terms/Multiple Choice)
Interest Group Interest Group KEY TERMSKEY TERMS • Advocacy advertisingAdvocacy advertising:: Newspaper, television, and radio advertisements that promote an Newspaper, television, and radio advertisements that promote an
interest group’s political views.interest group’s political views.• Amicus curiae briefAmicus curiae brief:: Literally, friend of the court. A brief filed with the court by a person Literally, friend of the court. A brief filed with the court by a person
or group who is not directly involved in the legal action but who has views on the matter.or group who is not directly involved in the legal action but who has views on the matter.• Astroturf lobbyingAstroturf lobbying:: Efforts, usually led by interest groups with deep financial pockets, to Efforts, usually led by interest groups with deep financial pockets, to
create synthetic grass-roots movements by aggressively encouraging voters to contact create synthetic grass-roots movements by aggressively encouraging voters to contact their elected officials about specific issues.their elected officials about specific issues.
• Citizen groupsCitizen groups:: Interest groups, also known as public interest groups, dedicated to Interest groups, also known as public interest groups, dedicated to promoting a vision of good public policy rather than the economic interests of their promoting a vision of good public policy rather than the economic interests of their members.members.
• Collective goods dilemmaCollective goods dilemma:: A dilemma created when people can obtain the benefits of A dilemma created when people can obtain the benefits of interest group activity without paying any of the costs associated with it. In this situation, interest group activity without paying any of the costs associated with it. In this situation, the interest group may not form because everyone has an incentive to let someone else the interest group may not form because everyone has an incentive to let someone else pay the costs of group formation.pay the costs of group formation.
• Direct lobbying:Direct lobbying: Trying to influence public policy through direct contact with Trying to influence public policy through direct contact with government officials.government officials.
• Expressive benefitsExpressive benefits:: The feelings of satisfaction people derive from working for an The feelings of satisfaction people derive from working for an interest group cause that they believe is just and right. Also known as purposive benefits.interest group cause that they believe is just and right. Also known as purposive benefits.
• Free ridersFree riders:: People or groups who benefit from the efforts of others without bearing any People or groups who benefit from the efforts of others without bearing any of the costs.of the costs.
Interest Group Interest Group KEY TERMSKEY TERMS (2) (2)• Grass-roots lobbyingGrass-roots lobbying:: Trying to influence public policy indirectly by Trying to influence public policy indirectly by
mobilizing an interest group’s membership and the broader public to contact mobilizing an interest group’s membership and the broader public to contact elected officials.elected officials.
• Interest groupInterest group:: An organized group of people who share some goals and try to An organized group of people who share some goals and try to influence public policy.influence public policy.
• LobbyingLobbying:: Trying to influence governmental decisions, especially the voting Trying to influence governmental decisions, especially the voting decisions legislators make on proposed legislation.decisions legislators make on proposed legislation.
• LobbyistsLobbyists:: People who make their living trying to influence public policy. People who make their living trying to influence public policy.• Material benefitsMaterial benefits:: The actual goods and services that come from belonging to The actual goods and services that come from belonging to
an interest group.an interest group.• Political action committees (PACs):Political action committees (PACs): Organizations that solicit contributions Organizations that solicit contributions
from members of interest groups and channel those contributions to election from members of interest groups and channel those contributions to election campaigns.campaigns.
• Selective benefits:Selective benefits: Any benefit given to a member of a group but denied to Any benefit given to a member of a group but denied to nonmembers.nonmembers.
• Solidarity benefits:Solidarity benefits: The emotional and psychological enjoyment that comes The emotional and psychological enjoyment that comes from belonging to an interest group whose members share common interests and from belonging to an interest group whose members share common interests and goals.goals.