Village Milk Processing

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FAO ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH PAPER 69

Village milk processing

TABLE OF CONTENTS

byJ.C. Lambert

Dairy Technology SpecialistMeat and Dairy Service

FAO Animal Production and Health Division

The designations employed and the presentationof material in this publication do not imply theexpression of any opinion whatsoever on the partof the Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations concerning the legal status of any

country, territory, city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers orboundaries.

M-26ISBN 92-5-102679-3

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of thecopyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of thepurpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director,Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,

Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.

FOREWORD

The proposed study analyses the constraints normally encountered in milk marketing byisolated producers far from trade centres. As a study, it is not intended to reflect climatic,geographic and ethnic characteristics. It may, however, serve as a basis for improving theeconomic level of those livestock producers who usually are forgotten in development plansprepared by governments or institutions.

The illustrations presented in this study were drawn by Mr. G. Beccaloni (AGAD).

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 1988 © FAO

Hyperlinks to non-FAO Internet sites do not imply any official endorsement of or responsibilityfor the opinions, ideas, data or products presented at these locations, or guarantee the validity

of the information provided. The sole purpose of links to non-FAO sites is to indicate furtherinformation available on related topics.

TABLE OF CONTENTSPart 1: Village milk processing methods

I INTRODUCTION

II A village milk processing unit: why?

III A village milk processing unit: how?

IV A village milk processing unit: where?

V A village milk processing unit: what does it do?

VI A village milk processing unit: what it should be.

Part 2: The village milk processing unit: a general model

I The site

II The building

III Operation

IV Equipment:

1. For collection?

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2. For processing

3. For marketing

V Additional equipment

Part 3 Organization and operation of the milk processing unit

I Milk collection

II Milk reception

III Milk standardization:

1. Acidity

2. Fat content

3. Calculation for milk standardization

IV Heat-treatment of milk

V Cooling milk

VI Processing aids:

1. Preparation of starter cultures

2. Preparation of rennet

Part 4: Appropriate technology for the manufacture of dairy products

I Cheese

II Cream and butter

III Buttermilk

IV Yoghurt

V Fermented milk

VI Processed cheese

VII Whey from cheese-making

VIII Cleaning and disinfecting operations

IX Organization of work

X Layout of the unit

Part 5: Accounting and equipment costs

I Accounting:

1. Reception

2. Standardization

3. Cheese-making

II Study of cost price:

1. Cost of raw material

2. Collection costs

3. Processing costs

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4. Packaging costs

5. Transport costs

6. Marketing costs

III Estimating equipment costs:

1. Milk collection equipment

2. Milk reception equipment

3. Laboratory equipment

4. Milk standardization equipment

5. Cheese-making equipment

6. Butter-making equipment

7. Equipment for preparation of processing aids

Bibliography

Part 1VILLAGE MILK PROCESSING METHODS

I INTRODUCTION

In developing countries, it is quite common to find milk production areas at great distances fromareas of heavy demand for dairy products. These areas of demand are usually concentrated inthe capitals and major cities. In an attempt to meet this demand in part, developing countrieshave tried to establish dairy industries near urban consumption centres.

While there is overproduction in some parts of the country due to lack of outlets, dairy plantsoften work at only 20 percent of their capacity because of the long distances between the milkproducing zones and the urban consumption centres where the plants are situated.

Costs of milk collection for plants located near the capital are very high due to fuel prices, poorroad conditions (particularly during the rainy season), the cost of spare parts and the mileagerequired to be covered. For economic reasons, therefore, dairy plants have tried to restrict milkcollection to nearby milk-producing zones, rounding out their daily output through theimportation of dried milk and butter oil used for reconstituted milk.

The cost of milk collection represents approximately 30 percent of the processing cost of thefinished product (packaged pasteurized milk).

The traditional demand in developing countries is for fresh milk in the cities and fermented milkin the countryside.

The dairy plant therefore primarily produces fresh and reconstituted milk, pasteurized, andpackaged in plastic bags. Governments generally consider milk a basic commodity andconsumer prices are strictly controlled. Plant profits from milk sales are usually quite low, forcing

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the management to market another, more remunerative product not subject to price control. Afrequent choice is yoghurt, which is sold to wealthier people and to expatriates.

Besides the market for local milk products, there is also a market for imported products which, inorder of importance, are dried milk for babies, tinned milk and cheeses.

As a result, the problem in many developing countries is that while the small milk producer hasno regular outlet for his milk, consumers pay high prices for imported dairy products.

II A VILLAGE MILK PROCESSING PLANT: WHY?

First of all, a dairy processing plant should offer producers a guaranteed daily outlet for theirmilk supply.

During the dry season, when domestic milk production is low, milk-pedlars are a common sightbuying milk from producers who are far from urban consumption areas. However, during therainy season, due to poor road conditions and increased milk production, this milk is not

collected.

If a milk producer were guaranteed a regular, fair income, it would provide the incentive for himto move from a position of self-sufficiency in milk for the family into one of selling, thus boostingmilk production in his area. Remote milk-producing areas are often good livestock productionregions, but because of lack of commercial outlets they do not receive the necessary incentivesfor boosting milk production.

The introduction of a dairy industry, modelled on European systems, into a developing countryhas only very rarely involved the producers themselves. And even when it has, usually only thebig milk producers located near large towns have been involved. The introduction of aprocessing plant or unit, at village level, concerns principally the local producers themselves.

The size and simplicity of the unit should allow participation by small producers who are awarethat self-help is a more immediate prospect than Government or bilateral assistance.

III A VILLAGE MILK PROCESSING UNIT: HOW?

by forming associations, the small producers, who live directly on the meagre resourcesbrought to them by their cattle, can set up the unit. Many big herds belong to―entrepreneurs‖ in cities who entrust their stock to the care of herdsmen, paying themonly the equivalent of one day's milking a week.

by presenting a type of project which suits their needs - simple, practical and whichallows them to work together within their own environment.

IV A VILLAGE MILK PROCESSING UNIT: WHERE?

The site should be in a remote, inaccesible, traditional milk-producing area. Such areas,where communications are difficult and cattle-raising is a normal component of thefamily livelihood, are very common in Latin America, Africa, the Near East and Asia.

An area should be chosen where milk collection from the capital is not possible. In an area where cattle, and milk in particular, should be the main regular source of cash

for purchasing the family's domestic needs such as clothing, sugar, etc.


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In an area where there is plenty of water to allow hygienic processing of dairy productswhich requires an average of five litres of water for each litre of milk processed.

