Tori Theory

7/31/2019 Tori Theory

1/16

Archana Tyagi


2/16


3/16

Role of Trust and its implications in an online Distance Learning Context

Archana Tyagi

IMT Centre for Distance Learning, Ghaziabad,India

0192

The Asian Conference on Psychology & the Behavioral Sciences

Official Conference Proceedings 2012

Abstract:

Trust is an essential component of human relationships and a fundamental building block ofknowledge societies. The present research paper contends that trust is a vital element of ahealthy relationship in a collaborative work environment, and especially more so where

human beings are not able to meet and interact with each other physically. Trust serves as aplatform to strengthen and reinforce an organizations cultural value system, build effective

group work norms and provide a method for inclusion and transparency in the work culture.In a dynamic and uncertain environment, the capability of any organization is to manage

and implement trust This paper argues and emphasizes that trust is one of the mostimportant variables especially in an online academic work environment with team members

dispersed all over the globe. The need of the hour is to lay down a solid theoretical researchfoundation for the relationship between trust and team effectiveness in an academic

online/virtual environment.

This paper is organized as follows. First, conceptualization of trust in the context ofeffective team work at a virtual platform will be reviewed and integrated. In the next

section the role of TORI theory conceptualized by Jack R.Gibb, will be explained anddiscussed for the effective implementation of trust in organizations. We then emphasize

upon theoretical evidence for a relationship between trust and key determinants of teameffectiveness including organizational design, psychosocial factors of teams, task

interdependence, team composition (including the team leader) and team processes to namea few. Next we accentuate the impact of training on trust development of academic

members working in a virtual environment. In the final section the role of trust will becritiqued along with future guidelines for research and its impact in the educational context

of on line distance learning.

The Asian Conference on Psychology & the Behavioral Sciences 2012Official Conference Proceedings Osaka, Japan

471


4/16

Introduction

Trust is a property of both organizational members and abstract structures or systems of or-

ganizations (Nandhakumar and Baskerville, 2001:192). According to Smith (2008), Trust

represents one of the most critical issues facing groups. The need to work with others through

text-based online environments can make trust issues more salient. The diminished physical

cues provide limited information for learners to use to assess trust. As the use of online col-

laborative groups (OCG) increases, the need to understand trust issues becomes vital. Yet, itis difficult to answer the question of how trust is developed and maintained within these

groups and how trust issues influence collaborative processes and outcomes. Trust issues

become much more salient in the online collaborative work environment, thanks to the dimin-

ished physical signs, which reduces the regular continuous assessment of the co-workers.

Honesty is the foundation upon which trust is built, without it any relationship will not be

supported and eventually crumble. Trust plays a crucial role in the success of online distance

learning, since the interaction of the professors and the students are through online mode on-

ly.

Trust is difficult because it's one of the fundamental things in life that has to be mastered.

People need to learn not only who to trust, but who not to trust, and how much and in what

areas to trust those they do. Trust is important because it is the essence of a harmonious

relationship. Without harmony we are left with a competitive conflict of wills. With trust we

are capable of transcending the notion that one can only prosper at the expense of the other.

Building trust is not an easy task. It requires appliances and support from the organizational

culture based proven practices and usually takes time. Trust can be learned over time once

one adopts a state of reflection and the ability to trust the wisdom of the mind and the body.

Reflection is not intellectualization, but the opposite. It involves self-examination and often a

lot of waiting for insights. Insights, as 'truth-tellers' can come to a person if there is room,

patience, self-respect, and acceptance (trust) of them. In an online interactive environment the

concern for developing and having TRUST value is something which is challenging to

cultivate and maintain because of the lack of the physical interaction. Developing trust in

organizations among the team members in an online environment is a crucial notion which

demands time, patience, understanding and conscious and concerted efforts from the team

members.

According to Beranek (2000), Trust is a basic feature of social situations that require coop-

eration and interdependence (Jennings, 1971), and also plays a critical role in problem solv-ing (Zand, 1972), organizational performance (Hart et al, 1986), organizational communica-

tion (Roberts & OReilley, 1974) and acceptance of feedback (Earley, 1986). In a dynamic

and uncertain environment, the capability of any organization is to manage and implement

trust This paper argues and emphasizes that trust is one of the most important variables espe-

cially in an online academic work environment with team members dispersed all over the

globe. The need of the hour is to lay down a solid theoretical research foundation to under-

stand the effective relationship between trust and team effectiveness in an academic

online/virtual environment.


