Western Kentucky University TopSCHOLAR® Masters eses & Specialist Projects Graduate School 5-2009 e Impact of Westernization on Tongan Cultural Values Related to Business Lucas Nelson Ross Western Kentucky University, [email protected]Follow this and additional works at: hp://digitalcommons.wku.edu/theses Part of the International Business Commons , and the Social Psychology Commons is esis is brought to you for free and open access by TopSCHOLAR®. It has been accepted for inclusion in Masters eses & Specialist Projects by an authorized administrator of TopSCHOLAR®. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Recommended Citation Ross, Lucas Nelson, "e Impact of Westernization on Tongan Cultural Values Related to Business" (2009). Masters eses & Specialist Projects. Paper 69. hp://digitalcommons.wku.edu/theses/69
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Western Kentucky UniversityTopSCHOLAR®
Masters Theses & Specialist Projects Graduate School
5-2009
The Impact of Westernization on Tongan CulturalValues Related to BusinessLucas Nelson RossWestern Kentucky University, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/theses
Part of the International Business Commons, and the Social Psychology Commons
This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by TopSCHOLAR®. It has been accepted for inclusion in Masters Theses & Specialist Projects byan authorized administrator of TopSCHOLAR®. For more information, please contact [email protected].
Recommended CitationRoss, Lucas Nelson, "The Impact of Westernization on Tongan Cultural Values Related to Business" (2009). Masters Theses & SpecialistProjects. Paper 69.http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/theses/69
THE IMPACT OF WESTERNIZATION ON TONGAN CULTURAL VALUES RELATED TO BUSINESS
A Thesis Presented to
The Faculty of the Department of Psychology Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky
In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Arts
By Lucas Nelson Ross
May 2009
THE IMPACT OF WESTERNIZATION ON TONGAN CULTURAL VALUES RELATED TO BUSINESS
Date Recommended _April 30, 2009______ ______Tony Paquin___________________
Director of Thesis
______Betsy Shoenfelt__________________
______Reagan Brown___________________
____________________________________ Dean, Graduate Studies and Research Date
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, I would like to thank my thesis chair, Dr. Tony Paquin, for putting up with
my awkward sentences, my lack of transitions, and my total disregard of conjunctive
adverbs. I would also like thank the other members on my committee, Dr. Betsy
Shoenfelt and Dr. Reagan Brown, for their support and input. Finally, I would like to
thank my family for always accepting the “I have to work on my thesis” excuse. Without
their love and support I never would have made it to the end.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………….. vi
Literature Review…………………………………………………………………... 1
Introduction……………………………………………………………….. 1
History of Project GLOBE………………………………………………… 3
Impact of the West………………………………………………………… 5
Kingdom of Tonga Background…………………………………………… 8
Westernization and Tonga…………………………………………………. 10
Cultural Practices of Western Societies…………………………………….. 13
Current Study……………………………………………………………….. 15
Method………………………………………………………………………………. 19
Participants and Materials…………………………………………………... 19
Procedure and Design……………………………………………………….. 20
Results………………………………………………………………………………. 21
Discussion…………………………………………………………………………… 23
Business Implications……………………………………………………….. 26
Future Research……………………………………………………………… 30
Limitations…………………………………………………………………… 31
Conclusions…………………………………………………………………... 32
References……………………………………………………………………………. 33
Appendix……………………………………………………………………………… 37
v
LIST OF TABLES Page
Table 1 Economic and Demographic Profiles………………………………… 14
Table 2 Country Means for GLOBE Societal Cultural Practices……………... 14 Table 3 Results of One-way ANOVA Analyses………………………………. 21
vi
THE IMPACT OF WESTERNIZATION ON TONGAN CULTURAL VALUES RELATED TO BUSINESS
Lucas Nelson Ross May 2009 Pages: 44 Directed by: Dr. Anthony Paquin, Dr. Elizabeth Shoenfelt, and Dr. Reagan Brown Department of Psychology Western Kentucky University This study examined the impact of Westernization on Tongan cultural values
(Collectivism I, Collectivism II, Power Distance, Future Orientation, and Uncertainty
Avoidance) related to business. A Tongan version of the Project GLOBE Beta
Questionnaire measuring cultural dimensions at the societal level was completed by 222
Tongans from the island groups of Vava’u, Ha’apai, and Niuatoputapu. One-way
ANOVA and planned comparison results indicated significant differences for
Collectivism II and Uncertainty Avoidance. Scores from Vava’u showed significantly
less Collectivism II than Ha’apai, but not Niuatoputapu. Furthermore, scores from
Vava’u showed significantly less Uncertainty Avoidance than Ha’apai and Niuatoputapu.
