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Types of Translation Transformations

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  • 7/24/2019 Types of Translation Transformations

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    Types of translation transformations (option of unprotecteddiploma)

    category:Foreign Language

    comment

    Preface

    This work is a kind of summing up my training inInstitute.

    subject of the theory of translationis one of the most important disciplines inthe work of an interpreter. In daily work

    encountersmatter of choice how to provide adeuatetranslationof the communication!stylistic coloring" emotional

    features of the te#t. Foruality performance of their work" translator needed as deepknowledge in the field

    of translationtheory" and e#cellent practical skills.

    Therefore" in this study was conducted in$depth analysistheoretical issues related to the general theory

    oftranslationand its privatecategories" classifications of translationtransformations" proposedvarious authors.

    %lso carry out practical research&ork on the study of each type of transformation on the e#ample oftranslationof

    the book

    '. (alinger )The *atcher in the +ye) ,'- (alinger )The *atcher in the+ye )" made by +. &right$/ovaleva.

    First chapter of this thesis e#amines the general theoreticalissues oftranslationand related issues. %lso present the

    definition and*lassificationtranslational transformations.

    The second chapter describes this kind of transformationsas le#ical.

    The third chapter presents a detailed study of grammatical andle#ical and grammatical transformations.

    0ach chapter is euipped with plenty of e#amples and has findingsas all the work as a whole.

    (ince the transformation in the translationis an integral part of theinterpreter" the study of this uestion has many

    positiveaspects for me as a future interpreter. I hope that the skillsreceived in writing this work will help me in

    futuretranslationactivities.

    Introduction

    translationhas a long history. The roots" he goes back to that distanttime when the Proto began to disintegrate intoseparate languages" and originatedneed of those who knew several languages and able to actthe role of

    intermediaries in the communication between representatives of different linguistic communities.

    1evertheless" for several reasons" particularly because of its interdisciplinarynature" shape translate into an

    independent science only in the early twentiethcentury. &ith increased international contacts and e#change of

    informationtranslationstudies has developed rapidly and currently enjoysstatus of an independent scientific

    discipline with its theoretical basis"conceptual and terminological apparatus.

    &hen translating from the n language is the set oftranslationtransformation" the cause of which" most often lies in

    the inherent 0nglishLanguage vision for peace and the related phenomenon of language selectivity.

    -escribing the objective situation" the 0nglish language may choose other thann" the starting point in the description.

    For him" in particular" is characteri2edpredominant use of verbal forms. n language" on the contrary"characteristic of

    the increased use of materiali2ed action andsigns" which manifests itself in more freuent than in 0nglish"usingnouns.

    reason translationtransformationscan also serve as the internal languagefactors such as reciprocity and

    communicative structure of sentences.

    In this paper describes the main types oftranslationtransformationsie model of how to do thetranslation"

    consider the situationapplication of a particular type oftranslation"are e#amples.

    *hapter 3. 4eneral theoretical issues oftranslation.

    3. Theory oftranslation.

    %mong the many challenges that e#amines contemporaryLinguistics" an important place to the study of linguistic

    aspectsinterlanguage speech activity" which is called )transfer) or

    )translational activity).

    Translation $ is undoubtedly a very ancient form of human activity. %sonly in the history of mankind formed a group ofpeople whose languagesdiffered from each other" appeared and )bilingual) who helped communication between

    )multilingual) groups. &ith the advent of writing to such oraltranslators $ )Tolmach) joined and interpreters

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    written"translate various te#ts of the official" religious and businessnature. From the outset" translate fulfill an

    important social function"making it possible to cross$language communication between people. -istribution of

    writtenTranslation opened people access to cultural achievements of otherPeople made possible the interaction and

    mutual enrichment of literature andcultures. /nowledge of foreign languages can read in the original book onthese

    languages" but to e#plore even one foreign language can noteach.

    early theorists oftranslationhave been the translators themselves" eagergenerali2e their own e#perience" and

    sometimes the e#perience of their fellowprofession. *learly" setting out his )translationcredo)were the mostoutstanding interpreters of all time and" although e#pressedtheir views did not meet modern reuirements of scientific

    andevidence and not evolved into a consistent theoreticalconcept" yet a number of such considerations" and today

    isundoubted interest.

    %t one time a prominent (oviet linguist %% +eformatsky gavenegative answer to the uestion about the possibility of

    creating a )science of translation)arguing that because the practice oftranslationthat uses datavarious branches of

    the science of language" it can not have their own theory.