472


5/16

Social organizations, corporations, and government associations are increasingly turning to

virtual groups to bridge the gap between face-to-face interactions and difficulties associated

with temporal and geographical separation (Bradner, 2003). Proponents of group work pur-

port that students can participate in the active construction of knowledge, enhance problem

solving skills, share ideas and opinions, gain valuable experience (Haythornthwaite, 2006),

and learn valuable lessons regarding group communication and problem solving that are easi-

ly transferable to the work environment (Becker & Dwyer, 1998; Black, 2002). Although

online/distance education holds promising returns, there are challenges of acquiring a differ-

ent kind of skill set on the part of the participants to make it a success.Keeping this in mind

following structure of the present paper is being proposed

This paper is organized as follows. First, conceptualization of trust in the context of effective

team work at a virtual platform will be reviewed and integrated. In the next section the role of

TORI theory conceptualized by Jack R.Gibb, will be explained and discussed for the effec-

tive implementation of trust in organizations. We then emphasize upon theoretical evidence

for a relationship between trust and key determinants of team effectiveness including organi-

zational design, psychosocial factors of teams, task interdependence, team composition (in-cluding the team leader) and team processes to name a few. Next we accentuate the impact of

training on trust development of academic members working in a virtual environment. In the

final section the role of trust will be critiqued along with future guidelines for research and its

impact in the educational context of on line distance learning.

TORI and its Applications

In the present paper a decision to use the theory of TORI acronym, a concept originated and

coined by Jack.R.Gibb who talks about Trust, Openness, Realization and Interdependence,has been taken. Gibbs TORI theory based on the trust at a personal, group and an organiza-

tional level. Developing trust in an organization also start at the personal level, this further

extends to group and organizational level. TORI theory focuses on trust level as a primary

determiner of the effectiveness and productivity of groups. Research indicates that trust level

is correlated with productivity, creativity, personal growth, and other positive system out-

comes. The theory has been applied to group and team training in industrial, educational, and

religious systems (Gibb, 1972). In this paper, we will like to extend upon the application of

TORI theory in the educational settings. To extend it further, When the trust level is high,

the behavior of members of the group becomes more personal, more open, more self-

determining, and more interdependent. When the trust level is low, members' behavior be-

comes more impersonal, closed, "ought"-determined, and more dependent or counter depend-

ent. According to Gibb,Trust is the key variable in every system. Trust enables open com-

munication, information sharing, and conflict management in a clear way, and also helps to

speed up the contract process (Blomvist, 2002).

And without the continuous escalation in the trust factor at a group level the other three

remaining factors (openness, realization and interdependence) will not be able to propagate.

Hence the question need to be answered is how to develop and maintain the trust in an

online/virtual academic environment? In this paper, an attempt has been made to link the trustnotion with the TORI theory and in addition with the online educational system.


473


6/16

Jack Gibb's Theory of Group Development offers a sound paradigm for examining how

groups work together. Gibb's (1967, 1972, 1978) group-development theory was chosen as

the framework with which to investigate the processes at work in a virtual community of

teacher-learners (Murphy & Laferriere, 2005). His premise is quite simple: as trust increases,

defensive and unproductive behaviour decreases. The greater the degree of trust, the easier it

is for people to shed outer roles and give up stances that inhibit the flow of vital information.

As trust increases, people are freer to offer opinion, critique, and praise. Ironically, few work

groups ever address the issue of trust in any direct way, and are condemned to hours of frus-

trating and non-productive meetings. Developing trust in a physical environment is challeng-

ing enough, whereas it becomes much more arduous in an online environment. The question

of the hour is how to develop trust effectively for an effective and productive online work

environment?

