Vienna Thesis

Vienna – 1898

The Urban-Cultural Transformation of the Hapsburg Imperial Capital

Alexander Cline

HIST 4970: Senior Thesis

Dr. William Risch

July/ 28/ 2016

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Vienna in 1898 was at the beginning of its cultural transformation from the Founders Era

to the Secessionist Period. Under the reign of Emperor Francis Joseph (1848-1916), Vienna

emerged as one of the three predominant political-cultural capitals in Europe (the other two

being London and Paris), with an extensive urban renovation in the center of old city. Other

major European cities, St. Petersburg, Berlin, Madrid, and ect, trailed behind Vienna in terms of

prestige which had long been natured and cultivated by the Hapsburg Monarchy. Francis Joseph

sought to reinforce the city’s legendary cultural hegemony through the construction of symbols

in the cityscape –political, religious, and artistic. His reign had presided over turbulent period of

national unification throughout Europe. This had depraved the Austrian Empire of its territory in

Northern Italy and political hegemony over the German Kingdom States. These two significant

defeats led him to offer a compromise with the Hungarians, the largest ethnic group of the

Empire, in agreeing to grant autonomy in exchange for political stability as one state. Despite

this initial success, misfortune struck the Emperor shortly thereafter with death of his brother

Maximilian to Mexican Revolutionaries in 1867. The tragedy continue for him with the suicide

of his only son (Prince Rudolf) in 1889, a political scandal that greatly embarrassed the dynasty

on both domestic and international scene. However, the largest heartbreak and blow to Francis

Joseph occurred in the midst of the Golden Jubilee in 1898 with the assassination of Empress

Elizabeth. Beginning in 1898, five significant events, Rise of Christian Social Party, Political

Mayhem of Parliament, Golden Jubilee, Vienna Art-Social Secession, and Assassination of Sisi,

marked a turning point to the development of modern 20th century identity of Vienna. These are

small sampling of greater transformative period throughout Europe.

It should be noted that this work cannot fully reflect complexity of turn century cultural,

political, and urban transformation of Vienna, or let alone the greater Austro-Hungarian Empire.

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This subject is own vast field of historical research, long explored by scholars since the collapse

of this state in 1918. What presents difficulty for this topic is apparent fact of different

perspectives and actions of social, economic, and national groups in the transformation of

Vienna. While my writing takes a sampling of four major events that began or occurred in 1898,

it will not fully cover all aspects of them and rather present supporting evidence to the overall

argument of this paper. Main central figure is Emperor Francis Joseph, though it must be made

clear that his role was influencer to both city and national development. Although the Austro-

Hungarian Empire was constitutional parliamentary state, Francis Joseph still wield sizeable

power in terms of controlling military, foreign relations, and final executive approval on

government legislation. He did not, though, control all aspect of functioning state and urban

development of Vienna. This writing was influenced by the work of Daniel L. Unowsky, The

Pomp and Politics of Patriotism: Imperial Celebrations in Habsburg Austria, 1848-1916, which

reflected the power symbolism through court functions of Hapsburg Monarchy. His research

concerning the Golden Jubilee was base to my own work, as well as James Shedel’s article,

“Emperor Church, and People: Religion and Dynastic Loyalty During the Golden Jubilee of

Franz Joseph” giving further insight to the personification of the Emperor. Several of my

primary sources were found at National Archives and Library in Vienna, which carry an

abundant amount of material that was not available in the United States. However, this large

collection is immense to examine and will require several further years of research on just the

archival sources. It also challenge to interpret German of the turn 20th century, which differs

considerably than the current taught German of present. This will require for further training and

familiarity after this research paper is completed. Again, this work can only reflect narrow view

of much larger and complex subject.

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The Hapsburg capital city has long been affectionately known as the “Garden”, due to its

long tradition of creating public green spaces for its populace. As the center of political power

for the Hapsburg Monarchy, it has enjoyed a long tradition of opulence and grandeur. Most

noteworthy example of this can be seen in the city center, which was transformed to state the

legacy of the empire over its subjects. Known as the Ringstrasse, it was massive urban

renovation project that Emperor Francis Joseph initiated to compete with the redevelopment of

Paris by Napoleon III. Prior to this the inner city was long protected by fortified walls, which

physically divided the aristocracy from the working class. With the Revolution of 1848 and

ongoing city growth, these walls were providing inefficient to the urban development. In 1857, a

royal patent was decreed to demolish the fortifications and to begin a massive building sphere

compared to no other European city had seen before. This era became known as Founding

Period, which saw Vienna’s population rise from 470,000 to 800,000. The capital incorporated

its suburbs, and by 1890, the outer districts. Most significant visual piece of this urban

transformation was the Inner District, the former perimeter were the walls of Vienna stood. This

was adorned with many of major political and cultural institutions of the Hapsburg Monarchy.

To list of few of these buildings on the Ring are the Opera House, Parliament, Rathaus,

University of Vienna, Stock Exchange, and Burgtheater. Even the imperial residence of the

Hapsburg Monarchy, the Hofburg Palace, was expanded to incorporate this new symbol power

and wealth. Of course, this was also meant to continue show symbolic division between the

nobility and general populace. The city experience a pull from the main districts back to the

inner core in the regards to education, commercial, and administrative center.1 However, this

division of Castle District, Garden District, and the Ring saw a sizeable change economic

1 Peter Hanak, The Garden and the Workshop: Essays on the Cultural History of Vienna and Budapest (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 8-12.

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demographics. In 1869, the aristocracy was 20 percent of the area inhabitants, and 56 percent to

the bourgeoisie. By 1914, 14 percent still belong in the high nobility, 19 percent were rentiers,

and 66 percent were from the middle class.2 This information is important to give context to the

setting of which greater political and cultural transformation would occur at the beginning of

twentieth century.