In an area where the quanity of milk to be processed is available within a ten-mile radiussince the time required for the transport of the milk should not exceed three hours. Intropical countries this is generally recognized as the upper limit beyond which milkcannot be pasteurized or heat-treated.

V A VILLAGE MILK PROCESSING UNIT: WHAT DOES IT DO?

produces dairy products for which there is demand in the cities and in the villages; produces dairy products not supplied by dairy plants located near towns; produces dairy products which:

can easily compete with imported products; do not require costly or sophisticated equipment; require neither an expensive source of power nor a particularly complex

infrastructure; can be easily and cheaply moved without lowering the quality of the finished

product; can be sold in small unit sizes so as to reach a large number of consumers.

Locally-produced dairy products, particularly those such as cheeses, butter and fermentedproducts, are frequently considered by the more affluent consumers in the capital cities ofdeveloping countries as second-rate compared to imported products. In fact, locally processedmilk products are often considered even by the producers themselves as merely by-products,surplus to their family needs. The project needs to demonstrate that with appropriate technologythe finished products can be just as good as, and often better, than imported productsconsidering the time required to clear imports through customs. At a minimal cost theirpresentation can also be as good.

VI A VILLAGE MILK PROCESSING UNIT: WHAT IT SHOULD BE

as simple as possible; as clean as possible; as cheap as possible; as profitable as possible.

The village dairy unit is a tool:

for a group, association or cooperative, for pooling resources so as to exploit their milk surpluses, to enable people to organize, and obtain the resources they need for improving their

welfare.


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Part 2THE VILLAGE MILK PROCESSING UNIT: A GENERAL

MODEL

I THE SITE

The unit should be located as centrally as possible within a given milk-producing area, near asource of water, or in a place where water is available. The site should be cool and well-ventilated. Sometimes not all these conditions can be met. The most important factor isavailability of water. It should be remembered that on average five litres of water are required toprocess one litre of milk.

II THE BUILDING

Milk and dairy products are biologically active substances which are influenced by theirenvironment. Cheese quality and reliability depend largely on the surroundings in which cheeseis manufactured. An unused building can be purchased or leased and adapted for milkprocessing operations, or a new building can be constructed. It is not uncommon to find in someremote milk-producing areas, abandoned milk collection centres which may be suitable.

For a new building, the following factors should be taken into consideration:

the walls should be built of local stone and the inner walls lined with a lime-cementmixture for easy cleaning;

the cement floor should have a 2 to 3 percent slope for draining water used in cleaning; windows should be sufficient to provide adequate ventilation.

For village cheese manufacture, the second component of the building is the ripening cellar.

The most important features of a ripening cellar are maximum moisture (80 percent relativehumidity) and low temperature (8 to 12°C). To achieve or approach these standards, a roompartly below ground level is recommended. It should be about 2.5 m high. The floor of the roomshould be dug to a level of some 1.5 m below ground, with windows or openings made in theupper walls to lower the temperature of the cellar by a circulating draught, particularly importantduring the night.

Building size will of course depend on the quantity of milk received during the peak productionperiod. An average quantity of milk which can be processed by a small-scale unit amounts to100 to 500 litres per day. For these quantities the building area should be some 50 sq. m.


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Section of the processing unit


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Diagram of building layout


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Sectional diagram of processing unit and equipment

III OPERATIONS

As previously pointed out, milk processing operations will take place far from urbanconsumption centres. In these areas the quantities of milk hardly exceed an average of 500litres per day.

The products made must be able to withstand long periods of transportation, often under difficultclimatic conditions.

Milk products can be processed as illustrated:


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Butter, cheese and processed cheese may require lengthy transportation, given the distancefrom consumer centres, whereas buttermilk and yoghurt can be marketed in the vicinity of theprocessing unit. The whey will be returned to the dairy farmers.

The main steps in obtaining the above products are:

Standardization: Standardization is an operation producing milk with a constant butterfatcontent through partial, manual skimming. The operation makes it possible tostandardize the composition of the finished product and to set aside part of the cream forbutter.

Heat treatment: Pathogenic germs in milk are destroyed by heating the milk to aminimum temperature of 63°C for 30 minutes.

Inoculation: Due to heat treatment, which destroys a large number of lactic bacteria,cheese or yoghurt-making requires the addition of lactic bacteria to the milk. Thesebacteria are selected according to the type of finished product required.

Clotting: Milk changes from a liquid to a solid state through the use of a coagulant:rennet.

Curd-Separation: In cheese-making, the milk after coagulation is cut and separated intoa liquid whey, and cheese curd.

Ripening: This phase of cheese-making allows cheese texture to become homogeneousand the aroma to develop.


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Churning: In this operation, cream is churned to produce a semi-solid product whichbecomes butter.

Melting and emulsification: Defective cheeses are melted and emulsified with salts toobtain a solid consistency and, after cooling forms processed cheese.

In addition to the eight steps mentioned above, milk collection, milk analyses and the marketing

of the finished products should be equally regarded as important operations.

Each one of these important operations is described in the following chapter according to thefive traditional operations: reception, standardization, processing, storage and distribution.

IV EQUIPMENT

The equipment needed to run the dairy processing plant depends on several factors: how muchmilk is to be collected, how far and how scattered are the milk producers, what kind of product isto be produced?

In the standard milk processing pattern, commencing with milk collection and ending with thesale of the dairy products, the following equipment would normally be required:

1. For collection

Plastic milking pails are often an improvement on the utensils commonly used. The producer should use small aluminium milk cans of 5 –10 litre capacity for

transporting the milk, while the collector should use 30 –50 litre cans. If the milk needs to be collected, the following will be needed: the use of a bicycle, a 50

litre milk can, a graduated cylinder lacto-densitometer and a measuring pail.


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The amount and density of the milk collected from each producer should be entered in anotebook. The following is a sample entry:

No. Name of producer Amount delivered (litres) Density Signature

1. Esperanza Chavez 10 1.030

2. Juan Chamaro 5 1.029

3. Antonios Vargas 15 1.038

4. Musaline Chouco 12 1.030

5. Edgar Vasconez 5 1.032

TOTAL: 47

2. For processing

Reception: the following equipment is needed for the reception of milk brought in byproducers themselves and by the collector: a milk scale and a pail.

Storage: a milk funnel and 50 litre milk cans. Standardization/Cream separation: a manual cream separator has to be used to skim a

portion of the milk received.


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Milk scale and pail milk funnels filter and milk can Standardization hand-operated separator

Heat treatment: there are several possibilities for heat treatment, depending on theavailable power source. Under the least favourable circumstances, the sole availableenergy source is wood or peat. The best thing to use in this case is a ―boiler/water bath‖as in the model below:


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Cement-block boiler

More elaborate models can be built for wood or gas-fuelled heating (where bottled gas isavailable).