Effective continuous interaction in an online distance environment is between the professors

and the students, between the students themselves and between the professor peers is pro-

foundly reliant on the trust factor. The groups shared in this process can be dyad, triad or a

larger group. Groups basically embody two lives: the life of the group itself, and the life ofeach individual within it. On a group level the concerns revolve around issues ofmembership,

decision-making, productivity, and organization. The typical questions the group is con-

cerned with are: Who will belong? What does it cost to belong? (Membership)

How do we make decisions? Who has the power to make decisions in this group? (Decision-

making) What can we do together? (Productivity)

How will we structure ourselves to accomplish our goal? (Organization) (Brocklebank &

Maurer, 1991). Though these questions are not easy to answer in a physical world it be-

comes more so challenging in an online environment where participants are dispersed all

over the world in a diverse time line. From the TORI theory of Gibbs many remarkable and

worthwhile wisdoms can be learned, transferred, shared and answered continuously

throughout this paper with the learning and interaction in an online world with a special em-

phasis on education at its base.

Developing trust in a relationship (professional and personal) from the very start is not an

easy task, but with the help of authentic communication among the participants is an inces-

sant effort towards establishing an association of conviction and confidence among the group

members. It was Gibbs belief that for an honest and open communication initiative people

needs to communicate with each other without judging them from a straitjacket professional

role and rule tags. Role- bound, we cardboardize ourselves, letting the role or the underlying

rule talk in lieu of the sensitized inner self.A Role might be considered to consist of

those actions you have programmed and performed again and again in a relationship because

of your expectations and /or the expectations of others(Anderson,1979). Perceptions and

opinions are formed quickly and we are ready with our opinion regarding other peoples

competence. Fear can be another crippling factor, which hinders the trust process at an indi-

vidual and group level. Overcoming this fear factor and shedding ones outer defences can

prepare the individuals and the group to face the unpredictable online situations in a smooth

manner. We will be taking a closer look at these factors once again, when we are discussing

about the implementation of these factors towards the closing end.

Key determinants of team effectiveness includes organizational structure and design, psycho-social factors of teams, task interdependence, team composition (including the team leader)


474


7/16

and team processes for the effective implementation of online learning and teaching an effec-

tive one will be discussed and elaborated.

Key Determinants of Virtual Organizational/Team Effectiveness-

A virtual organization is a collection of geographically distributed, functionally and/or cultur-

ally diverse entities that are linked by electronic forms of communication and rely on lateral,

dynamic relationships for coordination (DeSanctis and Monge, 1998). The first key determi-

nant is:

a) Organizational Design

Effective designing of organizational structure and design is significant in a virtual environ-

ment since it is uniquely accompanied with the location (cyberspace- anywhere, anyplace),

class size (can be of significantly different no of batch sizes), type of interaction (imperson-

al), technology dependency (high), and communication/delivery(internet, computer based) to

name a few variables among others, which effects the conducive work environment whileachieving the satisfactory results for the stakeholders. An organization is a deliberate ar-

rangement of people to accomplish some specific purpose (Robbins & Coulter, 2007, p. 17),

and if it is a deliberate arrangement of people who through social interaction planned and de-

signed it for specific purpose, then it needs the constant and adaptive teaching and learning

practices of those people to expand its capacity for greater creativity learning organizational

conception (Senge, 1990), in order to grow, respond effectively to change, and survive. The

essential requirement of the time is to continuously adapt the principles of learning organiza-

tion which is based upon the continuous adaptation of change. The redesigning of the work

structure for a smooth flow of communication is necessary for the continuation of meaningfulwork among todays professionals, with a prominence on network/collaborative approach.

The challenges and major issues are being faced while designing an organization structure of

on line school is comprises of control, cooperation and autonomy, while taking into consider-

ation the cultural and global perspectives. Trust is one of the prominent pillars of virtual work

environment for the widely dispersed autonomous workforce. It is the ultimate backbone of

continuous online learning as well. Technology is a powerful tool of change. Although tech-

nology on its own is incapable of engendering significant educational change, when imple-

mented in conjunction with progressive attitude, results can be profound (Wolfson &

Willinsky, 1998, p. 109).In todays globally competitive environment it becomes crucial to

understand the importance of continuous flow of information and the implementation of

adaptable and flexible structure in the virtual environment. This is especially significant in

the case of virtual working with a special emphasis on online/distance schools where the en-

tire pedagogical systems and ability to educate depend on the ready adaption of emerging

technological tools and concepts. The interaction is highly dependent on technology. An

Adhocracy structure seems to be the most recommended one for an online interactive

course. The term was first popularized in 1970 by Alvin Toffler, (Travica,1999) and has since

become often used in the theory ofmanagement oforganizations, which is further developed

by academics such as Henry Mintzberg. Adhocracy structure is suitable for complex and un-

stable environment which is prevalent in online/virtual environment. Adhocracy structurehas few rules and many plans, remains flexible to best fit the working environment, power


475


8/16

is shifted to specialized teams with high performance based characteristics of team members

with mutual adjustment, selective decentralization with the little formalization of behavior.