    5owever" since the theory oftranslationwas firmly established as a scientificdiscipline. *ontributing conscious

    public needscientific generali2ation of translationactivity" the development of linguistics" the theorycommunication

    and other branches of knowledge" provide the scientific basis forstudy oftranslation"and" finally" the emergence of

    serioustranslation(tudies have convincingly proved the possibility and prospects of establishingresearch area to

    identify the nature oftranslationas a processinterlingual and intercultural communication.should not forget that thetranslationis a deliberateactivities that meet certain reuirements and standards

    andfocused on achieving a certain result. These standards reflectholistic orientation of an interpreter" without which it

    is impossiblesatisfactorily e#plain the logic of translationsolutions 637.

    e#haustive" comprehensive analysis of the transfer is only possible on the basis ofas part of its procedure and its

    results" or" in other words"through a combination of dynamic and static approaches. 5encethat the

    traditionaltranslationanalysis" based on comparisonoriginal and translated te#ts" has the same right to e#ist asand

    analysis" tracing the process oftranslationin its dynamics.

    studying translationas a special kind of verbal communication" the theory of translationis notlimited to analysis of

    its linguistic mechanism. %fter translation$ it is notonly the interaction of languages" but also the interaction of

    cultures. Translatedreflected the situation generated by the original te#t and the situationtranslation.Is unlikely to

    adeuately describe thetranslationprocess" without consideringthat he had not carried out an ideali2ed construct" amanvalue and psychological orientation which inevitably affectsfinal result.

    *urrently" there are three models of the theory oftranslation: denotative"transformational" and semantic 687. Let me

    dwell a bit oneach of these models more.

    8. -enotative theory oftranslation.

    -enotative ,situational theory oftranslation$ is the mostcommon model of translation. It comes from the fact that

    the contentall linguistic signs reflects some objects" phenomena" relationshipsreality. These elements of

    reality"reflected in the signs of language" usually referred to as denotations. *reated withusing language code

    messages ,speech segments also contain information aboutsome situations" ie about some denotata set in a

    certainto each other.

    denotative theory of translationdefines translationas a process description withusing

    languagetranslationdenotata described in the original language. Perceivingoriginal te#t" the translator identifies thecomponents of the te#t units withknown him signs of the source language" and through these recent finds outwhich

    describes the situation in reality the original. %fter clarificationdenotations of the original translator describes the same

    situation in the target language.

    In some cases" the same process is much more succinct way. Translatorit is known that certain elements of the I9%

    and P*( have the samereferents" and it directly replaces the original unit of the relevant units translation"without

    resorting to thetranslationprocess to e#tralinguistic reality.

    It is important to emphasi2e that the transfer is only possible because between the unitstwo languages have been

    tentatively identified situational identity throughTreatment to reality.

    5owever" the denotative theory has many weaknesses. It does not take into account(ome facts and passes a very

    important aspecttranslationprocess. This theory does not reveal the basic mechanismtransition from the original

    te#t to te#t translation. It )works) in thosewhen the situation is more or less uniuely defines thenecessarytranslation. 5owever" in most cases" the same situation maybe described by a combination of linguistic

    signs of P*(. In these casesappeal to reality does not give sufficient reasons for selecting translation.-enotative

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  • 7/24/2019 Types of Translation Transformations

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    theory can not e#plain the possibilityseveral variants of thetranslationof the same segment of the original andcan

    give a theoretical basis to justify the choice between thesevariants.

    not disclose denotative theory and systematic relationship betweencontent of the original and translation. It does not

    take into account the identityinformative load themselves units of both te#ts. %ccessingactually makes it possible to

    determine only. %s stated intranslated te#t" but not as described.

    denotative theory does not solve the problem of euivalence intranslation.

    Identity denotata original and thetranslationdoes not yet provide ,or rather" notalways provide the necessarydegree of euivalence of the two te#ts.

    There still remains much of the information associated with the choice of languagefunds as in the original and

    intranslation.-enotative community $ itsign of a paraphrase" not translation.

    ;. Transformation theory oftranslation.

    In denotative theory of translationfocuses on the identitytwo situations described by the I9% and P9%. In

    establishing the connection betweenthese situations units of the original and the translationis given only the

    roleintermediate mediators. n the other hand" the actual process of translationmay be submitted and otherwise:

    the translator receives the originalproduces some operations related to the original" and as a resultcreates a

    te#t translation. %ctions can be an interpreter in this caseregarded as the work of some system" the )input) which

    comesoriginal" and the )e#it) given translation. In other words" the basistranslationactivities will be a kind of

    transformation ortransformation of the original te#t intranslation.From this idea oftranslationwork and proceedsTransformation theory oftranslation.The emergence of this theory

    is connected withideas of language teaching" known as the )transformationalgrammar. )Transformational 4rammar is

    considering rules generationsyntactic structures" which are characteri2ed by commonality of tokens andbasic logical$

    syntactic relations" such as: )The boy threw a stone)"

    )The stone was thrown into a boy") )%bandoned boyo#" describes a seriesphases of thetranslationprocess in terms oftransformation.