The greater cityscape of Vienna in 1898 was beginning to phase into its twilight era, a

period of extordinarily progress in culture and economic development. This collapse after

separation of Austro-Hungarian Empire, leaving city with fraction of its population and available

resources. The period saw landscape become further diversified, as well as fragmented between

wealth and nationality. With the annexation of poorer outlying districts, a political shift was

occurring against the old social order. This flared in the Economic Crash of 1873, intensive

division between higher, middle, and petty bourgeoisie. These central groups veered away from

supporting the traditional Liberal party, and begin fragmenting support into either far-right or

far-left parliamentary parties. Lower middle class became closely aligned with the Christian

Social party, which identified politically as German-national, democratic, and anti-Semitic. This

political party was led by Karl Luger, whom embodied the core principals of this organization.

He is considered the first self-created political candidate in Austrian History, whom had humble

origin of being born to housekeeper from the Imperial Polytechnic Institute. His heritage of

being part of petite bourgeoisie allowed him to garner support for the Christian Social party. He

was also well educated, a law graduate of the University of Vienna, and charismatic personality

that identified with the greater Viennese populace. In 1888 Lueger was able to unify the division

between the bourgeoisie class and pan-German nationals into a major political union. By 1895 he

2 Elisabeth Lichtenberger, Wirtschaftsfunktion und Sozialstruktur der Wiener Ringstrasse (Graz, 1970) 49 & 60, quoted in Peter Hanak, The Garden and the Workshop: Essays on the Cultural History of Vienna and Budapest, 12.

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was elected Mayor of Vienna, which formally broke away from the supremacy of the aristocracy

of this administrative office.3 Lueger was able to win the election through the support of

collation of Socialists, Catholics, Pan-Germanists, and Democrats, while also promising voters

greater social improvements not given by aristocracy or competing Liberals.

This initial victory enraged both the Jews and Emperor Francis Joseph, whom feared the

possible anti-semitic violence spurred on by Karl Luger’s accession as mayor. Wealthy Jewish

elite pressed the Emperor of possibility of their exodus to neighboring Hungary if Luger election

was confirmed by him. Francis Joseph went to furthest extreme of stating to the descending

Primer of Austria, Erich Kielmansegg, that “so long as I rule, Lueger will never be confirmed as

mayor of my imperial capital.”4 His disdain over the rise of the Christian Socialists was furthered

by their growing support by the aristocracy. One noteworthy testament of this period is from

Bertha von Suttner, the famous Austrian-Czech pacifist and first female noble laureate. She had

extensive influence and connections with the elite of Europe, whom admired her for promotion

of universal peace. As Bertha von Suttner reflected in her memoir of the period;

An Austrian aristocrat holding an important position told me of finding himself in a company at court when the news of Lueger’s nonconfirmation was brought. ‘Oh, the poor Emperor!’ cried the Duchess of Wurttemberg, daughter of Archduke Alrecht, ‘the poor Emperor – in the hands of Freemasons!” And a year later, in the same circle, where my informant happened to be again when the news of Lueger’s confirmation came, the same princess raised her eyes and her clasped hands to heaven with the words, “God be praised! Light has dawned on the Emperor at last!5

In many way this was the trend amongst the Viennese elite, whom were quick to side with the

political party that would best respect their stature. Emperor was strongly concern by the rising

3 Wolfgang Madethaner and Lutz Musner, Unruly Masses: The Other Side of Fin-de- siecle Vienna (New York: Berghahn, 2008) 130-134. 4 Alan Palmer, Twilight of the Habsburgs: The Life and Times of Emperor Francis Joseph (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1994), 274. 5 Bertha von Suttner, Memoirs of Bertha von Suttner; The Records of An Eventful Life, Vol. 2 (London: Ginn and Company, 1910), 70.

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anti-semitism in the aristocracy, “Among the highest social circles anti-semitism is an

extraordinarily widespread disease and the agitation is unbelievable.”6 Despite this initial desire

to refuse Karl Lueger as the Mayor of Vienna, Francis Joseph was swayed by his advisors to

accept his election. Lueger secretly negotiated for recognition of his appointment with the acting

Prime Minister, Kasimir Felix Graf Badeni, whom agree to secure the Emperor’s recognition of

the election in exchange for the less active appearance in public. However, this was a false

promise that he actively disregard with his continue appearance in rallies for the Social

Democrats and engagements of his loyal followers. In Lueger’s acceptance speech promised to

push an agenda of improving the city infrastructure, preserving the historical character of

Vienna, and improving working conditions for the Viennese populous.7

Before continuing deeper into the political setting of 1898 in Vienna, it should be

clarified the greater extent of Emperor’s ability to govern and influence the parliamentary system

of Cisleithania and city administration of Vienna. Both of these are intertwined by political

conflict between conservative political order (backing traditions and policies of Francis Joseph),

radical liberals, and nationalistic parities of ethnic minorities of the Cisleithania (Czech, Polish,

Slovene, and ect.). This important to examine due to the assume notion that Francis Joseph had

very limited ability to govern without the approval from the Parliament outline in the December

Constitution of 1867. On the contrary, the ethnic-political division in the Parliament had

basically given the Emperor considerable emergency power to govern the state domestic affairs.

This began with the collapse of majority rule by the German Liberals in 1878-1879 from

6 G. Nositiz-Rieneck, Briefe Kaiser F’js an Kaiserin Elizabeth, Vol. 2 (Vienna, 1966), Francis Joseph, letter to Elizabeth, December 30, 1895, 111, cited in Alan Palmer, Twilight of the Habsburgs: The Life and Times of Emperor Francis Joseph, 275. 7 Richard S. Geehr, Karl Lueger: Mayor of Fin de Siècle Vienna (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1990), 98-100.