No significant differences were found between Ha’apai and Niuatoputapu on any of the
cultural dimensions in this study. The results of this study indicate the cultural dimension
scores in one of Tonga’s more populated and technologically advanced island groups are
beginning to reflect the values of Western culture. Implications for organizations
planning to conduct business in Tonga are discussed.
1
The Impact of Westernization on Tongan Cultural Values Related to Business
The increasing connection among countries and the globalization of business do
not mean that cultural differences are disappearing or even decreasing. As economic
borders collapse, it is possible for cultural barriers to grow. When individuals from
differing cultures interact, many similarities may emerge, but many differences also may
be amplified (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004). According to Rabotin
(2008), globalization is extensive, and to be successful in this sort of atmosphere, leaders
must be knowledgeable in communicating and functioning within a range of cultural
environments. Competition is intensifying in both the global and regional arenas with
organizations mobilizing on a much broader scale (Goldstein & Ford, 2002).
Globalization opens up a number of opportunities for business, but key challenges
are also created. To succeed in global business, a better and more flexible understanding
of different cultures is necessary for managers and employees (House et al., 2004). This
is not an easy task; but to continue a constant learning environment, new research is
needed on how culture functions. There are a number of factors that affect the creation
and change of organizational cultures. These factors include the presence of competitors;
local, regional, national, and global economic conditions; the type of business, whether it
be manufacturing or service; the type of labor supply, etc. (House et al., 2004).
The current study focuses on the way organizations reflect the societies in which
they exist and, more specifically, on the business implications for a traditional culture
evolving into a more modern, Westernized society. Several small and large scale attempts
that look at cultural differences in the business
2
world have been successful (e.g., Project GLOBE). Culture, however, is not a static
entity, and thus more research is needed to understand the process of change in order
allow for better prediction of appropriate business practices.
In the past, it was common for organizations to conduct business only within the
boundaries of their home market. However, the rising costs in these countries combined
with lower costs in others and the advancement of communication technologies have led
to the development of increasing global competition. As a result, it is becoming
progressively more difficult for organizations to increase their chances of success and
survival. As the strategies used by organizations to obtain success within their own
borders often do not work across international boundaries, a need has developed for
individuals and businesses that possess different cultural values, different managerial
styles, and new organizational structures (Rodriguez, 1997).
Although there have been a number of research efforts to identify cultural
variables associated with work across the globe, there is virtually no information on the
South Pacific and, more specifically, Tongan culture. Although Tonga does not embody a
Mecca for foreign investment, the country’s economy is dependent on foreign assistance
to offset its trade deficit (Central Intelligence Agency, 2009). Most of the major projects
(e.g., new school buildings, providing computer and networking equipment for schools)
within the country are also funded by foreign aid. Unfortunately, but not surprisingly,
many of the projects begun in Tonga involving host country nationals have been
unsuccessful. An argument can be made, therefore, that this lack of success can be
partially attributed to a lack of understanding of the Tongan culture. If so, then a greater
awareness of the culture would allow foreign organizations to better prepare their
3
expatriates for conducting business in Tonga, or, at the very least, allow them to select
more culturally appropriate endeavors.