Rigidity and dependency can lead to the unproductive outcome in the long run. Adhocracy

structure when implemented in virtual/online environment supports the leadership qualities in

participants at all levels. After deliberating the adaptive and agile culture necessary for the

online environment, the psychosocial factors of teams and team composition with a special

emphasis on distributive leadership will be discussed.

b) Psychosocial factors and Personality Traits of Team Members and Team Leader-

One of the crucial factors to consider when creating effective virtual teams is the psychoso-

cial factors and personality characteristics of the team members. In order to be successful in

the virtual/online environment, participants must possess patience, persistence, and persever-

ance along with a certain degree of tolerance, flexibility, and understanding (Warkentin et al,

1997). Patience as a personality trait to work in an unpredictable online work environment

need to be learned just like participants learned to interact in a face to meet meeting with col-

leagues. The responsibility of sharing the information lies with all the participants of onlinework team. And every team member is encouraged to take the responsibility of their deci-

sions.

Self- efficacy, hope and optimism, these three psychosocial factors were found to have a

positive impact while functioning in an online environment. An increased self-efficacy in

technology integration may bolster student confidence in utilizing computer software, online

assignments, and online curriculum/electronic delivery (Wang, Ertmer, & Newby, 2004).

Hope can also be identified as a cognitive strategy to meet and exceed personal goals (Gill-

ham, 2000; Snyder, 1994; Snyder, Rand & Signom, 2002; Kramer & Conoley, 1992). Sim-mons et al., (2003) noted that hope reveals a beneficial feeling that produces an anticipated

benefit from individual or group circumstances. Optimism factor is linked with positive ex-

pectations and outcomes, which helps in dealing with the unpredictable and stressful situa-

tions while dealing with the online, technology dependent environment.

According to Macfane (2011),Leadership matters when it comes to shaping organizational

contexts and future, and the types of teaching and learning systems that prevail in organiza-

tions. Dynamic and progressive leadership allows for innovation and strive to develop unique

methods and approaches to services delivery or creation, and thus, promote a structure that

allows for creative or transformative pedagogy. Leadership more than any factors will shape

the pedagogical approaches of emerging virtual schools, especially as competition increases

and these schools strive to develop competitive advantage. Effective accomplishment of task

in an online environment needs a major amount of work with Interdependence is the demand

of the virtual/online members of the team.

c) Impact of Training on Trust

Training is an ultimate solution to upgrade ones skills and competencies. According to Dan-

iels, (2012), Individuals do not automatically bring their individual strengths to the team andwork collaboratively in an effective way. With intentionality a leader can develop a team by


476


9/16

addressing the predictable challenges of interpersonal dynamics: pecking order, various work

styles, the conflict that becomes personal, etc. In the middle of this interpersonal messiness

there are times and there are personalities that consistently derail the potential productivity of

the team. That is when leaders earn their title and their pay! The timing is critical in deciding

when to re-investin a team member through a personal/professional development plan, re-

assign a team member to another part of the organization, orrelease and replace the individ-

ual for the sake of the team. Working effectively online is quite different. Unlike traditional

or on ground jobs members working in online work environment takes some time to develop

the desired working habits and also to get acquainted with the other team members to effec-

tively collaborate to achieve the desired goals. Trust among team members can be developed

gradually with the desired behaviors.Recent research on trust and virtual teams describes

communication behaviors that might facilitate trust in global virtual teams and suggests that

trust might be initially created, rather than imported, via communication behaviors in global

virtual teams (jarvenapaa & Leidner (1998) & (Jarvenapaa & Leidner (1998). According to

Warkentin, and Beranek (1999), teams given Virtual Team Communication (VTC) training

may develop relational links faster than teams without VTC training. Hence emphasis on im-

parting effective communication practices among team members of online virtual environ-ment between and among peers can help in promoting a favourable work environment.