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contention with the acquisition of Bosnia-Herzegovina at the Congress of Berlin. Continuous

opposition by the German liberal leadership to Francis Joseph’s expansionary policies caused

him to enlisted Count Eduard Taaffe to recompose legislative order. Taafe shrewdly enlisted the

assistance of both Czech and Polish representatives along with moderate liberals to form new

coalitional government. This “Iron Ring” created by Taaffe effectively gave the Emperor an

effective means to pass key legislature protecting his foreign policy and military establishment.

Despite this success, when Taafe resigned from failing to achieve greater electoral reform in

1893, the coalition splintered into rivaling fractions interested only in their political ideology

and/or nationality groups. This crisis lead Francis Joseph to select Count Casimir Badeni to tried

restore order in the Parliament, with some moderate success. Despite this, Badeni was forced to

resign at midst further turmoil in trying pass language ordinance in Bohemia, effectively

devastating any hope of unity and progression in the legislative branch.8 However, Francis

Joseph did exercise considerable constraint to being involved in this political arena, rather letting

himself be seen as public symbol of the monarchy than contributor to failed attempt for

controlling the Parliament.

In the reflection of disorder and chaos in the Cisleithania Parliament, the American

author Mark Twain was given the unique opportunity to be able record his own account of this

government system. Twain traveled extensively through Central Europe for two years (1897-

1899), with most of his stay centered in Vienna. His account is major primary source in

understanding both the cultural and political transformation that effected the Austrian Capital.

On October 28, 1898, Mark Twain was invited to sit-in on the parliamentary session. The scene

8 Steven Beller, A Concise History of Austria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007) – Word document copy provide by Professor Alois Kernbauer of University of Graz, 6-11.

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he described was a mixture of aristocratic pageantry and violent gridlock between conservative

and liberal fractions. Twain wrote;

Then burst out such another wild and frantic and deafening clamor as has not been heard on this planet since the last time the Comanches surprised a white settlement at midnight. Yells from the Left, counter-yells from the Right, explosions of yells from all sides at once, and all the air sawed and pawed and clawed and cloven by a writhing confusion of gesturing arms and hands.9

This contentions scene was not abnormal for the daily parliamentary sessions in Vienna, which

were infused with deep seeded political and national hostilities by the representatives. Conflict

he describes that occurred this out roar was Representative Wolf, a strong headed liberal,

demanding to overtake the floor for motion against Dr. Lecher’s drawn out speech for the

defense of important Ausgleich legislature. Wolf’s recorded vehement protest describes well the

enflamed tensions between conservatives and liberals of the Parliament;

"It is by such brutalities as these that you drive us to extremities! Are you waiting till some one shall throw into your face the word that shall describe what you are bringing about?* [Tempest of insulted fury from the Right.] Is that what you are waiting for, old Grayhead? [Long-continued clatter of desk-boards from the Left, with shouts of "The vote! the vote!" An ironical shout from the Right, "Wolf is boss!"]10

Hostile behavior is not just purely for show, Wolf is later noted by Twain as being brutally

critical of President Ritter von Abrahamowicz and the administration of Chancellor Badeni

(whom he apparently shot through the arm in a dual). Wolf aggressively pressed Abrahamowicz

to yield towards his demand to present his speech of opposition, overcoming jeers from

conservative members of Parliament and “Ordner” to restore order in the Parliament. The main

aim of the opposition was preventing the passing of Augselich legislation, which left did

succeeded decisively over conservative right.

9 Mark Twain, “Stirring Times in Austria”, Harper’s New Monthly Magazine for March, 1898, Vol 96 (New York: Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, 1898), 535. 10 Twain, 536 – Writer makes the side comment of “That is revolution.”

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It should be taken into consideration the interpretation of this scholarly source by literary

scholars of Mark Twain, particularly its importance to the historical narrative of the period.

Walter Grünzweig, Professor of American Literature and Culture at Dortmund Technical

University, reflect in his article about the significance of this late piece by Twain, and how it is

written to be piece of entertainment for an American reading audience. He is also challenging

William R. Macnaughton’s own interpretation of this piece and lack of appreciation to the

difficulty of explaining the complexity of imagine Austria. This writing of Twain’s is unique

amongst his other piece concerning Austria, with one of his friends, William Dean Howells,

praising; “You wrote a mighty good paper about Austria, and made the whole thing delightfully

intelligible.”11 This quote is important to the quality of the source and author’s writing ability to

nonfiction event into a lively read. Although he was present for all these parliamentary sessions,

it is difficult to perceived if the writer could have understand what was actually said in German

or to hear amongst the shooting in these heated debates. Rather, it’s more conceivable that he

had read the written records of these sessions and different newspapers to get a clearer grasp of

the spectacle that was the Austrian Parliament. Twain does create a more fantasy and theatrical

account, largely to appeal the general reading audience of Harper’s (where this writing was

published). He tries to create a comparable understanding with the United State and United

Kingdom’s legislative bodies for his readers, which in truth are far different than the newly form

Austrian Parliament in terms of democratic tradition. In fact, as Grünzweig underlines in his

essay, Twain had vehement American perspective that often jaded with the reality confronted by

the Austro-Hungarian Empire in terms of creating a democratic system from traditional

11 Henry Nash Smith, William M. Gibson, eds., Mark Twains-Howells Letters: The Correspondence of Samuel L.Clemens and William D. Howells, 1892-1910, Vol. 2(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960), 673, cited in Walter Grünzweig, “Comanches in the Austrian Parliament: Austria a Metaphor for Mark’s Twain’s Disillusionment with Democracy”, Mark Twain Journal, Vol. 23, No.2 (Fall 1985), 4

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authoritative monarchy.12 Mainly, this primary work by Mark Twain should be treated as

valuable insight to the era, and transformative nature that affect Vienna in terms of parliamentary

grid-lock from inner feuding.