The Kingdom of Tonga is a traditional place that is evolving to a more Western
philosophy, which may likely affect the types of organizational structures and
interventions that will be successful. The purpose of this study is to look at that change.
The following sections discuss the research done with Project GLOBE, including its
cultural indices, the impact of the West, some background information on the Kingdom
of Tonga, Westernization and Tonga, and a more in-depth look into the cultural practices
of Western societies.
History of Project GLOBE
Realizing that differing cultures are becoming increasingly connected and the
world of business becoming more global, the creators of Project GLOBE (Global
Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Research Program) became aware
of a need for valuable international and cross-cultural contact, cooperation, and support,
not only for efficient practice of management but also for the enhancement of the
individual state. As these realizations of an interconnected, global business world became
noticeably influential, the creators of Project GLOBE believed that more cultural
barricades and unforeseen challenges would emerge. Currently, approximately 170
researchers from 62 countries utilize information from all the regions of the world to
meet the goals of the Project GLOBE initiative. These goals include shifting the focus of
organizational behavior literature from being frequently U.S. related to cross-cultural and
becoming a foremost contributor to the leadership and organizational literature (House &
Javidan, 2004).
4
Societal and organizational items for nine cultural indices were utilized in Project
GLOBE. According to House and Javidan (2004), these indices were a result of research
conducted by Hofstede (1980), Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961), and McClelland
(1961). The indices include Uncertainty Avoidance, Power Distance, Collectivism I,
Collectivism II, Gender Egalitarianism, Assertiveness, Future Orientation, Performance
Orientation, and Humane Orientation. Through interviews, focus groups, and a review of
the pertinent literature, the authors of Project GLOBE developed items for each of the
indices that reflect cultural “values” (what the respondents thinks “should be”) and to
reflect cultural “practices” (what the respondents perceives “as is”). This allows
individuals to answer items on how their society or organization currently is, but also
allows them the opportunity to answer questions on how their society or organization
should be. This gives the researchers an opportunity to compare the cultural values
(“should be”) of a group or individual to the cultural practices (“as is”) of the group or
individual.
The nine major cultural constructs investigated by Project GLOBE are defined
below (House and Javidan, 2004).
Uncertainty Avoidance: The degree to which organizational or societal members
attempt to avoid uncertainty by dependence on rituals, societal norms, and routine
practices to lessen the unpredictability of future experiences.
Power Distance: The extent to which organizational or societal members
anticipate and agree that power should be shared unequally.
5
Collectivism I (Institution): The extent to which organizational or societal
institutional practices support and reward collective allocation of resources and collective
action.
Collectivism II (Family): The extent to which individuals articulate allegiance,
pride, and cohesiveness in their families or organizations.
Future Orientation: The extent to which organizational or societal members take
part in future-oriented behaviors such as investing in the future and planning.
Gender Egalitarianism: The degree to which gender role differences are
lessened by an organization or society.
Assertiveness: The extent to which organizational or societal members are
assertive, aggressive, and argumentative in societal relationships.
Performance Orientation: The degree to which an organization or society
members are supported and rewarded for performance progress and excellence.
Humane Orientation: The extent to which organizational or societal members
are supported and rewarded for being fair, selfless, kind, giving, and caring to others.
Impact of the West
According to Von Laue (1987), the world is becoming interdependent, global
competition is being modeled after the West, and the sustainment of political power is
often achieved through the technology, weapons, attitudes, and sciences from the West.
The spread of Western culture can be viewed as beneficial to a non-Western society with
the associated spread of modern medicines and advanced technologies. However, it can
also be seen as a destroyer of original cultural ideals, values, and beliefs. It is obvious
that no other cultural style has promulgated like that of the West and it seems likely that
6
Western culture will continue to shape the rest of the world for some time. Consequently,
to continue this push of cultural monopolization, the spread of Western ideas are often
forced upon societies with the West getting much of its higher authority through military
force. As a result, non-Western cultures are often overpowered and must submit to
Western ways. While there are some who will argue that Western culture has corrupted
traditional Polynesian culture, and to some degree this is true, the spiritual gifts (i.e.,
Christianity) of the West that have been spread through missionaries, arguably, have had
a positive effect on the region. It can also be said that, likewise, the generosity of the
Polynesian culture has much to offer to the West, and the technical expertise the West has
to present is of obvious value to the South Pacific (O’Reilly, 2008).