    This theory first postulated the possibility of reducing totalvariety of l inguistic forms and I9% P9% to some relatively

    small ,in%nyway" foreseeable the number of structures. It is assumed that betweensimilar structures I9% and fifth

    there is complete euivalence. In anytwo languages is a set of units with similar content. Itthese units are )nuclear)"

    and to them according to certain rules mayreduced all the other units of language. %s between the nuclear units

    I9% and P9% there is complete euivalence" the translationat the level of these structureswill be reduced to a simple

    substitution" the replacement of the nuclear structure I9%euivalent of nuclear structure P9%.

    ?sing the transformational model for the study of translationactivity seems to be very useful. *onsidering formalunits

    of the original andtranslationas related transforms"Transformational theory thus gives a prominent place

    comparativestudy of multilingual forms" among which may be established relationship translationeuivalence. This

    approach provides a theoretical basisto describe the system oftranslationof specific relations between the twolanguages thatis one of the main tasks oftranslation.@ery fruitfuland a description in terms of transformation of the

    process of translation. nby comparing the initial and final forms oftranslationtransformationsit is possible to

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  • 7/24/2019 Types of Translation Transformations

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    identify the different types of transformation in thetranslation"that euips the interpreter knowledge so$called

    )translationtechniues"which are widely used in practice.

    1evertheless" for several reasons" transformational theory of translationis suitable to describe only certain aspects

    of translationactivities" mainly related to the grammatical relationsstructures I9% and P9%. To describe

    the translationwork reuired more

    )strong) general theory of translation.

    A. (emantic theory of translation.ne of the main objectives of the general theory oftranslationis the reali2ation ofessentially euivalent to the

    relations between the content of the original andtranslation.

    It is natural to assume that the theoretical model oftranslationactivities should primarily be based on a study of the

    semanticte#t andtranslation. %rguing in theory" one could argue thateuivalence of the content of the two te#ts

    ,including the two te#tsdifferent languages implies identity or sufficiently close similarityall or some of the semantic

    elements that make up the content of thesete#ts. Thetranslationprocess in this case would be to allocatesemantic

    elements in the original and the choice of units P9%" the ma#imumthe degree of e#pressing the same elements of

    meaning intranslation.

    %ny semantic model of translation" ie theory of translation.

    (tipulated for comparing elements of the content of the original andtranslationinevitably involves an analysis of the

    structure of the content" the ability to allocatehim some basic units or components. This creates significantdifficultiesin developing such theories" because until recently"linguistics notBB ylo completely satisfactory methods for the

    analysis plan content. In connection with this early work on linguistictranslationstudies were limited to very basic

    articulation of content original" which must be brought in translation.The te#t of the original allocated )semantic

    content) and )e#pressive$stylistic features. The first ,referred to as )object$logical content) united all the factual

    information and the second $ the emotional$evaluative elements and characteristics of units of te#t in terms of their

    belonging to certain functional style of language or genre of speech. %ll the same" and such segmentation is allowed

    to point to the need to include in thetranslationeuivalence of e#pressive$stylistic consistency of the original

    andtranslation. 1oneuivalence identical messages transmitted through linguistic signs belonging to different

    segments of the stylistic language indisputable.

    Further development of linguistic studies of the content has the possibility of a more detailed description of the

    elements of meaning in the original and translation. *ontent ,value of any unit of language is seen as set ,beammore elementary meanings" semantic factors or (em.

    (elect individual (em in the content of a linguistic unit is made by determine the differential characteristic for which

    the content of this opposed to close to the unit value of another unit of language.

    (emantic Translation Theory establishestranslationeuivalence on (em common stock in the content of the

    original and translation. This commonality does not e#ist between the set of things" reserved for some units different

    languages ,such commonality is fundamentally impossible because of language selectivity" but only between the

    individual elements of meaning. Task interpreter is to play in the translationof precisely those basic meanings" which

    are communicatively relevant to the original. Loss all other things" contained in the value of transferred units" is

    considered in translationof unimportant.

    C. Translation transformation and their classification.

    =ain purpose of the transfer $ the achievement of adeuacy. %deuate" or as it also called euivalenttranslation$ isatranslation"which performed at the level necessary and sufficient for transfer invariable plane of content" subject to

    appropriate plan e#pression" ie rules of the translationlanguage.

    >y definition %@ Fedorova" adeuacy $ a )comprehensive transfer semantic content of the original and fully functional

    and stylistic correspondence to him )6;7.

    main task of an interpreter in achieving adeuacy $ ably produce various translationtransformation in order to

    te#t translationas close as possible to transmit all information contained in the original te#t" while respecting the

    rules of the translationlanguage.

    )Transformation $ the basis of most methods of translation. It consists in *hange of formal ,le#ical or

    grammaticaltransformations or semantic ,semantic transformation components of the source te#t while preserving

    the information for the transfer )6A7. 9I +etsker defines transformation as )the techniues of logical thinking" with we

    disclose the value of foreign words in conte#t and find him n match" does not coincide with the dictionary ),+etsker3DEA" p.;

    *urrently" there are many classifications of translationtransformations,the PT" proposed by various authors.

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    *onsider some of them.