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Wood-fuelled metal boiler Gas-fuelled metal boiler

For 100 –500 litre quantities of milk, milk pasteurization with a plate pasteurizer is notrecommended.

Cooling: the milk is cooled with running water in a vat:


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Simple cooling vat

or by water circulating in a jacketed vat.

Jacketed cooling vat

Clotting: The cheese vat can be of aluminium with a tap for draining the whey.

Simple milk clotting vat

A jacketed vat can also be used for milk clotting.


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jacketed clotting vat

There are other possible types of cheese vats, depending on the resources available to dairyproducers. The following are a few examples:

simple vat to process 50 –100 litres of milk

Low-walled clotting vat


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a more elaborate vat for processing 100 –300 litres of milk: milk cooled by cold watercirculating within its jacket:

Clotting vat equipped for cooling

for larger amounts of milk up to 500 litres, a vat equipped for heat treatment, cooling andclotting can be designed as shown in the following diagram:

Multi-purpose vat

Draining: the cheese is drained in moulds set on a slanting surface to drain the whey.The moulds, which give the cheeses their characteristic shapes, vary greatly in size andform.

The simplest way to make cheese moulds is to cut a plastic pipe generally used fordrainage into 10 cm sections.


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The resulting cylinders are perforated as in the model below:

Bases and Lids are of wooden discs slightly smaller in diameter than the cylinders.


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Moulds with bases and Lids

Cheese moulds may also be made of wood, their shape varying according to the type of cheesemade.


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The cheese-draining table, slanted forwards to facilitate draining of the whey, is made of wood.


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Wooden cheese-draining table

Pressing: different kinds of cheese (curd) presses can be made. The simplest press ismade by placing weights or cement block on the moulded cheese (curd) as shown in thefollowing diagram:

Simple press

Other presses can be constructed according to the following designs:


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Vertical screw press

Weight press

Ripening: wooden shelves must be assembled for the cheese-ripening cellar.


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Ripening shelves

3. For marketing

Marketing, as previously mentioned, is a very important aspect of overall operations. Quality of

presentation is important. Wooden boxes made to accommodate the specific cheese shapesare used to transport the cheese to consumer areas.


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Wooden cheese boxes

V ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT

An important component in a dairy processing unit, is the laboratory.

Laboratory equipment should include the following:

To measure milk density:

Two or three lactodensitometers with glass cylinders

To test milk acidity:

A Dornic acidimeter and the accessories shown below.


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Salut acidimeter used for selective testing of milk acidity immediately after reception of farmers'milk

• Fat content of milk


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• Preparation of cultures

To prepare mesophilic cultures for cheese-making or thermophilic cultures for yoghurt-making, astrain of starter culture is initially required. Culturing and sub-culturing is done in individual 5, 10and 15 litre containers.

Part 3ORGANIZATION AND OPERATION OF THE MILK

PROCESSING UNIT

I MILK COLLECTION


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A village milk processing unit usually involves a group of milk producers living within a givenarea near the unit. It is therefore reasonable that the majority of the producers will deliver theirown milk in the morning direct to the processing unit. The milk from the evening milking isretained by the family for home consumption.

For producers who live further away or small farmers who do not wish to make the trip with a

small quantity of milk, collection can be arranged within a radius of no more than 10 kilometres.

A milk collector on a bicycle picks up the milk at collection points, which are simple shelterswithin which the milk can be kept in the shade.


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THE MILK COLLECTION POINT

At the milk collection point, the milk collector tests milk density with the lactodensitometer, testsmilk acidity, and measures milk volume using a measuring can. The milk is then filtered andpoured into the milk can.

The entire milk collection round should take no longer than two hours.

The milk collector has a little notebook in which he enters the volume and density of the milkdelivered by the producer. Payments for the milk are made twice a month.

The person responsible for milk collection may either be paid by the village cheese unit or bythe producers themselves. For purposes of simplification, the second choice is preferable.

II MILK RECEPTION

Reception of the milk delivered by the farmers themselves or by the collector should take placein the very early morning.

The producers' milk is weighed, density checked, the milk filtered, and then poured into milkpails.


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Milk density is measured as shown in the diagram below:

the producer's milk sample is poured slowly into a test-tube to avoid foaming; the lactodensitometer is introduced into the test-tube and, once the level is steady, the

number is read:


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Interpretation of readings

For cow's milk an approximate estimation of density can be read as follows:

Lactodensitometer reading Result

1.028 to 1.033 Normal milk

less than 1.028 Diluted milk

1.033 to 1.037 Skimmed milk

III MILK STANDARDIZATION

When milk from all the producers has been poured into the milk cans, a sample is taken fromeach can and mixed together to obtain an average sample. This sample is tested for milk acidityand fat content.

1. Milk Acidity

Put 10 ml of the milk sample into a glass.

Add 3 to 4 drops of phenol-phthalein.

With the dropper, add the NAOH solution drop-by-drop into the glass until a stable pink colourresults.


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Read on the graduated column the number of ml used. This gives the acidity of the milk inDornic degrees.

EXAMPLE:

• 1°D is 1 mg of lactic acid in 10 ml of milk or 0.1 g/l

2. Fat Content

1. Put 10 ml of sulphuric acid in the butyrometer.2. Add 11 ml of milk from the average sample.3. Add 1 ml of amyl alcohol.

4. Shake the butyrometer to dissolve the milk elements.5. Put the butyrometers in the centrifuge. Centrifuging should continue five minutes.6. Next plunge the butyrometers vertically, cork down, into a water bath, temperature 65° –

70° C, and leave them for five minutes.7. The butyrometer, cork down, should be perfectly vertical when taking the reading at eye

level. Read the graduation mark at the base of the meniscus, i.e. at the base of thecurved upper surface of the fat column. In the example that follows, the degree readingis 3.6. The milk fat content then is 3.6 percent, or 36 g of fat per litre of milk.


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The different stages of this test are illustrated on the following page.


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The laboratory will then enter the results in the milk analysis notebook.

―THE VILLAGE DAIRY‖

Laboratory

Date Quantity of milk received (litres) Milk acidity Average fat content % Observation12 February 385 22°D 3.6 -

13 February 405 21°D 3.7 -

14 February 395 21°D 3.6 -

15 February 372 22°D 3.8 -

16 February 387 20°D 3.7 -

17 February 384 21°D 3.9 -

We know therefore that on 17 February, for example, the dairy received 384 litres of milk with abutterfat content of 3.9 percent. In making Edam cheese, for example, milk with a fat content of

2.6 percent is required. By standardization, the fat content can be reduced from 3.9 percent to2.6 percent. In order to do this, the amount should be calculated of the milk required to beskimmed and remixed with the milk received to bring the butterfat content to the desiredamount.