The cornerstone of political and social transformation in Vienna was started by the rise of

Christian Social Party under Karl Lueger. It originated out of the lose collation of the “United

Christian”, a group of pan-Germans, Clericals, anti-Semites, and Democrats that opposed Liberal

policies. Lueger was able unify this collation with other Nationalists to form competitive

political party. The Democrats were important to this overall rise of dominance, with them

considering Christian Socialism as a better alternative than the current Liberalism. These

different groups consolidated around the leadership of Karl Lueger, whose prior experience of

political party management help develop a popular appeal to voters.13 The name change of the

“United Christian” to “Social Christian” came from Luger’s mentor, Karl Freiherr von

Vogelsang. He himself was a Roman Catholic writer from Prussia, whom envision the creation

of new political-economic order that did not depended on the Capitalist system. Rather, he

prompted the idea of government based on cooperative structure with moral alignment to

Christian ideals. This appealed to Karl Luger’s own ideas and became the foundation of Social

Christian Party.14 The idea was presented at Vogelsang private birthday party in September of

1888, where he challenge Lueger’s terminology. He saw the opportunity to expand the party base

with this name change to appeal to the Viennese anti-Liberals, whom were in discourse with the

fall of their own leader, Georg Ritter von Schönerer (whom was arrested after ransacking a

12 Walter Grünzweig, “Comanches in the Austrian Parliament: Austria a Metaphor for Mark’s Twain’s Disillusionment with Democracy”, 3-6. 13 John W. Boyer, Political radicalism in late imperial Vienna: origins of the Christian Social movement, 1848-1897 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 219-220. 14 The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica, “Karl Freiherr von Vogelsang”, Encyclopedia Britannica Online, Web. July 27, 2016.

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newspaper office and assaulting an employee there). Lueger agree to this, and benefited with the

continued rise of political leadership in Cisleithania.15 This laid foundation that would allow the

Christian Socials to impact development of Vienna, and celebrations of Emperor Francis

Joseph’s Golden Jubilee.

Christian Social rule began in 1897, after much contentious fighting with their Liberal

rivals. Their first real challenge, though, was the Golden Jubilee of Emperor Francis Joseph. This

celebrated fifty years of his turbulent reign, which seem displaced with changing political

environment in Vienna. It seemed to be a prime opportunity for Lueger to appease the royal

family in making the Jubilee into a triumph mark for the Emperor. By displaying patriotic loyalty

and historic festivities, it cemented the Christian Socials as the leading political party of the city.

Their main agenda for the Golden Jubilee was geared to support their main base of the working

class. The creation of a children’s hospital was seen as way to retain their socialist principals

while utilizing the image association of the Emperor’s Jubilee as a pretense. Other projects, like

the Jubilee Church and Kaiser Jubilee Theater, asserted the anti-semitic beliefs of the ruling

Social Democrats. The illusion of a pure Germanic city was embellished to distance any relation

to other ethnic and religious minorities of the capital.16 Implication for Francis Joseph was the

appearance of being a German Monarch, which is practically true of Hapsburg dynasty historic

ties with Germany (both in the Holy Roman Empire and German Confederation). However, main

aim of the Golden Jubilee was to represent unity of multi-national empire under one ruler. The

Hapsburg Monarchy lack a commonality within its ethnic groups, whom often conflict with one

another for dominance. Although Francis Joseph could have interceded and overruled the Social

15 Boyer, 224-225 16 Daniel L. Unowsky, The Pomp and Politics of Patriotism: Imperial Celebrations in Habsburg Austria, 1848-1916 (West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2005), 152-155.

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Christian’s activities, he depended on their support to rule and not cause the Germans of the

Cisleithania to demand unification with the German Empire.

As James Shedel argues in his work, Emperor Church, and People: Religion and

Dynastic Loyalty During the Golden Jubilee of Franz Joseph, that the Germans actively

contested their dominance in Austrian side of the Hapsburg Empire with the larger Slavic

population. This conflict erupted on April 5, 1897, with the passing of a law that declare German

as the administrative language within the bureaucracy of Bohemia. Outcry erupted throughout

the Hapsburg Empire, with many of the Slavic nationals violently protesting this measure by

Prime Minister Badeni. Though by the end of 1897 it had largely claimed down, there was

general anxiety by the imperial government of this returning in the Golden Jubilee celebrations.17

Most speeches made by Franz Joseph and other officials of the empire did not mention a word of

surviving the Badeni Crisis in Golden Jubilee Celebrations. Rather, as Shedel argues, the focus

was assert a sense of comfort and security under a benevolent ruler. Creation of Parter, special

ceremonies-parades, and other festivities emphasized this desired state, despite the growing state

of Irredentism throughout the empire’s nationalities. It thus made it important for both the

Monarchy to assert historical tradition and personality politics to their claim of power. Thus the

popularize image of Franz Joseph as a “Peaceful Monarch” and “Divine Protector of his

Subjects” were romanticized by the imperial-royal officials.18 This scholarly article thus

highlights the efforts made by the Hapsburg court to affect the future legacy of Franz Joseph

with Golden Jubilee of 1898. However, Shedel’s work is centered on the relation between the

Emperor and Catholic Church, whom became closely align with cultural events of turning of 20th

17 James Shedel, “Emperor Church, and People: Religion and Dynastic Loyalty During the Golden Jubilee of Franz Joseph”, The Catholic Historical Review, Vol. 76, No. 1 (Jan., 1990), 71-74. 18 Shedel, 82-83.

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century. This paper, though, avoids examining this due to its complex nature and being

respectfully its own subject by itself.

In further understanding the logistics to the Golden Jubilee of Franz Joseph, it’s

important to examine some of the official and personal writing too court officials and heads of

state. Noteworthy example that give context to the pursuit of considerable pomp for this royal

anniversary is letter sent to Count Taaffe by Francis Joseph on December 2, 1888. It concerns the

Emperor’s wish to not have any court celebrations for Sliver Jubilee of forty years on the throne.