    L/ Latyshev ,Latyshev 3D3 p.3;3$3;E gives a classification of the nature Fri deviations from the interlanguage of

    correspondences in which all are divided Fri at:

    3 =orphological $ replacement of a categorical form of one or more!

    8 (ynta# $ changed the syntactic functions of words and phrases!

    ; The style $ stylistic change in color of the segment of te#t!

    A (emantic $ a change not only the content of e#pressions" but the content itself" namely" those signs by whichdescribe the situation!

    C =i#ed $ le#ical$semantic and syntactic and morphological.

    The classification 5+(0( >arkhudarova Fri differ on formal grounds: permutations" additions" substitutions"

    deletions ,>arkhudarov 3DEC P.3DG$8;3. &hen this L( >arkhudarov emphasi2es that such a division is in largely

    appro#imate and conditional. Permutations are called changes in location ,order of the language elements in the

    te#t translationcompared with the te#t of the original. ?nder the substitutions are meant as changes in

    the translationof words" parts of speech" parts of the sentence" types syntactic conte#t" and le#ical substitution

    ,instantiation" generali2ation" antonymic transfer" compensation. %ppendices imply the use of additional words in

    the translation" without correspondences in the original. >y omission meant the omission of one or other words in

    the translation.

    9I +etsker ,+etsker 3DEA p.; writes that )although not always possible classify each e#ample the transfer becauseof interlocking categories" generally can be identified E types of le#ical transformations:

    $ differentiation of values!

    $ specification of values!

    $ 4enerali2ation of values!

    $ meaning development!

    $ antonymic translation!

    $ holistic transformation!

    $ compensation for losses in the translationprocess.

    L( >arkhudarov ,3DE;" L/ Latyshev ,3D" T+ Levitskaya" %=

    Fiterman ,3DE;" @1 /omissarov ,3DDA" 9I +etsker ,3DEA divided Fri on the le#ical" grammatical" stylistic.

    Transformations can combined with each other" taking the nature of comple# transformations.For e#ample" H- Lviv,3DC finds that among the different types oftransformationsare no blank wall" the same transformation can

    sometimes be a contentious case" they can be attributed to different types.

    In this paper we performed an analysis of le#ical and grammatical transformationson the e#ample oftranslationof

    selected chapters from the book by '. (alinger

    )The *atcher in the +ye) ,'- (alinger )The *atcher in the +ye)" made

    +. &right$/ovaleva.

    *hapter 8. Le#ical transformation

    Le#icaltransformationsare applied intranslationin the case of source code is found non$standard language units

    at the word level" e#ample" a proper name" inherent in the original language and culture absent in transforming the

    language" the term in a professional area! words denoting the objects" phenomena and concepts of the original

    culture or the traditional naming elements of the third culture" but absent or have other structural and functionalorderliness in transforming the culture. (uch a word is very important place in the translationprocess" since" being

    relatively independent of conte#t" they nevertheless give thetranslation"the different direction" depending on the

    choice of an interpreter.

    to the le#ical transfer methods accepted include the following: transcription and transliteration" tracing" le#ical$

    semantic change" instantiation" generali2ation" or modulation of semantic development.

    8.3. Transcription and transliteration

    Translation transcription $ a formal pofonemnoe reconstruction original le#ical unit with the phonemes of

    thetranslationlanguage phonetic imitation of the headword. %nother method of translationis transliteration $ formal

    Literal recreate the original le#ical units with the alphabet of the translationlanguage" character imitation of the form

    headword. Thus the original word in the translationpresented in a form adapted to the pronunciation characteristics

    transforming the language" for e#ample" (hakespeare $ (hakespeare: n form of name should be partially read therules of 0nglish spelling of sounds ,the sounds w" k" n are the direct analogs of the original" and partially transforms

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    them into roughly similar $ in those cases where the n language there phonetically analogs ,0nglish diphthongs

    become monophthong e" and $$ the initial element of the diphthong.

    In other words" transcription or transliteration ,full or partial" the direct use of the word for realities" or its roots in the

    writing of the letters of their language or in combination with suffi#es of their language.

    transliteration with translationinto n language is used freuently in those &hen it comes to names of institutions"

    positions" specific for a given country" ie the scope of the socio$political life" the names objects and concepts of

    material life" the forms of treatment to the interlocutor and etc.transliterated way to transfer is widely distributed and leaves significant footprint in the n literary translation" and in

    the original works ,artistic" journalistic" scientific. 0vidence are such that" for e#ample" words related to the >ritish

    public life as a )peer)" )mayor)" )landlord)" )0suire") or the (panish" as

    )5idalgo)" )Torero)" )corrida) and others! words associated with the life of the French cities" such as )cab)"

    )concierge)" >ritish treatment )=iss)"

    )(ir) and many others like them.

    There is no word which could not be translated into another language" least descriptively" ie common combination of

    words of the language.