3. Calculation for milk standardization: Pearson square method

The desired percentage of butterfat is written in the centre of the square and, in the two left-hand corners, the percentages of butterfat in the available ingredients.

0 percent is the fat content of the skimmed milk.3.9 percent is the fat content of the milk received. Substraction along the diagonals will give twovalues representing, respectively, the amounts of the ingredients to be used.

Thus by blending 2.6 litres of milk with a 3.9 percent fat content and 1.3 litres of skimmed milkwith zero fat content, 3.9 litres of milk with a 2.6 percent fat content is obtained.


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Assuming reception of 384 litres of milk on 17 February, with an average fat content of 3.9percent, it would be necessary to skim:

A hand-operated separator with an hourly capacity of 60 –200 litres may be used for milk

standardization.

Approximately 100 litres of milk (98 litres, to be exact) are skimmed to provide 16 litres ofcream, as shown in the above illustration.

IV HEAT-TREATMENT OF MILK

Heat-treatment of milk is a most important factor in the quality of the finished product.


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After standardization, milk must be heat-treated. This means bringing it to a minimumtemperature of 63°C for 30 minutes.

The various equipment suggested for heat-treatment can bring the temperature up to 63°C frombetween 40 to 60 minutes.

The diagram shows the heat-treatment profile:

The milk must be constantly stirred to maintain a homogeneous temperature throughout theheating and heat-treatment stages. The milk stirrer and the thermometer are important items ofequipment.

V COOLING MILK

When the milk has been kept at a temperature of 63°C for 30 minutes, it is then cooled down tobring it to a suitable temperature for cheese-making (approximately 35°C).

The milk is cooled either by immersing the milk cans in a tank with cold running water, or byrunning cold water through the double sides of the cheese vat.

During the cooling, as during the heating period, the milk must be stirred constantly.


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Bearing in mind heat losses, cooling water should be shut off before the desired milktemperature is reached. For instance, if the milk temperature for cheese-making is 32°C, coolingwater must be shut off when the milk temperature has reached 35°C.

VI PROCESSING AIDS

1. Preparation of starter cultures

One person only must be responsible for the preparation of starter cultures.

The simple method for preparing starter cultures is illustrated.

The preparation of the starter cultures requires suitable strains of bacteria and a milk of goodbacteriological quality.

The starter culture used should be a commercial lyophilized one. These strains keep relativelywell and it is, therefore, advisable to maintain a three-months' supply.

Following the heat-treatment of milk for cheese-making, a certain amount of milk for thepreparation of the starter culture is retained in the milk can or in the jacketed vat in order tomaintain the heat-treatment of 63°C for an additional 15 –30 minutes. The milk is then poured

into one-litre bottles and into a 5-litre container and covered with a clean cloth.

a) Imported lyophilized starter culture

The contents of the vial are poured into a bottle of milk and shaken well to mix the powder andmilk together.

b) Mother culture


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In order to avoid contamination by air, both the bottle containing the mother culture and the 5-litre container of starter culture are placed in a small wooden cupboard.

c) Starter culture for cheese-making

The mother culture to be used for cheese-making (mesophilic culture) is placed in the culturecupboard.

The incubation temperature should be 20 – 22°C for 15 –16 hours.

The acidity of the mother culture will then be 80 to 90°D. Use the mother culture to inoculate, at2 percent, a second mother culture and 5 litres of milk for cheese-making.

The preparation of starter cultures for cheese-making is shown below.

PREPARATION OF STARTER CULTURES


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If the starter cultures are prepared with great care, one strain of commercial culture may beused for one to two months by means of successive subculturings.

d) Yoghurt-making cultures

Starter cultures for yoghurt-making are thermophilic bacteria. They must be cultured therefore ata temperature of 40 – 45°C for three to four hours.

After heat treatment of the milk to which the yoghurt bacteria are to be added, the milk is cooledto 45°C and then poured into 1 litre bottles. These are then set into a water tank at 45°C tostabilize the bottled milk temperature.

The lyophilized commercial strain for yoghurt-making is then put into the bottles.

The bottles of milk are left in the water bath at 45°C for three to four hours.


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The preparation of cultures for yoghurt-making is shown below.

2. Preparation of rennet

Rennet, like starter cultures, may be imported. However, unlike commercial starter strains,rennet can be made locally. Since laboratory equipment is needed for making rennet, it shouldtherefore be undertaken with the advice of a laboratory in the capital city - that for example of a

university.

a) Obtaining abomasa

Abomasa should be obtained from preferably unweaned calves.

Assuming that the annual amount of calf rennet to be obtained is some 120 litres of liquid rennetat a strength of 1/10 000 and a yield of approximately 2 abosama for 1 litre of rennet, 240abosama will be required per annum.


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b) Preparation of abosama

The abosama should be washed and the fat and veins removed.

The abosama are then inflated with air to avoid the two sides touching. They are then ball-shaped, the neck and the base being tied with string.

The inflated abosama are hung in a dry, well-ventilated area. Drying should be complete afterapproximately one month of storage. At this stage, the flattened abosama can be kept in a dryplace for a long period without signs of deterioration (about one year).

c) Soaking

When required for use, the abosamum should be sliced into thin strips, 5 mm wide.

In an-easy-to-clean basin of plastic or stainless steel, soak the strips of abosamum in a 10percent sodium chloride (salt) and 1 percent sodium benzoate solution.

To produce a three months' batch of 30 litres of rennet, 60 abosama should be soaked in 40litres of this brine solution.

The pH of the solution is adjusted to 4.3 with benzoic acid, after soaking for 24 hours at atemperature of from 20 to 25°C. Pour the liquid off into a container. In the same soaking basinand keeping the same abosama strips, the brine solution may be renewed four to five timesbefore the properties of the abosama strips are completely exhausted.

Each extract obtained in this fashion is treated as described above and the first and mostconcentrated extract is used to standardize the strength of the rennet.

d) Treatment of the liquid

To eliminate the mucilage in suspension in the extract, the solution is reacidified withhydrochloric acid to a pH of 4.8, and allowed to settle for two hours.

The pH of the extract is raised with disodium phosphate to pH 5.5 – 5.6.