Recent evidence suggests that when virtual teams are given sufficient time to develop strong

intragroup relationships and to adapt to the communication medium, they may communicate

as effectively as face-to-face groups (Chidambaram, 1996).Developing relational links in-

volves performing activities related to the member support and group well-being functions.

These activities include, for example, establishing position or group status of members, defin-

ing task roles of group members, and establishing norms for group interaction (Warkentin,

Sayeed and Hightower, 1997). Positions of team members with a clearly defined work ob-

jectives in an online work environment will not only support in developing an understanding

of the work culture, which is gradually able to transcend into the trusting culture but also with

clear communication channels to reach out to the members of the group.

Establishing protocols and ground rules by virtual team members regarding their availability,

absences, giving due credit to the team members along with constructive feedback are few

essential work practices needs to be developed by the virtual team members for communi-

cating effectively with each other. Productive relational links are based upon the continuous

imparting of information exchange in the group. Two factors that affect information ex-

change are opportunity and motivation to contribute information (Hightower & Sayeed,1996). Freedom and opportunity to express the views by team members in the crucial work-

ing matters of participants in a project irrespective of their status in the team can be great mo-

tivating factors for the team members working in a virtual environment. Hence along with

relational communication training, trust training among team members is also being proposed

for the effective and smooth achievement of team members desired objective of completing

the targeted project without much hindrance. Frequent users of discussion forums on the In-

ternet and online services develop ways to convey more meaning in their messages as a

means of replacing paraverbal and nonverbal cues. The use of symbols called emoticons is

one example (Mc Grath & Hollingshead, 1994). These emoticons and symbols helps in creat-ing a light and positive environment of goodwill among the team members for whom the


477


10/16

physical cues are missing while interacting with each other. Designing and implementing ef-

fective strategies for the smooth online interactions will motivate the working of the team

members in a positive direction.

Discussion and Conclusion

Since virtual teams are becoming necessary imperatives for organizations today it becomes

obligatory for organizations to strive for their smooth and effective implementation. In depth

understanding of issues like developing trust among team members, give them sufficient time

to adapt to and get acquainted with one another, developed and shared desired strategies and

ground rules will be able to develop the desired norms and cohesiveness among the team

members. Continuous interaction among the team members, open environment and empower-

ing of team members are the few pillars on whom the online/virtual members can build the

solid foundation of work. Taking the cues from Gibbs advice of open and honest communica-

tion among team members can set a strong foundation of trust among the online virtual team

members. Participants continuously need to be encouraged and trained to shed their outward

pretensions and learn to develop to interact with others from their true self. One of the majorproblems with remote working is more of a human issue which because of absence of emo-

tional bonding and physical interaction creates a vacuum in understanding others. With the

continuous interaction this gap can be lessened in an online environment. According to An-

derson (1979) Teachers need to learn not to respond to students with closed expectations but

with an opening receptivity to their needs. As a teacher of online learning other issues such

as reliability of team members and work related communication can be easily overcome if the

rules of engagement for communications, conflict and expectations can be chalked out. Ac-

cording to Jarvenpaa, and Leidner, (1998) and Jarvenpaa, Knoll & Leidner, (1998) A num-

ber of strategies have been put forth that may serve to reinforce trust in teams. These strate-gies include proactive behaviour of participants, empathetic task communication, positive

tone, task goal clarity, and frequent interaction with acknowledged and detailed responses to

prior messages.Laying down ground rules and setting up communication criteria(s) are key

sections of working meritoriously in any space - but especially in a virtual environment. Im-

parting effective VTC training for the online team members will help in developing continu-

ous flow of information exchange. Setting up of simple ground rules early can save time in

aligning group performance expectations with personal strengths and aptitudes. One key fac-

tor is also staying in touch just like you might around the office "water cooler". It's good to

address each other from time to time and chill virtually which will gradually add a bit of

"warmth" and human connection. Individuals are then inspired and usually thrive to offer

their best.As Andy Grove, the famously paranoid chairman of Intel Corporation says, "You

have no choice but to operate in a world shaped by globalization and the information revolu-

tion. There are two options: Adapt or die. You need to plan the way a fire department plans.