    >ut the transliteration is needed precisely when it is important to observe le#ical brevity of notation" corresponding to

    its familiarity in the language the original" and at the same time emphasi2e the specificity of known things" or concept"

    if there is no e#act match in the target language. 0valuating feasibility of using transliteration" you must accuratelytake into account 5ow important is the transfer of this specificity. If the latter is not reuired" the use of transliteration

    becomes abuse foreign borrowing" leading to obscuring meaning" and to obstruction native language.

    should be highlighted as atranslationproblem of the so$called reality naming of national and cultural objects"

    characteristic for the original *ulture and relatively little or no known transforming culture. In conditions of large$scale

    cross$cultural communication are naming are a very large group" and the most common way of transfer to another

    language is a translationor transcription standard transliteration.

    feasibility and legality of transliteration in certain cases proved by the fact that often the authors who write about the

    life of other peoples resorted to this language means" as a way to include and emphasi2e realities of life specific to

    this nation. In the n language included" For e#ample" the word )village)" )village)" )hut) and many others and this is

    transliteration become traditional. It stressed the specificity of things denoted by the word" it differs from what would

    be appro#imately denotes the corresponding n word ,cf. the )village) and )village)" with one hand" and )village)" onthe other" )hut) or )hut) and )hut). (ample words borrowed by the transliteration of the original literature" is motivation

    for using such words in the translation.

    ften foreign words are transferred to the target language is to highlight shades of specificity that is inherent in their

    e#pressed realities $ with possibility of le#ical translation" more or less accurate.

    transliteriruemoe &hen the word is used rarely" or" especially" for the first time transferred to the n translated te#t" it is

    necessary commentary on e#planation" and the appropriate conte#t.

    5owever" in the n translations of &estern literature in recent years increasingly been enhanced tendency to avoid

    such words" which would reuire e#planatory notes" are not e#pected original $ ie is transliterated signs of foreign

    realities" but which have become commonplace. In contrast" in modern translationriental languages transliteration

    is used uite often" when it talking about things or events that are specific to the material or social life" ie have no

    correspondences with us.transliteration and transcription are used for thetranslationof proper names" names of peoples and tribes"

    geographical names" names of business institutions" companies" firms" periodicals" names of sports teams" stable

    groups rock musicians" cultural facilities" etc. Large some of these names are relatively easy to

    transcription" translationor" rarely" transliteration:

    5ollywood 6'-( C7 6C7 $ 5ollywood 6Per. 8A37 67

    Pencey 6'.-.(. C7 $ Pensi 6Per. 8A37

    (a#on 5all 6'.-.(. 7 $ (a#on 5all 6Trans. 8A87

    +obert Tichener 6'.-.(. D7 $ +obert Titchner 6Trans. 8A;7

    Paul *ampbell 6'.-.(. D7 $ Paul *ampbell 6Trans. 8A;7

    0lkton 5ill 6'.-.(. 8G7 $ 0lkton 5ill 6Per. 8CG7

    0dgar =arsala 6'.-.(. 8A7 $ 0ddie =arsalla 6Trans. 8C87>ank of London $ >ank of London

    =innesota $ =innesota

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    &all (treet 'ournal $ &all (treet 'ournal

    -etroit +ed &ings $ -etroit +ed &ings

    >eatles $ The >eatles" etc. 6/a2akova" p.. E7 6E7.

    Transcription are also names of fantastic creatures" referred to in folklore and literature:

    >aba$9aga $ >aba$9aga

    5obbit $ The 5obbit goblin $ goblin" etc. 6/a2akova" page EC7

    to foreign proper name $ be it names or the names real or imaginary persons" geographic names" etc. $ =oreimportance is the uestion of the sound design of the translation" and $$ respectively $ on their writing. The greater

    the differences in phonetic (trohe two languages in the system and their phonemes $ the greater is the uestion.

    If there is a common system of the alphabet in both languages ,as" for e#ample" in &estern +omance" 4ermanic and

    Finno$?gric languages from sound in the form of names in translationand original te#ts general refuse" limited only

    e#act reproduction of their writing $ transliteration. In n literature $ as transferable and original $ there is ,to the e#tent

    possible the tradition of transmission sound image of foreign$language proper names. f course" with significant

    phonetic differences between the two languages ,as" for e#ample" between 0nglish and n to play their phonetic side

    may be only partial and conditional" and usually represents a well$known trade$off between the transfer of sound and

    writing.

    &hen it comes to common names ,cities" rivers" famous historical figures" or commonly used names" translator

    guided by tradition $ regardless of ability to get closer to authentic sound. (ometimes the traditional n spelling issufficiently close to the e#act phonetic form of foreign language name" for e#ample:

    )(chiller)" )>yron)" )-ante)" )>randenburg) and the like

    %nthony &ayne %venue 6'-( D7 $ street %nthony &ayne 6Trans. 8A;7

    e#isting practice transfer rule application to the names translationtranscription or transliteration is often insufficient"

    if the proper name is compounded by the symbolic function" there is the name of a uniue object" or not used as

    name" and as" for e#ample" nicknames" that is a peculiar name common noun" because it reflects the individual

    characteristics and properties referred object. In such cases" in addition to or instead of transcription using a

    combination of semantic translationfrom tracing. In some cases" the tradition will reuire different messages for

    different transmission of the same name" the same language: thus" the >ritish )4eorge) normally transcribed in the

    form of )4eorge)" but when it is $ the name of the /ing it is transliterated in the form of )4eorge).