Vigorous stirring must accompany these two actions. The liquid is then filtered over Watmannpaper. Filtration may take a long time and probably will require distribution of the extract overseveral filters.

The crude rennet extract obtained is generally a golden-yellow colour.

e) Determination of strength

Definition: Rennet strength is the number of volumes of coagulated milk clotted by one volumeof rennet in 40 minutes at 35°C.

If ―v‖ equals one volume of rennet, and ―V‖ one volume of milk and measuring the clotting timein seconds, the calculation is:


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In practice, liquid rennet strength should be 1/10 000 (1 litre of rennet clots 10 000 litres of milkat 35°C in 40 minutes).

Method

Put 500 ml of fresh milk in an Erlenmeyer flask and plunge it in a water bath at 35°C.

Remove 1 ml of the rennet to be standardized and dilute it in 10 ml of water.

When the milk in the Erlenmeyer flask reaches a constant temperature of 35°C, pour 10 ml ofdiluted rennet, stirring constantly, and start the timer. Keeping the Erlenmeyer flask in the waterbath, slant it while rotating it gently so that a film of milk is formed on the sides of the flask.When the liquid begins to floculate, stop the timer.

Rennet strength:

If flocculation time is 60 seconds, for example, rennet strength will be:

S = 20 000

f) Standardization

The strength of the four or five different batches, obtained by successive extractions of therennet from the abosama is determined, thus enabling the rennet to be readjusted to a strengthof 1/10 000.

For example, if 30 litres at a strength of 1/20 000 have been obtained, and the extract from thefour preceding rennet mixtures gave a solution at a strength of 1/5 000, the volume of rennet atstrength 1/5 000 required to prepare standard rennet at a strength of 1/10 000 is determined inthe following way:

30 litres × 20 000 units + ―Y‖ litres × 5 000 units = (30 + Y) litres × 10 000 units

600 000 units + 5 000 Y = 300 000 + 10 000 Y

Y = 60 litres.

After mixing the two extracts, 90 litres of rennet will be obtained at a strength of 1/10 000.

g) Maintenance-storage


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Rennet must be stored in opaque glass bottles or in dark (blue or black-tinted) plastic containersand placed in cold storage at a temperature of 5 to 7°C. Under these storage conditions, therennet will remain active for three months.

h) Renneting the milk

It is recommended that coagulation tests be made first on small volumes of the cheese-milk.This is to redefine the amounts of rennet to use in order to obtain the same coagulation time asobtained previously with powdered rennet of 1/100 000 strength.

Rennet preparation is illustrated on the following page.

Preparation of rennet


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Part 4APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF

DAIRY PRODUCTS

I CHEESE

The following cheese-making operations are for making a firm-bodied cheese (Saint Paulin orGouda type), a cheese most often produced in the developing countries and one which isrelatively easily made to standard.

The various steps of the cheese-making process should be adapted to climate, equipmentavailable and consumer preferences.

Steps in making a ―Saint-Paulin/Gouda‖ type cheese

Equipment Operation

• Hand-operated separator

Reception - Filtering

↓

Standardization

↓

• One vat for pasteurization and cheese-making

Pasteurization (63°C for 30 minutes)

↓

Cooling (32 – 35°C)

↓

Inoculation (rennet; starter culture; calciumchloride)

↓

Cutting the coagulum and stirring

↓

Drawing off part of the whey

↓

Addition of water or brine

↓

Second stirring

↓

• Moulding table Moulding


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↓

• Press Pressing (1 to 5 hours)

↓

• Brining tray Salting in brine

↓ • Ripening cellar Turning and ripening (at least 2 weeks)

The producers' milk is first filtered and then poured into the one-step ―pasteurization/cheese-making vat‖. After filtering, a portion of the milk is passed through the separator to remove therequired amount of cream.

The milk used for cheese-making is standardized to a level of fat content of some 26 g/l. Theseparator can be a source of contamination, and it is therefore preferable to standardize beforepasteurization rather than after.

The milk is pasteurized at low temperature in the double-walled vat at some 63°C for about 30minutes. The source of heat can be gas or electricity or even fuelwood. The milk is then cooledto a temperature of 32 –35°C by circulating cold water through the jacket of the vat.

The lactic acid bacteria should be added at a rate of 1 to 2 litres per 100 litres of milk 15 to 20minutes before renneting.

The rennet (at a strength of 1/10 000) is added at a rate of 20 – 25 ml of rennet per 100 litres ofmilk. This is the time to add, if necessary, calcium chloride (5 –50 g per 100 litres of milk).

Following this, flocculation time is from 10 to 15 minutes, and total clotting time is from 15 to 40minutes.

The curd is cut into regular grain-sized pieces. The first stirring should be carried out with boththe curd grains and the whey, and should last from 5 to 10 minutes.

Drawing off the whey (lactose removal) consists of extraction of a portion of the whey (from 20to 60 percent), followed by the addition of an equal amount of water at a temperature of 30 to35°C.

Potassium nitrate may be added at this stage of the cheese-making process.

The second stirring, with moderate shaking of the curd grains in the diluted whey, lasts 10 to 20minutes.

The curd and some whey are then put into cloth-covered moulds. These moulds may be madeof wood, stainless steel or plastic.

Mechanical pressing lasts from 1 to 6 hours. During this operation, the cheese mould will beturned over 2 to 4 times.


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The cheese is salted in saturated brine at a temperature of 10 to 14°C. Brining time variesaccording to the volume of cheese. A Saint-Paulin cheese weighing from 1.5 to 2 kg and with adiameter of 20 cm, is salted for about 8 hours.

Working out the curd lasts 2 to 3 days, at a temperature of 10 to 12°C and a humidity rate of 80to 85 percent.

The cheese is placed on wooden shelves to ripen for at least 15 days at a temperature of 10 to16°C with a humidity rate of 90 to 95 percent.

Prior to sale, the cheese can be covered with a protective film of wax.

If the cheese processing unit produces very large cheeses, they should be cut into 100 – 200 gslices prior to sale, and wrapped in greaseproof paper.

II CREAM AND BUTTER

a) When standardized milk is used to make cheese, there will inevitably be excess fat in theform of cream.

Often it is advantageous for the cheese unit to sell this surplus fat as fresh or acidified cream,both of which are more profitable than butter. In rural areas, however, the market for cream isoften quite small and the cheese unit is obliged to make butter, a product of longer shelf life.

b) If the cream is to be sold as it is, it should be pasteurized before packaging. Experience hasshown that a pasteurization temperature of approximately 95 – 98°C for 30 seconds destroysgerms satisfactorily and inactivates enzymes while preserving the organoleptic qualities of thecream.