This semi-official note was publish with collection of other writings by the Emperor in the

attempt to humanize him to his subjects in 1898 with the ferment of Golden Jubilee. It states;

“Dear Count Taaffe!

It was my wish, the fortieth anniversary to pass up my throne without public ceremony, all festive pomp and see all mask with expenses and enjoy milk instead of such manifestations of devotion to my faithful peoples to works of charity, to the relief of the poor and the needy to. The manifestation of My desire was enough to elicit an almost incalculable number of diverse benevolent - Acte , humanitarian foundations and patriotic dedication , which are the most welcome tribute to my heart and make the commemoration of My throne richer for starting points , even in the distant future continue acting blessings will.”19

This portrays Francis Joseph as a benevolent ruler, with his interest to serving the subjects of

Hapsburg Monarchy. In reality, despite the nature and aim of this publish work, this did occur

with little court celebration occurring to mark this occasion. There was also solemn fact that only

month later, on January 30, 1889, Prince Rudolf committed suicide with his mistress, Baroness

Marie Vetsera. The immediate scandal rocked the foundation of Hapsburg Dynasty, and both

public-international opinion towards the conservative Catholic empire.20 In that regard, any

19 Franz Joseph to Eduard Taaffe, December, 2, 1888, in the letter collection of Herausegeben von L.K Nolston, Kasierworte 1848-1898 (Vienna: Verlag Von L. W. Sield & Sohn and K.U.K Hof-Buchländer I, 1898), 323 20 Steven Beller, A Concise History of Austria, – Word document copy provide by Professor Alois Kernbauer of University of Graz, 9.

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delayed or reconceived celebrations to the Sliver Jubilee were quickly thrown out with concern

of court mourning and damage control in response to the sudden death of heir apparent.

To this regard, the 1898 Kaiser Jubilee Exhibition was the accumulation of this effort by

both the Hapsburg Monarchy and Christian Social Democrats in showing the unity and progress

of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. As the president of this exhibition, Count Dominik Hardegg,

stated in benevolence to the Emperor, “[Francis Joseph] own life’s work is everything that today

blooms and bears fruit in the monarchy… the Kaiser is the source of everything.”21 This

emphasize the deep traditional belief of the divinity of the Emperor, whose rule was associated

closely to the divine will of God. When Francis Joseph died in 1916, the Austro-Hungarian

Empire quicken in it process of collapsing from the lack of allegiance to his successor, Charles I,

whom could not personified the presence that his predecessor succeed in his long 68 year reign.

Of course, there was also several other factors to end of Hapsburg Empire, especially with the

mayhem of the First World War.

Unowsky uses the 1898 Kaiser Jubilee Exhibition as way to present the evident

patriotism to the Emperor, whom was endeared as the core symbol of the Austro-Hungarian

Empire. Karl Lueger saw the exhibition as a prime opportunity to display the progressive

development of Vienna as a major European capital city. Though supportive to this, he did not

give ample amount funds from the city council and was trump in comparison to the Austrian

Imperial Government. City council did create a pavilion and were actively present to the

different ceremonies at the 1898 Kaiser Jubilee Exhibition. Karl Lueger was present when

Francis Joseph first formally visited the exhibition on May 7, 1898, which saw mass public

21 Dominik Hardegg, “The Jubilee Exhibition,” in Schnitzer, ed., Franz Joseph und seine Zeit: Cultr-Historischer Ruckblick auf die Franco-Josephinische Epoche (Wien, 1898), 409, cited in Unowsky, The Pomp and Politics of Patriotism: Imperial Celebrations in Habsburg Austria, 1848-1916, 165.

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turnout to see this historic moment. The Emperor would actual visit the 1898 Kaiser Jubilee

Exhibition several times, giving the Austrian press ample material for news articles over that

summer.22

In the Hapsburg court, royal balls were being held in honor of the Emperor throughout

the celebration period. Francis Joseph, though, was feeling the effects of being 68 years old, and

having to appear in these constant functions. In midst of his reign, he closely developed a

friendship with the Austrian actress Katharina Schratt. She was recruited by Empress Elizabeth

to serve the needs of her husband as a Confidante, due to her contest wandering of Europe and

general disinterest in communicating with him. On the topic court functions of Golden Jubilee,

Francis Joseph writes to Schratt that;

“Our court ball turned out very brilliantly and it was not so crowed and hot as we feared, as finally indeed only 800 people appeared. Many ladies came, among them many beautiful young women and almost no pretty girls at all. People danced very eagerly, even Valerie took part in the dancing. Coming home at midnight, I drank two glasses of champagne, which I report for your peace of mind. Yesterday there was an especially beautiful ball at Karacsonyi’s, at which I stayed only from half past 9 to half past 10; yesterday we had a ladies’ dinner, the last of which will follow today…”23 This letter emphasizes the active lifestyle of Francis Joseph, with his appearance

elevating the importance and symbolism of these court functions. His subjects were eager to

please the Emperor by being active in these court events, which were strongly dictated by

imperial etiquette and centuries long traditions. A visual example of these court balls is Theodor

Zasche’s Court Ball in the Redoutensaal in 1898 (Appendix 1), which shows the ageing Emperor

greeting his subjects in high society ball of the capital city. Evident in this painting is the level of

wealth and pedigree portrayed by those in attendance, whom consider themselves part of the

22 Unowsky, 167-170 23 Franz Joseph to Katharina Schratt, February 22, 1898, in the letter collection of Evabeth Miller Kienast and Robert Rie, The Incredible Friendship: The Letters of Emperor Franz Joseph to Frau Katharina Schratt (New York: The Research Foundation of the State University of New York, 1966) 288-289.

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high nobility of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and greater Europe. There is also a strong tradition

of military influence and rank, displayed with several high ranking officers in their regalia. This

important to differentiate from general public events by Christian Social party, which were open

for the entire city populace. Court Balls and other aristocratic ceremonies displayed traditions

and beliefs from beginning of the Hapsburg Monarchy, which was being challenge by cultural

transformation of Vienna.