    (ome problems may arise when translating the names of educational institutions in different educational traditions indifferent countries.

    Thus" in the %merican system of school education the word is widely used to variety of educational institutions" a

    completely different level and type.

    Translated from n" also may have some difficulties: for e#ample" the word Institute in is used to indicate a higher

    educational institution" and as for research or administrative administrative agencies" while in 0nglish$speaking

    countries the word institute is used only in the second meaning" and therefore not always adeuately as a match

    since distorts the basic concept.

    &hooton (chool 6'-( 8G7 $ 5uttnonskaya (chool 6Per. 8CG7

    Finally" a special type of linguistic units" usually undergoes transcription"

    $ This term. The source of transcription" as a rule" are 4reek" Latin or 0nglish units in the headBB dependences on

    what roots lie the basis of the original term. n terms are marked national color" also often subject to transcriptionwhen transferred to 0nglish: black earth $ cherno2em

    -uma $ -uma" etc. 6/a2akova" page EC7

    8.8. Tracing

    %long with the translationtransliteration for linguistic units without direct correspondence in transforming the

    language is sometimes used tracing $ does not play sound" and combinatorial composition words or phrases" when

    the constituent parts of words ,morphemes or phrases

    ,tokens are translated into the corresponding elements of thetranslationlanguage.

    Tracing as a translationmethod was the basis for a large number all kinds of borrowing in cross$cultural

    communication in those cases when transliteration was any reason is unacceptable. 5owever" tracing how

    Fri rarer than transcription or transliteration.

    ?nlike transcription" tracing is not always easy mechanical operation of transferring the original form to thetransferring language! often have to resort to some transformations.First That includes modifying a case forms" the

    number of words in the phrase" affi#es" word order" morphological and syntactic status of words and etc.

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    In my work study by '. (alinger tracing is not met" therefore" these e#amples are taken from other sources.

    large number of phrases in the political" scientific and cultural areas of practice are tracings: the head of the

    government $ head of the government

    (upreme *ourt $ (upreme *ourt mi#ed laws $ laws of mi#ed non$confidence vote $ a vote of no confidence" etc.

    6/a2akova" p. D7

    tracing usually are terms widely$used words and phrases:

    names of historical and cultural&inter Palace $ &inter Palace

    &hite 5ouse $ the &hite 5ouse.

    names of political parties and movements of the -emocratic Party $ the -emocratic Party J brK ur 5ome $ $ ur

    5ome Is "

    historical events of the invasion of >atu /han $ the invasion of >atu /han" etc. 6/a2akova" p. DG7

    8.;. Le#icosemantic replacement

    Le#icosemantic replacement $ a way oftranslationof le#ical items foreign language through the use of units of the

    target language" which does not coincide with the initial value" but can be deduced logically.

    Logico$semantic basis of the transformation is clearly defined in the @4

    5ook: )%s for the types of semantic changes in the translation" then as denoted by the object remains the same"

    change the name e#plains the relationship of concepts" which in the minds of the speaker may correlated with thesame segment of reality. Thus" through renaming ,semantictransformations" as well as the basis changes in

    values" such as" for e#ample" e#pansion" contraction" various types of transport" are formal$logical patterns of

    thinking" relations between concepts. )widespread method of generali2ation and specificity in the translationfrom

    0nglish

    4rammar transformations in translation 88.3G-ifferences in the types of the two languages ,analytical and synthetic result in grammar

    transformations. % grammar transformation means a change of the original syntactic structure in translation.

    In very rare cases the translator manages to reserve the original syntactic structure by using analogous

    grammar forms in the TL or a word$for$word translation. This can be called a 2ero transformation. The latter

    concerns short simple sentences with euivalent grammar forms in the TL. (he came into the room MNO

    MQRO SMNOUV. mission of articles" linking verbs and other secondary elements of the 0ng sentence in

    translation does not involve the change of the sentence structure. >ut basically the translator has to resort to a

    grammar transformation of a certain type or even their combination.

    There are the following factors that can cause grammar transformation: 3. %bsence of the

    corresponding grammar unit in the target language. 8. 1on$coincidence of stylistic function of analogous

    grammar unit in the (L and TL. ;. 1on$coincidence of semantic structure of le#ical units in the (L and TL.% transformation can be either complete or partial. % complete Tr takes place when there is a

    substitution of principal parts of a sentence. Partial if secondary parts are replaced in the TL.