After pasteurization, the cream is packaged in plastic bags or tubs and kept in a refrigerator.

The fresh cream is usually sold with a fat content of about 40 percent.

Acidified cream is sold with a lower fat content - 30 – 35 percent.

c) To make butter, cream is cooled to the lowest possible temperature. The cream is thenstored until enough is obtained to make into butter. Cream stored in this way acidifiesautomatically, after which it is churned.

After filling the churn, the following steps are taken:

The churn is rotated at 25 – 35 revolutions per minute (rpm) for 5 minutes. The churn is stopped and if necessary the gases released. The butter is churned again at 25 – 35 rpm for 35 to 45 minutes. The buttermilk is poured off into plastic pails. The same amount of cold water as the amount of buttermilk which has been removed is

added, and the mixture churned at 10 – 15 rpm for 5 minutes. Water is drawn off. Rotation at 10 – 15 rpm for 10 to 20 minutes.


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The butter is removed. The butter is worked with a butter worker for 5 minutes, compressed into a butter mould,

and packaged in greaseproof paper. Alternatively, after working, it is placed in plastictubs.

The butter can, if required, be salted as it is worked.

This operation may be regarded as the standard butter-making process since a number ofvariations are possible. Non-acidified cream can be churned, in which case the product is calledsweetcream butter. Some butter-makers wash the butter twice and in some cases the butter isnot worked at all.

The larger butter units usually pasteurize the cream, followed by the re-inoculation with selectedlactic starter cultures for ripening. This method produces a cultured butter commonly calledlactic butter.

Diagram of lactic butter-making

Cream

Pasteurization

Cooling

Inoculation with lactic starter culture

Ripening

Churning

Washing

Working

Packaging

Storage and marketing.

III BUTTERMILK

Buttermilk is a by-product of the butter-making process. It is highly nourishing, hence theinterest in promoting the product for human consumption.

Buttermilk quality depends greatly on the butter-making technique used.

Buttermilk can be packaged after only one filtration. It should be packaged in plastic bags.

Buttermilk can also be ripened. While the buttermilk is still in the pail, cheese-making startercultures (approximately 2 percent) are added, and the product left overnight at roomtemperature before packaging.

IV YOGHURT


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Steps in yoghurt-making are as follows:

Skimmed or standardized milk

↓

Pasteurization

↓ Cooling to 42 – 45°C

↓

Inoculation (approximately 1%)

↓

Stirring

↓

Packaging in tubs

↓

Incubation 42 – 45°C for 2 – 5 hours

↓

Cooling

Pasteurization and cooling are done in the cheese vat, or in a pan for smaller quantities.

For yoghurt-making, the dairy unit needs to have a large refrigerator or small cold storage area -this also applies to cream and butter. Another essential investment item is an incubator, andperhaps a hand bottle-capper. Yoghurt is usually sold in plastic tubs or in cartons of 120 or 125ml.

The yoghurt-making process increases the amount of cream available. Thus the decision toproduce yoghurt should be preceded by a cost benefit analysis.

Another technique is to let the yoghurt clot in the vat. It is then stirred prior to packaging.

V FERMENTED MILK

The technology is very simple:

Standardization

↓

Pasteurization

↓

Cooling to 20 – 25°C↓

Addition of lactic acid bacteria

↓

Stirring for a few minutes

↓

Ripening (12 – 24 hours)


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↓

Packaging

This technology corresponds to the traditional process, and the product is in demand as thebase used in preparing ―porridge‖. The processing unit's main consideration in this technique is

that the milk is pasteurized and that both quality and hygienic standards are met.

Fermented milk being sold directly at the processing unit does not need to be packaged. Thefermented milk is sold from the can, and is ladled into containers brought by local purchasers.

No specific equipment is required to make fermented milk. It is, however, advisable to allow fora large refrigerator.

VI PROCESSED CHEESE

Melting emulsification has traditionally facilitated the incorporation of sub-standard cheeses, aswell as cheese trimmings, into products for sale as processed cheese.

The usual presentation for processed cheese is as a spread, packaged in plastic rolls oraluminium-wrapped in bite-sized portions. While the latter requires costly equipment to mouldand package the cheese, processed cheese spread in plastic rolls offers an attractive approachfor small dairies where second-quality cheeses, or cheeses with a manufacturing defect arereadily available.

The product can be packaged in glass or plastic tubs, or otherwise wrapped in aluminium.

Steps in processed-cheese making

Cheeses

↓ Derinding or scraping

↓

Cutting

↓

Mixing

↓

Addition of emulsifying salt

↓

Cooking (10 min. of which 2 at 90°C; sometimes sterilization)

↓

Cooling

↓

Packaging when the cheese is still liquid

↓

Final cooling.


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Commercial processed cheese preparations are highly diversified, as it is possible to add avariety of ingredients: flavourings, mushrooms, nuts, meats, etc. Packaging while the cheese isliquid, allows great variety of shapes and weights in the finished product. No specific equipmentis required to make processed cheese, the only indispensable item being a pot in which to meltthe cheese.

VII WHEY FROM CHEESE-MAKING

The simplest solution is a feedback system to return this product to the milk producers or toindustrial-scale pig farms.

The quantities available are usually not sufficient to justify processing the whey and using it forhuman consumption. However, the nutritional value of whey is such that it can be used as adrink or as raw material in making certain whey cheeses such as Mysost etc.

VIII CLEANING AND DISINFECTING OPERATIONS

Cleaning consists of removing all visible or invisible dirt from the surface. This surface can thusbe described as clean.

Disinfection involves eliminating or killing micro-organisms.

Effective cleaning is absolutely essential for the equipment, installations and premises used forcheese-making, and the cheese-maker needs to pay special attention to this item.

After each use, all equipment and utensils: pails, cans, filters, pans, trays, tables, ladles etc.,must be vigorously and meticulously cleaned. This is essential for successful cheese-making asthe equipment is the main source of contamination by harmful germs. Simply rinsing with cold orlukewarm water is not sufficient. This is because a very thin film of residues or wastes from theclotting process sticks to the surfaces of the equipment which has come into contact with milk,whey or curd.

To eliminate these residues, an alkaline or acid detergent solution must be added accompaniedeither by vigorous brushing or agitation of the soaking solution to remove the residual film orwastes.

It is recommended that the equipment be soaked immediately after use in a vat filled with water.