Perhaps the greatest cultural transformer for Vienna was the formation of Secession

Movement, which challenged the traditional forms of art and literature with Avant-Grade and

Modernism. Under the leadership of Otto Wagner, a modern Austrian architect, he was able to

create an association of the leading artists and architects called the Union of Austrian Artists

Secession. This organization strived to push the Viennese culture to compete with the other

major European art movements like the British Arts and Crafts movement and French

Impressionism. The goal of contrasting Historicism, which architecturally favored the Classism

and Gothic, help define the visual landscape of the Austrian capital. Secession gave artists,

architects, and writers an opportunity to pursue modern individualize style in contemporary

format. It ultimately was able to become a define characteristic of the greater Art Nouveau era,

but yet retain its distinct regional effect.24

In examining this artistic movement, it would be beneficial to examine one of its leading

the creative leaders of Gustav Klimt. As someone who was born and raised in Vienna, he

experienced the rapid urban-cultural development of late 19th and early 20th century. His rise of

fame occurred in 1883, when he, Ernst Klimt and Franz Matsch form the Künstler-Compagnie

(Artists’ Company). This business was focus exclusively on historic style, which was popular

24 Jill Lloyd and Christian Witt-Dorring, Birth of the Modern: Style and Identity in Vienna 1900 (New York: Neue Galerie, 2011), 17-18.

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throughout Europe’s royal courts. They were quickly commissioned throughout Central Europe,

and received their most notable patronage from Emperor Francis Joseph’s in 1886 for two

staircases at the Burgertheater. However, this company in 1892 separated after death of Ernst and

differing of artistic styles between Gustav and Franz. Despite this breakup, Gustav continued to

rise in acclaim around his artistic style, being commissioned by the University of Vienna to draw

Medicine, Philosophy, and Jurisprudence (which would take several years to complete). In 1897,

he join Otto Wagner and nineteen other artists to form Vienna Secession, which shortly elected

him as there President.25 This role allowed him to push the greater Art Nouveau style to Vienna

and to an extent the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Although are several paintings that could be chosen to show the mastery of Klimt, his

work Pallas Athene (Appendix 2) is perhaps most fitting in this overall examination. The

painting was presented in First Vienna Secession exhibition in 1898, chosen as main piece to the

overall art show. This is largely due to meaning of the piece, which stands for protecting new

artistic movement against the old order that had rebuked there creative ideas.26 Interpreting this

piece of art, it shows the close alignment with classicalism of ancient Greece and mythical

fantasy. The Goddess Athena is an important icon for Vienna, with her statue in front of

Parliament representing wisdom of a newly emerging democracy. It breaks away from the

traditionalist and nationalistic art that had dominated the late 19th century. Instead, Klimt

presents an artistic style that transcends this into individualized level of fantasy. Work is also

realistic, not portraying perfect beauty in Athena or other female characters. Klimt ultimately

25"Gustav Klimt." Neue Galerie. Neue Galerie, n.d. Web. 28 July 2016 26 “Gustav Klimt Painting - Early Works / Pallas Athene 1898 / Klimt Gallery | Klimt Museum." Klimt Museum. LAKS GmbH, n.d. Web. 28 July 2016.

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present new medium of expression, which would be carried out in not only visual art, but

architecture and literature.

In field of architecture, Otto Wagner carried the Secession movement into the cityscape

of Vienna. He is considered one of Europe’s greatest architects, ushering in the modernist

movement of the 20th century. Wagner gain considerable fame when winning a competition in

1893 on urban development plan for Vienna, though this was never carried out. Despite this, he

was given appointment to be a Professor at Academy of Fine Arts, where his teaching created a

city planning process of thought known as the “Wagner School”. Between 1894-1897, Wagner

publish his most notable work in 1895, Modern Architecture, and help design the creation of

several Art Nouveau Style railway stations (Appendix 3).27 The image is that of former

Karlsplatz Stadtbahn Station, which is today above the U-Bahn station of Karlsplatz. It was open

in 1898, which is considered one of his best work representing the Viennese Secession

movement.28 In regards to Wagner’s thoughts regarding the cultural transformation that was

occurring from Secession movement, he writes in his second edition preface of Modern

Architecture in 1898;

“Almost everywhere the Modern Movement has marched in victorious. Its opponents thronged into camp as deserters; the opposition’s best warriors faltered when they say that the shield of eclecticism and “intimacy” that they were holding up to the onslaught of the Modern Movement was only made of pasteboard. An army of art periodicals appeared on the battlefield, and all have opened their columns to the Modern Movement; in the word and deed the Modern Movement has been celebrated. The success of the Union of Austrian Artists, the “Secession,” convincingly demonstrates that even the public at large has rallied to this youthful cause.”29

27 The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. "Otto Wagner." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia

Britannica, n.d. Web. 28 July 2016. 28 "Otto Wagner Pavillon Karlsplatz - Wienmuseum.at." Wienmuseum.at. Wienmuseum, 2016. Web. 28 July 2016. 29 Otto Wagner, Modern Architecture: A Guidebook for His Students to this Field of Art, Translated by Wolfgang Herrmann (Santa Monica: The Getty Center for History of Art and Humanities, 1988), 57

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This is an important claim he makes, being that the general public appreciate more the Secession

art style more than the traditional Historicism. The later had been used to promote separation

between the working class and aristocracy, with notable use of neo-classicalism in the

architecture for elite government establishments. Those of the middle class had their cultural and

political institutions created in Neo-Gothic, a Romantism to the Middle Ages and popular

legends of Europe.30 With the Art Nouveau Style, it broke down some of the social barriers,

especially with the new elite and old aristocracy. Work being down by Wagner and other

Secessionist artists was pushing in the 20th century and its new ideas on urban space. It would

also influence the writers of the era, and their unique perspective.