    4rammar Tr can be conventionally subdivided into A types:

    3.Transposition is a very freuent type of grammar transformation. It is high freuency can be easily

    accounted for: we should bare in mind the differences in the word order of 0ng and +us sentences" or in other

    words the differences of information structure ,theme$rheme arrangement in the 8 Lang. The translator

    resorts to transposition to preserve a functional sentence prospective. W UXNMUX YZ[\NVRO YZ]^SO %

    match fled in the darkness. _ ]NUV]`]] O] MXR %nd I trusted 5arrys instincts.

    8. (ubstitution is a very common type of transformation. (ubstitutions can affect nearly all types of linguistic

    units. (ubstitution of word forms" parts of speech" sentence members" sentence types and types of syntactic

    relations.%. (ubstitution of word forms. This type of Tr incomposes ,SR^OXU substitution of singular by plural and

    NOMMMU" tense forms past by present" passive by active ] NOMMMU. They never *aught ,active whoever

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    did for him UMM" SUM UM YXROR" UOS ] NX ZMOR] ,ZOYY].

    >. (ubstitution of parts of speech. +eplacement of 0ng nouns by +us verbs is especially typical. The 0ng

    Lang makes a great use of so called nominali2ation ,verbal nouns are used to denote actions. It is our hope

    that [ NOXXY" ^UM. (he gave him an 0merous Look MNO MYMUXRO NO NXM WRRXNM.

    *. substitution of sentence members. $O UVONO ,adv ZXSOU]RMY ]XN]X the fog ,subj stopped

    the traffic.

    -. substitution of sentence types. 3. % simple sentence in the (L can be substituted by a compound orcomple# sentence in ht TL or NOMMMU. 5e had to duck his head just to enter the cell XV Z]QRMY

    NOSRMN]U MRMV" UM[ OU] SOXV. 5e stepped away as I stepped forward SO[ M] QOM

    MN MUYUVZOR. 8. (entence partitioning ,fragmentation ^RXNXN]X ZXRMXN]. They road back to Fairview

    mostly in silence" 5eldi driving until they were 3C miles of 1ew 9ork *ity and the traffic got heavy. M

    MM] W qX MO MYNMNM MR^OR]. XR] XRO OQ]NV" ZMSO M $MSO NX MYUORMY ]R

    3C ] ]XN]X YUORM MMRNM ZRMUN[. ;. (entence joining. 5e glanced at her for only a second. Then he

    returned his eyes in the road N MY]R NO NX ]MRXUN[ R ] NM YMYXMUM^]RY NO MMX.

    A. (ubstitution of syntactic relations. >oth L$s make use of syndatic ,YMN[ and asindatic structures" but

    their freuency within the 8 Lang is different: 0ng prefers syndatic structures" whereas +us asindatic. %ll I

    have in it is my 8 dresses and my shoes %nd my underwear %nd my socks %nd some other things W NX

    UMRSM 8 ZROU" UVR]" XRX" NMYS] ] YS]X XRM^].;. %ddition. (ome implisive ,]ZR]`]UN[ $ YS[U[ elements of the original te#t must be rendered

    in Tr by additional le#ical or grammatical units. 5e 5ad Taken his hicary batton out of the custom$made

    holster he carried it in V]NSV MN xX MYUOR ] YOMXRNMM ^X\ROz %ddition VX renders the

    meaning of priority e#pressed by the 0ng past perfect form" the latter being a grammar lacking category in

    +us.

    ;. mission this device is just the opposite to that of addition: it is aimed at eliminating redundancy

    ,][UM^NMYU of the units which are irrelevant in the conte#t. The government resorted to force and

    violence O]UXRYUM Z]XRM S NOY]R]. 5e joked away with an e#pression of fear and dismay and The

    infinitive 38.33

    The Inf alongside with the participle and gerund belongs to the group of non finight ,NXR]^N[X forms of the

    verb. The finight forms generally e#press time absolutely" that is they refer an action to the present" past orfuture.

    The verbals" the Inf among them" e#press time relatively" that is through the prism of the action of the

    predicate verb in the (ent. The action e#pressed by the verbals may be symalteneous with that of the predicate

    verb" priatuate or posterior. The Inf has the properties of the noun and the verb. The 0ng Inf has a wider range

    of tens forms than the +us. It can be simple" cont" perf and perf cont.

    -epending on its function and position in a sentence it has dif translation versions.