Correct cleaning of dairy processing equipment should include the following operations:

Soaking the equipment in a vat filled with preferably warm water to help remove spotsand stains; rinsing to remove any remaining spots and stains; brush cleaning with a hot water solution to which alkaline detergent has been added. An

acid-based detergent should be alternated occasionally with the alkaline detergent,particularly in areas where the water used for washing is very hard;

rinsing in chlorinated water to kill dangerous germs. With a glass 3/4 full of bleach(sodium hypochlorite solution) of 12° chlorine for every 10 litres of water, all germs canbe destroyed by allowing adequate exposure time;


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the equipment and utensils are drained in a dust-free atmosphere to avoidcontaminations.

In remote parts of the country, it is sometimes difficult to find detergents. Where this is so, theutensils after cleaning can be dried in the sun to disinfect them.

IX ORGANIZATION OF WORK

The layout and design of the dairy unit should be planned in such a way as to allow thoseresponsible for processing operations to work under the confortable, safe and hygienicconditions.

Indicated below, as an example, are the times necessary for each operation involved inprocessing cheese from 150 litres of milk:

• filtering, checking temperature, preparation of coagulation,renneting

60 minutes

• moulding, turning 80 minutes

• demoulding, salting, setting on trays 60 minutes

• cleaning 50 minutes

To this total of approximately 4 hours, the time required for packaging, labelling and packing thecheese for sale should be added.

X LAYOUT OF THE UNIT

The dairy unit must be designed to provide a rational layout to allow the cheese-maker to work

efficiently. The following diagrams show several floor plans for village cheese-making.

Plan No. 1


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Cheese factory handling 500 litres of milk per day

Plan No. 2


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Cheese factory handling 600 litres of milk per day

Scale I: 75

Cheese-makingroom

: 33 sq.m

Ripening room : 22 sq.m.

Storage : 12 sq.m.

Office : 12 sq.m.

Plan No. 3


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Legend

1. pressing, packaging butter2. churn3. cheese vat4. clotting tank5. moulding table6. press7. salting tank8. draining table9. fresh cheese vat

10. yoghurt filler11. incubator

Plan No. 4


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Dairy plant handling 2 000 litres per day

Part 5ACCOUNTING AND EQUIPMENT COSTS

I ACCOUNTING

The keeping of accounts is of fundamental importance in knowing the cost price of the variousfinished products.

It is, therefore, essential to know each day the amounts of milk received and the productsobtained.

1. Reception

For reception, the following data should be known.

―The village dairy‖

Date Amounts of milk received % of fat

12 February 385 3.6

13 February 405 3.7

14 February 395 3.6

2. Standardization

If the whole milk received at the dairy contains 40 g of fat per litre, and the milk for cheese-making has to be standardized to a fat content of 26 g per litre, the following balance isobtained:

100 × 40 = 26x + 400 (100 - x)

4000 = 26x + 4000 - 400x374x = 36 000.

x = 96.25 litres.

Therefore, 100 litres of milk with a fat content of 40 g per litre will produce 96.25 litres of milkcontaining 26 g per litre of fat, and 3.75 litres of cream with a fat content of 400 g per litre.

3. Cheese-making


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In the case of making a Gouda-type cheese, yield will be approximately 11 kg of cheese per 100litres of milk.

According to the balance resulting from the standardization (see above), 96.25 litres of milk forcheese-making will give:

For butter, the yield is as follows. After standardization, 3.75 litres of cream at 400 g per litre areobtained. The total amount of fat content will be therefore: 1 500 g. The butter will have a fatcontent of 82 percent, and so the butter yield will be:

The breakdown, exclusively for butter and cheese-making, is therefore as follows:

This represents a theoreticval breakdown - i. e. showing, in theory, the amount per product aftermilk processing. This, of course, needs to be compared with the amounts actually produced. Ifthere is too great a difference, one must then proceed to ascertain just where the discrepancylies; whether in the measurement of the volume of milk received, the determination of fatcontent, or in the quantities of milk and cream after standardization, etc.

II STUDY OF COST PRICE

Study of the cost price of each product is essential in order to determine the sale price for dairyproducts.

The calculation of cost price of dairy products is based on average daily production and actualoutput obtained.


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In the simple example already taken for the breakdown based on 100 litres of milk, the costprice of cheese and butter is established as follows.

1. Cost of raw material

Over one year the average of 100 litres of milk is received daily. From the outset of operations,this milk will be paid E per litre. The cost, therefore, of the raw material, is:

100 × E

The usual consumption is that in 1 litre of milk the value of the fat content represents 50 percentof the price of the milk. It can therefore be concluded that the purchase price of 1 g of fatcontent, if the milk has an average rate of 40 g per litre, is:

The butter contains 82 percent fat content and therefore the cost price of 1 kg of butter will bebased on the cost of 820 g of fat content. This makes the cost price of 1 kg of butter:

The above example shows that 100 litres of milk with a fat content of 40 g per litre will supply 96litres of milk with a fat content of 26 g per litre, for cheese-making.

The next step is to determine the value of the milk used for cheese-making. This milk iscomposed of:

milk solids + fat content of milk

(50% of the value of themilk

(cost of the fat content at 26 g per litre)

The cost price of 1 litre of milk for cheese-making is therefore:

The cheese yield of 100 litres of milk for processing is therefore approximately 11 kg of cheese.

The material cost, therefore, of 1 kg of cheese for accounting purposes is:


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As a further example, assuming that for milk 160 monetary units are paid in a local currency, thematerial cost price of the butter for accounting would therefore be for 1 kg of butter:

10.25 × 160 = 1 640

As for the material cost for 1 kg of cheese, the figure is calculated as follows.

The cost of 1 litre of milk for cheese-making, with a fat content of 26 g per litre, would be:

= 3.2 + 52

= 55.2

The cost of 1 kg of cheese would be:

= 501

The above data provides an approximate but adequate estimate of the cost of raw materials for

making butter and cheese.

To obtain the total cost price per product, the processing costs also have to be added.

These costs are made up of fixed costs and variable costs.

The only cost involved in collection of the milk is the salary of the collector if employed by thevillage dairy.

In processing, salaries of the staff supervising and operating the dairy will have to be paid, aswell as the expenses for fuel (wood, bottled gas, etc.) and the products used during processing(cleaning supplies, cultures, rennet, packaging materials).

All these costs are added to the cost of the unit of weight of the final product.