The impact of developed Western countries (i.e., United States, Australia, New
Zealand, England, and Canada) on non-Western cultures can be seen throughout the
world. In Senegal, the impact of the West can most be seen in the marriage system. The
age of individuals’ first marriage has steadily risen throughout the decades since the
1970s, smaller families are becoming more prevalent, and the practice of polygamy,
while still widely carried out, is declining. These changes are attributed to the
advancement of education, mass media, and the urbanization of Senegalese society
(Senegal, 2008).
Traditional cultures from the islands in the South Pacific have also become
greatly Westernized. For instance Micronesia, which includes the islands of Guam and
Palau, among others, has been under the rule of Spain, Germany, Japan, and the United
States. These administrations started in the mid 1500s until the late 1900s when
Micronesia claimed its independence in 1970. This rule under foreign power was and is
7
still true for many island groups in the South Pacific. As a result of being under these
foreign powers, the South Pacific was introduced to lifestyles different from their own.
Many people left their farm life and began working in mines owned by Europeans.
Changing the way South Pacific people lived their life led them to adopt other Western
habits. For example, many began dressing in a more Westernized style of clothes and
abandoned their traditional dress (Fashion Encyclopedia, 2008). The modern world is
increasingly changing the South Pacific. As O’Reilly (2008) noted,
“outboards are replacing outriggers; Coca Cola and consumerism are becoming alternatives to coconuts. Furthermore, even though television is still not present in many South Pacific homes, behaviors and attitudes are being shaped by VCRs that play illegally copied videotapes available at the local corner store. As a result, villagers are becoming fascinated by material desires, while their diets are transforming as imported processed foods become a replacement for the traditional fiber rich foods like plantains and breadfruit.”
Many of these same types of changes can be seen in Tongan culture. Tongans, in
the past, have embraced the idea of an extended family, but in recent times, couples of
the newest generation are choosing not to utilize the extended family but, instead, live on
their own (Lonely Planet, 2008). This is likely for the same reasons as the growing
Westernization of the Senegalese society. Tonga, as will be discussed in further detail, is
going through a transition that is beginning to replace old traditions with new Western
ideals. Due to the relative remoteness of some of the islands in Tonga, however, the
extent of change appears to vary considerably across the kingdom. This makes the
Kingdom of Tonga the perfect location to study the expansion of the West and how that
expansion impacts the culture, and the types of interventions that would help ensure the
success of business enterprises attempted in these changing cultures.
8
Kingdom of Tonga Background
The Kingdom of Tonga is a country located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It
consists of 170 islands that are divided into three main island groups; Tongatapu (located
in the south), Ha’apai (located in the center), and Vava’u (located in the north).
Niuafo’ou, Niuatoputapu, and Tafahi are isolated islands in the north with ‘Ata being an
isolated island in the south. The Kingdom of Tonga is the last Polynesian kingdom in the
South Pacific (Tonga, 2008).
Tongans are mostly represented as Polynesian, with small mixes of Melanesian,
European, Chinese, and other Pacific Islanders. About two-thirds of the Tongan
population lives on Tongatapu, the main island. Located on Tongatapu is the capital of
Nuku’alofa, which is the urban and commercial center for the Kingdom of Tonga (Tonga,
2008).
The main part of Tonga’s economy is agriculture. Tonga produces coconuts,
pumpkins, vanilla, a variety of fruits and vegetables, and is developing a growing fishing
industry. Textiles, brewing, and furniture production are part of the small sized industry.