It cannot anticipate fires, so it has to shape a flexible organization that is capable of respond-

ing to unpredictable events."(Harvard Management Communications letter, 2000).

Future Research- Researchers should conduct studies relentlessly in order to develop effec-

tive strategies to understand the successful implementation of various parameters to create an

encouraging and trust worthy environment. It is critical in an online distance learning envi-

ronment where the effectiveness of learning lies in smooth and continuous interaction.


478


11/16

References

Anderson, R., 1979. Students a real people: Interpersonal communication and education,

Transactions Publishers, pp. 157-162.

Becker, D., & Dwyer, M., 1998. The impact of student verbal/ visual learning style prefer-ence on implementing groupware in the classroomJournal of Asynchronous Learning Net-

works, volume. 2(2), pp. 61-69. http://www.aln.org/publications/jaln/v2n2/v2n2_becker.asp

Beranek, P, M., 2000. The Impacts of Relational and Trust Development Training on Virtual

Teams: An Exploratory Investigation,Proceedings of the 33rd Hawaii International Confer-

ence on System Sciences, pp.10.

Black, G., 2002. Student assessment of virtual teams in an online management course. Jour-

nal of Business Administration Online. 1(2).

. http://jbao.atu.edu/Fall2002/black.pdf

Blomvist, K., 2002. Partnering in the dynamic Environment: The role of trust in asymmetrictechnology partnership formation. PhD thesis, Lappeenrant University of Technology.

Bradner, E., 2003. Computer mediated communication among teams: What are "teams" and

how are they "virtual"? In C. Lueg & D. Fisher (Eds.),From usenet to cowebs: Interacting

with social information spaces pp. 135-154 London: Springer-Verlag.

Brocklebank, S and Maurer, R., 1991.WORKINGEFFECTIVELY IN GROUPS AND

TEAMS: A RESOURCE BOOK, MATC, Thomas Circle. Washington, D.C. 20005(This article is based on Jack R. Gibb, "Climate for Trust Formation. " T-Group Theory and

Laboratory Method. Wiley. New York. 1964. pp 279-309 (Accessed on 14

th

Feb 2012)

Chidambaram, L., 1996. Relational development in computer-supported groups.MIS Quar-

terly,vol.20(2), pp.143- 163.

Daniels, D., 2012. How critical is Team Chemistry? Leadership Development group (Blog)

http://theldg.org/?utm_source=Copy+of+How+Critical+is+Team+Chemistry&utm_campaign

=The+Leadership+Development+eLetter&utm_medium=socialshare

Accessed on 16th

March 2012

De Sanctis,G & Monge, P., 1998. Communication Processes for Virtual OrganizationsJCMC, vol.3,no.4 June ohttp://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol3/issue4/desanctis.html#About,

Accessed on 9th

March 2012

Gibb, J., & Gibb, L., 1967. Humanistic elements in group growth. In James Bugental

(Ed.), Challenges of humanistic psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 161-170.

Earley, P.C., 1986. Trust, perceived importance of praise and criticism, and work perfor-

mance: An examination of feedback in the United States and England. Journal of

Management,12, pp. 457-473.


479


12/16

Gibb, J., 1972. Tori theory and practice.InThe 1972 Annual Handbook For Group Facilita-

tors: University Associates.

Gibb, J., 1978. Trust: A New Vision of Human Relationships for Business, Education, Family,and Personal Living. California: Guild of Tutor's Press.

Gillham, J., 2000. The science of optimism and hope. Radnor, PA: Templeton Foundation

Press.

Hart, K.M., Capps, H.R., Cangemi, J.P. & Caillouet, L.M., 1986. Exploring organizationaltrust and its multiple dimensions: A case study of General Motors. Organization Develop-

ment Journal, Summer, pp. 31-39.