Using the above example, the following costs can be estimated:

2. Collection costs


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If the collector's salary is 6 000 monetary units and he collects an average of 100 litres of milkper day (two 50-litre cans) the monthly collection will total 3 000 litres. The collection costs,therefore, for one litre of milk are:

25 percent of this will be earmarked for bicycle repairs and maintenance:

Collection costs per litre of milk

Expenditure Monetary unit

Salary 2.0

Maintenance and repairs 0.5

TOTAL 2.5

Considering that some 10 litres of milk are needed to make 1 kg of cheese, the collection costper kg of cheese is then:

2.5 × 10 litres or 25

3. Processing costs

Assuming the processing unit employs 4 people on a full-time basis, each at a salary of 36 000

(monetary units), the total payroll will come to:36 000 × 4 = 144 000 (monetary units).

Salary costs will then be broken down per kg of cheese. Knowing that the monthly average milkcollection is 400 litres per day, or 12 000 litres per month, from which the cheese output isapproximately 10 percent, then the salary costs per kg of cheese are:

Knowing the monthly expenditure to be 36 000 monetary units for power (to heat the milk) andfor processing aids such as starter cultures, rennet, cleaning supplies, etc., then the cost per kg

of cheese can be broken down as follows:

The cost of processing cheese from milk is therefore:

120 + 30 = 150 (monetary units)


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4. Packaging costs

Here again, the packaging materials required are estimated on a monthly basis (number ofsheets of greaseproof paper; cost of a wooden crate for transporting cheeses, etc.) and theprice in terms of the individual package. If the total monthly cost of the packaging is 6 000(monetary units), for example, the packaging cost per kg of cheese will then be:

5. Transport costs

The cost of transporting the products is also estimated on a monthly basis. If a vehicle isneeded to transport the dairy products to town, depreciation of the vehicle needs to be takeninto account. If the monthly transport cost is 24 000 monetary units, for example, the cost per kgof cheese is then:

6. Marketing costs

As already mentioned, marketing, i.e. offering the product to the customer, is a highly importantfactor. Consequently, marketing may involve the use of a stand in town for direct sale. In thiscase, the marketing costs will include the rental of the stand plus the vendor's salary. If thesemonthly expenses amount to 60 000 monetary units, the sale cost per kg of cheese is then:

SUMMARY

The following table summarizes all costs to be included in the sale price of 1 kg of cheese.

Accounting service

Cheese-making cost price per kg of cheese

Monetary units

Raw materials 501

Milk collection 25Production costs

• salary 120

• supplies, power 30

Packaging 5

Transport 20

Marketing 50


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TOTAL 751

This gives us a cost price of 751 monetary units for 1 kg of cheese.

The profit will depend on local market conditions, but should normally range around 30 percent

of the cost price. This gives us a profit margin of:

This would make the sale price of the product (1 kg of cheese)

751 + 225 = 976 monetary units

In this case the percentage of costs with respect to the sale price would be as follows:

Distribution of costs as % of sale price

%

Raw materials 51.0

Collection 2.5

Processing costs 15.0

Packaging 0.5

Transport 2.0

Marketing 5.0

Profit margin 24.0

TOTAL 100.0

III ESTIMATING EQUIPMENT COSTS

The suggested list of equipment primarily concerns equipment which is probably difficult toobtain locally. These are estimated costs, and are generally overestimated.

1. Milk collection equipment

Estimated cost in US$

• Chinese-type bicycle with spare parts 300

• Milk can with pressure cover 130

• Milk volume measuring can 100

• Funnel with filter 50

• Portable laboratory equipment including:

Salut acidimeter 50

Glass cylinder 10

Lactodensitometer 15


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2. Milk reception equipment

• 50 litre milk can (aluminium) 400

• Milk scales 60

• Funnel with filter 50

• Milk pail 60• Milk stirrer 20

• Milk sampler 10

3. Laboratory equipment

• Laboratory wall cupboard used in determinationof fat content

1 000

• Equipment and accessories for determination ofmilk acidity

50

• Glasswork 30

• Reagents for one year 60

4. Milk standardization equipment

• Hand-operated separator: 300 1/hour 1 600

• Cream bucket 60

• Milk can with pressure lid 50 litre capacity 20

5. Cheese-making equipment

• Stainless steel curd cutter 200

• Cheese stirrer 60

• Cheese thermometer 15

• Curd scoop 60

• Mould-filling tray 75

• Minor equipment such as brushes, aprons,cheese samplers, etc.

500

6. Butter-making equipment

• Hand-operated pinewood barrel churn: capacity30 litres of cream

200

7. Equipment for preparation of processing aids

• Minor equipment used in the preparation ofstarter cultures and rennet

300


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Bibliography

J.C. Le Jaouen: La fabrication du fromage de chèvre fermier.

ITOVIC

J.C. Belloin: Coût de production et de transformation du lait.

Etude FAO

Jose Dubach: Para la quesería rural del Ecuador

Bichsel: Equipment pour la petite fromagerie

Gerault: Practice of milk industry in warm countries

Gret: Le point sur les mini-laiteries

FAO/Equipo regional de fomento y capacitación en lechería para América Latina:

• producción higiénica de la leche

• cómo mejorar la eficiencia de su quesería

FAO Regional Dairy Training Course:

• General accounting principles

FAO-CENCAP: Manual de quesería artesanalJ.P. Ramet: Technologie fromagère (divers documents)

FAO/DGETA: Industrias rurales: Elaboración de leche

Peter Meier/Francisco Rhon Davilà: Queserías rurales en Ecuador

National Dairy Research Karnal Institute: Making milk powder in villages

FAO TECHNICAL PAPERSFAO ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH PAPERS:

1. Animal breeding: selected articles from World Animal Review, 1977 (C* E* F* S*)

2. Eradication of hog cholera and African swine fever, 1976 (E* F* S*)

3. Insecticides and application equipment for tsetse control, 1977 (E* F*)

4. New feed resources, 1977 (E/F/S*)

5. Bibliography of the criollo cattle of the Americas, 1977 (E/S*)

6. Mediterranean cattle and sheep in crossbreeding, 1977 (E* F*)

7. Environmental impact of tsetse chemical control, 1977 (E* F*)

7 Rev. Environmental impact of tsetse chemical control, 1980 (E* F*)

8. Declining breeds of Mediterranean sheep, 1978 (E* F*)

9. Slaughterhouse and slaughterslab design and construction, 1978 (E* F* S*)

10. Treating straw for animal feeding, 1978 (C* E* F* S*)

11. Packaging, storage and distribution of processed milk, 1978 (E*) 12. Ruminant nutrition: selected articles from World Animal Review, 1978 (C* E* F* S*)

13. Buffalo reproduction and artificial insemination, 1979 (E**)

14. The African trypanosomiases, 1979 (E* F*)

15. Establishment of dairy training centres, 1979 (E*)

16. Open yard housing for young cattle, 1981 (E* F* S*)

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