In examining how this caused a cultural shift within the Viennese, a reveling source can

be emergence of ‘young Viennese’ writers. As Wolf Wucherpfennig studies in his article of “The

‘Young Viennese’ and Their Fathers; Decadence and the Generation Conflict around 1890”, he

shows how this group experienced a crisis of religious faith and identity. The perceived failure of

European liberal enlighten ideas had created a generational gap between parents who were born

between 1860s – early 1870s and their children of mid 1870s – 1880s. This divide was apparent

with the experience of the older generation in seeing the failure of Revolution 1848, emergence

of nation-states of Germany and Italy, and growing state of Irredentism throughout the

Monarchy. This generation was instilled with belief that they should be loyal to the crown and

dynasty, respect the military and political authorities, and obedience to establish social order of

the empire. The younger generation differed in lack of faith in being part of this rigid political

system and grown to disdain the extreme nationalistic and anti-semitic agenda of the Social

Democrats and German-Nationalist parties. They developed a cynical attitude on human

30 "Historicism." Historicism. Art Directory, n.d. Web. 28 July 2016.

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morality, which often made them critical of the era itself and its political leaders.31 This would

become intertwined in the cultural identity of the Viennese, especially entering the 20th century.

The period was also seeing the growing ability for women to have a more visible role in

Viennese society, particularly in fashion. Austrian capital became a center for dress reform and

experiments in clothing styles by the middle class women. Many of aristocrats, like Princess

Pauline Metternich, help sponsor department stores for women geared to offer a variety of

fashionable styles. Secessionist Artists, like Gustav Klimt, help create modern female clothing

that would grant freedom of flexibility that was not previously allowed in Viennese society.

Even corset became seen by the Viennese women has too restrictive and dangerous for their

health, which was supported by the medical community of the city.32 This was important because

it change the traditional role of women in the Viennese society, whom could pursue fashion as a

way to reflect their own self-identity. In many ways this was spurring on the cultural

transformation away from the strict court traditions of the Hapsburg Monarchy by its urban

subjects.

Role of women was changing as well, a more general feature that affected most Western

nations at turn of the twentieth century. As earlier mention and quoted, Bertha von Suttner

represented the emerging activism of women in global politics. She is considered one of the

leading writers of Pacifist movement in the long 19th century, directly challenging European

governments on their aggressive policies and military ambitions. She herself grew up in a

Austrian noble family, with her own father being a field marshal (though they were not

considered wealthy enough to participate in court functions). Through work relations, she was

31 Wolf Wucherpfennig, “The ‘Young Viennese’ and Their Fathers; Decadence and the Generation Conflict around 1890”, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Jan., 1982) 23-28. 32 Mary L. Wagener, “Fashion and Feminism in “Fin de Siècle Vienna”, Woman’s Art Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2 (Autumn, 1989 – Winter, 1990) 29.

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hired to serve Alfred Noble’s secretary, although this lasted a week. Despite this, it would

establish a key relationship that would allow her to rise to fame and success. Her best known

written work, Lay Down Your Arms (1889), express her Pacifist views through a diary narrative

of young women whom loses her husbands in two of mid-19th century wars (Austro-Italian War

and Franco-Prussian War).33 Bertha was well connected to women’s rights movement in Europe,

and knew how to assert it without causing considerable tension with male dominant society. Her

dedication and commitment to the Peace Congress, greatly influence the will of Alfred Noble.

On its last wish of the decease it states; “To that man or woman who shall have worked most

effectively for the fraternization of mankind, the diminution of armies, and the promotion of

Peace Congress. The Stockholm Academy is instructed with the assignment of the first four

prizes, the Norwegian Storthing with that of the Fifth.”34 This was considerable victory for

women to be given the opportunity to compete for future Nobel Peace Prize, which Bertha

herself would be its first female laureate.

The cultural transformation that was occurring in 1898 was part of longer progression of

change in Europe since as far back as the French Revolution in 1789. Long 19th century was

period of rapid industrialization, political change, and social reforms. Vienna itself was center

many of these things, which entering the 20th century was a golden era for the city in terms of

literature, art, and economic development. The creative minds of Gustav Klimt, Otto Wagner,

and Bertha von Suttner were influential on both defining Viennese culture and impact on the

global scene. Role of women in the Austrian society was changing, beginning to break away

from rigid formalities and traditional expectations of the Hapsburg court. However, the constant

hostility and gridlock in the Cisleithania Parliament created a sense of pessimism in the younger

33 Niles Holt, “Popular Pacifism” of Bertha von Suttner”, Peace Research, Vol. 34, No. 1 (May 2002) 118-120. 34 Bertha von Suttner, 142

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generation, whom struggle to find a sense of identity with this constant state of division. All this

was occurring in the social-cultural setting in 1898, which impacted the Viennese perspective on

the Monarchy. What would cause general sympathy from public to Francis Joseph, though, was

the tragic assassination of Empress Elizabeth.

By the Fall of 1898, the celebrations were well under way for Francis Joseph’s Golden

Jubilee, though a central figure was absent throughout all of this imperial splendor. Empress

Elizabeth, or affectional known as Sisi, had fully withdrawn from the Imperial Hapsburg Court

and had aimless wandered throughout Europe. She was grief stricken from death of her beloved

royal nephew, Ludwig II of Bavaria, in 1886, and the suicide of her son, Rudolf, in 1889. By

1890, it became too much for her stay in Vienna with her youngest daughter, Valerie, official

married off. The next eight years saw Sisi become absorbed in maintaining her already unnatural

slenderness and strict exercise routine. She built a lavish villa in Corfu, and continued travel

extensively throughout the world. Sisi encourage Francis Joseph to have his relationship with the

actress Katharina Schratt, whom offered him more comfort than she could possible give in her

state of wellbeing. By 1898, she had begun to feel the effects of being sixty and losing her

natural youthful beauty. This cause her to frequent health spas throughout the Austro-Hungarian

Empire, which help somewhat ease the effects of her lack of stamina. In the ill-fated trip to

Geneva, Switzerland, she collided with the ambitions of Italian anarchist, Luigi Lucheni. He

wanted to originally assassinate the French pretender, Prince Henry of Orleans, as making an

example of the worker’s revolt against the elitism of Europe. However Sisi proved to be more

alluring target for the anarchist, whom was able to stab her in the heart on September 10th. She

died shortly thereafter on ship crossing Lake Geneva.35

35 Walter Vandereycken and Roth van Deth, “The Anorectic Empress: Elizabeth of Austria.” History Today, Vol 46, No. 4. (April, 1996). History Reference Center, EBSCOhost (accessed November 19, 2015) 15-16.