Another source of revenue is the payments from the many Tongans working in Western
cultures like New Zealand and Australia (World Travel Guide, 2008). The country
remains dependent on external aid and remittances from Tongan communities overseas to
offset its trade deficit. The government is emphasizing the development of the private
sector, especially the encouragement of investment, and is committing increased funds
for health and education. Tonga has a reasonably sound basic infrastructure and well-
developed social services. High unemployment among the young and the continuing
upturn in inflation are major issues facing the government (Central Intelligence Agency,
9
2009). Future plans include developing tourism and improving the island’s transportation
systems and communication (U.S. Department of State, 2008). This growing tourism and
increased communication is beginning to modify and shape current Tongan life and will
undoubtedly have an impact on future generations that have more contact with other parts
of the world.
Modern Tongan life is essentially the same as it has been for centuries with the
emphasis on agriculture and traditional values. The majority of Tongans live a survival
type farming life that includes insistent pressures from church and family. In Tonga,
individuals are raised on the belief that they are a product of the Tongan culture and that
any action or behavior must be done for the good of the group, even at the expense of the
individual. Western society, on the other hand teaches a much more individualistic
approach to life. Nevertheless, Tonga is going through change. For example, cars and
internet access continue to find their way onto some of Tonga’s inhabited islands. As of
2006, 12 of the 36 inhabited Tongan islands have cars and 7 have electricity (McCoy &
Havea, 2006).
The foundation of Tonga’s culture is based on the notion of rank. In Tongan life,
rank impacts all responsibilities and interactions. Tongans will often avoid
communication until they can determine who is of higher rank. This knowledge will then
establish how the interaction will occur. The class system in Tonga is made up of royalty,
nobles, and commoners. The decision of who is in which class is established by heredity.
Showing respect to an individual of higher rank is very important. For example, when a
commoner is in the presence of royalty, signs of respect would be to keep their heads
lower than the member of royalty, keeping their eyes down, not speaking, and never
10
walking in front of a noble or royalty. When communicating with nobles or royalty,
Tongans use different forms of language (i.e., different words and phrases) than they
would use when interacting with other commoners.
Westernization and Tonga
Included in the rich history of Tonga is the ever present contact with more
developed countries that are considered to have Western ideals and philosophies.
Westernization in the South Pacific Islands began in the early 1500’s, with interactions
from Europeans. As time went on Americans and Asians also began to intermingle with
the natives from these islands (Pacific Islands, 2008). The first Europeans to come into
contact with Tonga are believed to be the Dutch. The Dutch were quickly followed by the
British, Spanish, and French.
It has been argued that Tongans took on the values of the Western societies in
order to survive in their ever-changing world. After the unification of Tonga in the 19th
century, Tonga was counseled by European Americans to take on the characteristics of
Western societies if it wanted to escape threats from larger countries. Thus, according to
Oliver (as cited in Urbanowicz, 2003), Tongans came to believe that the only way to
continue being Tongan (i.e., not be conquered) was to be seen as Western.
Tonga may not have been ready for change during the 19th century, but the right
people at the right time came to introduce these changes. For example, European
missionaries had a major impact on Tongan change. These missionaries brought Western
people, materials, and values to the three major island groups of Tonga (Tongatapu,
Ha'apai and Vava'u). With the beginning of European visitors, a new Western religion
was introduced. In a relatively short period of time, the native religion of Tonga was
11
replaced by Western religion. Today the majority of Tongan families belong to a
Christian church (Pacific Islands, 2008).