Harvard Management Communications letter., 2000. Communicating with Virtual Project

Teams/Creating Successful Virtual Organizations - Virtual Communication. 3(12)

Haythornthwaite, C., 2006. Facilitating collaboration in online learning.Journal of Asyn-

chronous Learning Networks, 10 (1) , pp.7-24.http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/jaln/v10n1/v10n1_2haythornthwaite.asp

Hightower, R. T., & Sayeed, L., 1996. Effects of communication mode and prediscussion in-formation distribution characteristics on information exchange in groups.Information Sys-

tems Research,7 (4), pp. 451-465.

Jarvenpaa, S. L. and., Leidner, D. F., 1998. Communication and Trust in Global Virtual

Teams,Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 3(4), pp .1-36.

Jarvenpaa, S.L., Knoll, K. & Leidner, D.E., 1998. Is Anybody Out There? Antecedents of

Trust in Global Virtual Teams,Journal of Management Information Systems, 14(4), pp.29-

64.

Jennings, E.E., 1971.Routes to the Executive Suite, New York, McGraw-Hill.

Kramer, J., & Conoley, J. (eds.). 1992. 11th Mental Measurements Handbook.

Macfarlane, D, A., 2011. A comparison of Organizational structure and Pedagogical Ap-

proach: Online versus Face-to-face. The Journals of Educators online, 8(1), pp.1-43

McGrath, J. E., & Hollingshead, A. B., 1994. Groups interacting with technology:

Ideas, evidence, issues and an agenda.London: Sage.Murphy, E & Laferriere, T., 2005.Identifying and facilitating Group Development Processesin Virtual Communities of Teacher-Learners,International Journal of Instructional Technol-

ogy and Distance Learning, 2(4) .pp 23-32.

Nandhakumar, J and Baskerville, R., 2001. Trusting Online: Nurturing Trust in Virtual

Teams, Global Co-Operation in the New Millenium, the 9th

European Conference on Infor-

mation Systems,Bled,Slovenia.http://stff.cts.utu.fi/opinnot/kurssit/csw/papers/online trust.pdf

Robbins, S.P., & Coulter, M., 2007. Management, 9th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Prentice Hall.


480


13/16

Roberts, K.H., & OReilly III, C.A., 1974b. Failures in Upward Communications in Organi-

zations: Three Possible Culprits.Academy of Management Journal, vol.17,pp. 205-215.

Senge, P.,1990. The art & practice of the learning organization in The New Paradigm in

Business: Emerging Strategies for Leadership and Organizational Change (eds. Ray, M. and

Rinzler, A.) 1993, by the World Business Academy. pp. 126-138. New York: Jeremy P.

Tarcher

Simmons, B. L., Nelson, D. L., & Quick, J. C., 2003. Health for the hopeful: A study ofattachment behavior in home health care nurses.International Journal of Stress

Management, 10 (4), pp. 361-375.

Smith, R.O.,2008.The paradox of Trust in Online collaborative groups,Distance Education,

29( 3) pp. 325-340.

http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a903071561~db=all?alerttype=new_is

sue_alert,email&jumptype=alert

Snyder, C.R., 1994. The Psychology of hope: You can get there from here. New York: Free

Press.

Snyder, C. R., Rand, D. L., & Sigmon, D. R., 2002. Hope theory: A member of the positive

psychology family. In C. R. Snyder, & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive

psychology, pp. 257-276. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Travica, B., 1999. New Organizational Designs: Information Aspects, Ablex/Greenwood,

1999, ISBN 1567504035, Google Print (Accessed on 13th

March 2012)

Wang, L., Ertmer, P. A, & Newby, T. J., 2004. Increasing pre-service teachers self-efficacy

beliefs for technology. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 36 (3), pp. 231-250.

Warkentin,M.E, Sayeed L and Hightower, R.,1997.Virtual Teams versus Face- to- Face

Teams: An Exploratory Study of a Web- Based conference System, Decision Sciences, 28( 4

), pp.975-996.

Warkentin, M., and Beranek, P.M., 1999. Training to improve virtual team communication

Information Systems Journal, 9 (4), pp 271-289.

Wofson, L., & Willinksy, J., 1998. Situated Learning in High School InformationTechnology Management.Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 31, pp. 96-110.

Zand, D.E., 1972. Trust and managerial problem solving.Administration Science Quarterly

17(2), pp 229-239.


481


14/16


15/16


16/16

Tori Theory

Documents