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The reaction of her husband was an emotional blow and another difficulty to cope with in

the continuous line of tragedy in his life. Elizabeth had long been his love and support

throughout most of his reign. She was endeared by her subjects, especially the Hungarians whom

she closely associated with in the rejection of strict court nature in Vienna. In month prior to the

assassination, Francis Joseph had expressed concern for his wife’s health and safety to Katharina

Schratt;

“Yesterday I had a letter of the 28th from the Empress, which sounds very melancholy. She maintains that the enervating air of Nauheim has quite ruined her nerves and that she will probably have to prolong her stay at Caux to recover. Of you she writes: “If only die Freundin makes her mountain trip with caution and common sense.” Do you hear?!...”36

This emphasizes Sisi poor health condition from her unhealthy dietary habits and mental

conditions. She was though rather concern with safety of Schratt, whom did have significant role

in being the Confidante to the Emperor. Francis Joseph was very much influenced by his wife,

which her assassination was personal devastation. British Ambassador, Sir Horace Rumbold,

wrote to Queen Victoria of the reaction experienced at the Imperial Court of Austria. Victoria

herself was interested in this due to her personal friendship with the Austrian Emperor, and her

general fear of the repercussions this made had for safety of other royal family members

throughout Europe. British Ambassador stated; “When the dreadful news was first broken to his

Majesty he seemed completely stunned, and, sinking into a chair, remained motionless and silent

for some time.”37 This speaks volumes to apparent horror and shook experienced by Francis

Joseph, whom had yet again experienced another heart-rending death in his family. He had now

36 Franz Joseph to Katharina Schratt, August, 30, 1898, in the letter collection of Evabeth Miller Kienast and Robert Rie, The Incredible Friendship: The Letters of Emperor Franz Joseph to Frau Katharina Schratt. 295-296. 37 Sir Horace Rumbold to Queen Victoria, September 11, 1898, in the letter collection of George Earle Buckle, The Letters of Queen Victoria, Vol. 3 (London: J. Murray, 1926-1928) 277.

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lost his wife, son, and brother to different tragic fates. In his letter to Schratt in the wake of this

assassination, he emphasize the effects of this loss;

“Yesterday was once more especially sorrowful for me, as I saw again so much that reminded me painfully, but still with a sort of melancholy satisfaction, or our beloved Verklarte. Here at Ofen I have wandered through all her rooms on the first floor and on the ground floor. Everything was ready for her welcome as usual, each object in its place, even the scales on which she weighed herself daily. The new balcony with the beautiful view towards Pest and the Danube, which made her so happy last year, was adorned by all sorts of elegant furniture; and still everything was empty, without life, and no hope for meeting again in this life!”38

The letter is reflective to deep seed loss Francis Joseph felt for his deceased wife, whom was a

major source of support for him in his reign. With her death, all the celebrations for the Golden

Jubilee were canceled and state morning was decreed in the imperial Hapsburg court. Emperor

experienced a state of melancholy and distance from his subjects, whom adored the Empress.

The year of 1898 for the city of Vienna was dynamic in setting the stage for the greater

cultural transformation of the early twentieth century. Its ruler, Emperor Francis Joseph, was

effected by further personal tragedy and political changes. His divine persona began to be

disregard by his urban educated subjects, whom saw him as a decaying relic of collapsing

empire. The rise of Christian Social party under Karl Luger and formation of Secession

movement encourage the Viennese to break away from believing in the propaganda of the

imperial court. Many of the aristocracy were quick to side with Karl Luger in preserving their

social standing in Vienna at the cost of their perceived allegiance to the Emperor. Katharina

Schratt saw how this taxed Francis Joseph, whom felt isolated in the changing world of the

twentieth century. The assassination of Sisi caused considerable emotional pain for Francis

Joseph, whom became further dependent on his ministers and the parliament to resolve the rising

38 Franz Joseph to Katharina Schratt, October, 16, 1898, in the letter collection of Evabeth Miller Kienast and Robert Rie, The Incredible Friendship: The Letters of Emperor Franz Joseph to Frau Katharina Schratt. 298.

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irredentism of nationalities throughout the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Transformation that was

occurring though did empower women to become more politically and socially active. Cultural

work done by Otto Wagner, Gustav Klimt, and Bertha von Suttner, had direct impact to the

development of modern Viennese identity. Of course, Mark Twain’s account did underline the

severe political and ethnic differences that were slowly tearing apart the Hapsburg Monarchy. In

direct sense, this was the eve of golden era in Vienna, but at the same time the twilight phase of

the Austro-Hungarian Empire for next twenty years.

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Appendix 1

Theodor Zasche, Hofball im Redoutensaal, 1898. Painting, 69.7cm x 89.5cm. Austrian National Library’s Picture Archive and Graphic Collection.

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Appendix 2

Gustav Klimt, Pallas Athene, 1898. Painting, 75 x 75cm. History Museum of the City of Vienna.

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Appendix 3

M. Alexander Cline, Karlsplatz Stadtbahn Station, June 6, 2016

.

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