    3.The Inf I the function of an attribute is translated into +us mainly by means of an attributive

    subordinate clause with modal verbal predicate e#pressing obligation or possibility or by verbal predicate in

    the future tense form. The +us Inf is int used in the similar function. ,this is the rule to be remembered by

    you UM ZO]RM" SMUMMX NVNM OZMN]U. This uestion will be discussed at the conference shortly to

    open in =oscow {UMU MZMY VXU MYVOUY NO SMNXXN`]]" SMUMO YSMX MUS[OXUY |MYSX. The Inf in the atr function is often used after the words the last" the only and ordinal numerals. The

    atr Inf is translated by the finute form of the verb in the same tense form as the predicate of the (ent. ,5e is

    the only employee To %gree to the directors decision $ MN X]NYUXNN[ ] YMUVN]SM"SUM YMROYXN Y

    XQXN]X ]XSUO. The %tr Inf is also often used when prepositional verbs comprise its structure and this

    preposition should be always retained in translation. ,There was nobody to be angry with }R]UY [RM NX

    NO SMM. The %tr Inf in some cases can be translated by the participle" adjective and prepositional noun. ,The

    shape of things to come is shown by the data obtained by the e#perts \OOSUXX XYUM~]\ YM[U]

    MNM YV]U ZM ONN[" ZMRV^XNN[ YZX`]OR]YUO].

    8. Inf in the function of an object is translated by the Inf or subordinate clause. ,(cientists plan to study

    the formation of fish shoals" summering flora and soals V^XN[X YM]OUY ]V^OU MOMON]X SMYSM

    [[" ZMMNV RMV ] ZM^V.;. The inf in the function of conseuence and attended circumstances. The Inf preceded by such words

    as: enough" so.. " toz such as" only" has a modal meaning and is translated into +us by the Inf or separate

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    sentence introduced by the conjunctions " M. 5e managed to obtain this concession from the management

    only To Find that no one really needed it MN M]RY UM VYUVZS] MU O]N]YUO`]] ] MNOV]R" ^UM

    MNO N]SMV NX NVNO.

    A. In the functions of subject nominal part of the compound predicate" predicative and adv modifier of

    purpose is usually translated either by the Inf or noun. ,T influence a person is To give him once one

    thoughts WR]U NO ^XRMXSO UM NO^]U NO[OU XV YM] YMYUXNN[X [YR]. It should be born

    in mind that the Inf having dif tense forms is translated differently into the target language. Perf Inf is alwaysrendered by the predicate in the past tense form ,(he was sorry To have intruded on her NO YMORXRO" ^UM

    ZMXQORO X. *ont Inf is often translated by le#ical means ,The children may be playing in the garden

    MMNM XU] YX^OY ]OU YOV. Perf cont Inf is mainly translated using le#ical addition xX. ,5e

    must have been investigating this problem for uite a long time N XMUNM ]V^OR UV ZMRXV VX

    MMRNM MRMX X.

    Infinitive comple#es

    3.*omple# subject ,nominative with the Inf construction. %n 0ng sentence with comple# subject is translated

    into +us by a comple# sentence. Its principal clause is an indefinite personal sentence of the type MMU"

    YMM~OU ]XYUNM and subordinate clause is introduced by the conjunction ^UM" SOS ,%ll bodies are known

    to possess weight XYUNM" ^UM YX UXRO MROOU XYM. There is a variety of Inf forms within this

    construction ,simple and compound" active and passive. ,The e#periment is said To have been successfullycompleted MMU" UM SYZX]XNU [R VYZXQNM OXQXN.

    The predicate can be e#pressed by the following verbs in the pas form: to say" to report" to state" to believe" to

    announce" to e#pect" to understand" to see" hear etc ,=ush greater economic tasks were seen to lie ahead

    ZXYUMRM XQ]U X~ MRXX ON[X SMNM]^XYS]X OO^]. The vestle (hevchenko was reported to

    have arrived in dessa MM~]R]" ^UM UXZRM\M X^XNSM Z][R XYYV. XZRM\M X XNSM" SOS

    YMM~]R]" Z][R XYYV. If in the original the predicate is in the negative form in translation the 3D.33

    If the predicate is a combination of a modal verb plus the inf" in translation it is rendered by an indefinite

    personal sentence with a modal meaning ,this uestion should be considered to be settled RXVXU Y^]UOU"

    ^UM UMU MZMY OXQXN.

    The Inf may be also preceded by the verbs in active voice: seem SOOUY" appear ZM]]MV" happen"

    chance YRV^]RMY UOS" YRV^ONM" prove" turn out MSOOUY. This house appears to have been built bygood architect {UMU M" ZM ]]MV" [R ZMYUMXN \MMQ] O\]UXSUMM. &hen translating from

    +?s into 0ng and using comple# subject in translation the Tr$r should the negation from the subordinate

    clause into the 0ng main clause ,with the 0ng predicate. OXUY" MN NX NOXU ZOV 5e doesnt seem to

    know the truth. I happened To be there at that time RV^]RMY UOS" ^UM [R UO UM X.

    *omple# subject is also used when the predicate is e#pressed by the following word combinations with the

    verb to be: to be likely XMUNM" to be unlikely ORMXMUNM" be certain" sure NOXNSO"

    MZXXRXNNM" to be found $ MON. In this case simple infinitive often refers action to the future. The goods

    are unlikely to be unloaded today ORMXMUNM" ^UM UMO[