With the beginning of the 20th century, Tongans continued to be involved with an
increasing number of global issues. Just before World War I, Tonga became involved
with Britain on a more concerted level. During this time, Tonga signed a treaty that
allowed for British protection during any foreign affairs. However, the prospect and
involvement with war brought more and more Western contact with Tonga. The Second
World War aroused many South Pacific Island societies to inquire about issues in
Western communities. During World War II, both the United States and New Zealand
troops were stationed on Tongatapu (Lonely Planet, 2008). Between the years of 1942
and 1945, millions of American soldiers had contact with Tonga. This contact allowed
Americans to bring their unfamiliar culture to Tonga. Local Tongans were astounded by
the money and goods brought by Americans as they had never seen anything like that
before. Along with products of modern technology, the American soldiers brought
modern music, sports, cigarettes, beer, and chewing gum. Furthermore, unlike other
nations that had visited Tonga, Americans came from a country that was racially,
ethnically, and religiously diverse (Weeks, 1987). Adding to the military history of
Tonga and Western societies, in both 2004 and 2007 Tonga went as far as sending troops
to Iraq (Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 2007).
According to the Lonely Planet Travel Guide (2008), more recent Tongan affairs
have been highlighted by governmental changes that were influenced by foreign
pressures. Tonga saw a rise in a governmental change that decreased the power of the
upper classes, and increased the desire for a constitutional monarchy that is a reflection of
12
the British system. This is not surprising considering Tonga’s long history of contact with
Europe, particularly Britain. Tonga’s growing interest in the utilization of more
globalized affairs can be demonstrated by their request to become part of the World
Trade Organization.
Tongan people are increasingly facing the issue of balancing influences of
Western culture and technology with traditional values. Nuku’alofa is the epitome of a
place where Western and traditional Tongan culture mix (U.S. Department of State,
2008). Fletcher and Keller (2001) described Nuku’alofa (especially the younger
residents) as a place that is suffering from the influence of American culture. Likewise,
the impact of the West can be seen clearly in the younger generations who are beginning
to question the function of the monarch and rebelling from the idea of the extended
family (Lonely Planet, 2008).
Western culture has been assimilated into Tonga in more ways than just simply
foreign visitors. A great number of Tongans live and work overseas, particularly in New
Zealand, Australia, and the United States. According to Lee (2004), there are
approximately 40,000 Tongans in New Zealand, 37,000 in Australia, and 15,000 in the
United States. These numbers include Tongans that are born overseas. Tongans living
away from the homeland typically continue to have close ties with those still living in the
island nation. These connections include business ties, church networks, kinship links,
and student groups. These overseas Tongans keep their social, political, and economic
connections through remittances, internet, phone calls, back and forth travel, videotapes,
and photographs. With this amount of information and contact from such a large
contingent of Tongans living in Western cultures, it is necessary to study what sort of
13
impact Western culture is having on Tongan culture. Technology and communication
continue to advance and expand in Tonga. However, even with social connections from
the West, the island locations, and a growing tourist contingent, information does not
always spread quickly from island to island. Tonga did not even get a wireless phone
service until 2002 (Heydon, 2008). With certain island groups being more populated,
possessing a growing tourist industry, advancing technologies, and less isolated than
others, it is likely that information will be extended to these places more rapidly.
Cultural Practices of Western Societies
In order to find the extent to which Western societies affect Tongan culture as it
relates to business organizations, it is important to ascertain how the Western societies
themselves score on the cultural dimensions related to work discussed in the Project
GLOBE research.
Western countries that have had the most contact with Tonga are Australia,
England, New Zealand, and the United States. Information on these countries was
included in an article on the Anglo Cluster by Ashkanasy, Trevor-Roberts, and Earnshaw
(2002). Economic and demographic profiles for these countries and Tonga (for
comparison purposes) are contained in Table 1.
14
Table 1 Economic and Demographic Profiles
Notes: Data taken from 2007 World Bank Indicators (2008).
The findings of the GLOBE researchers for the Anglo Cluster were gathered
through mid-level managers in the aforementioned countries. Results were found for both
the practices of a society (As Is) and the values of a society (Should Be). If
Westernization truly has had an
impact on Tongan culture it is likely that the cultural dimensions ratings from Tonga
would reflect the ratings from societies like Australia, England, New Zealand, and the
United States. Table 2 gives a summary of the “as is” or cultural practice scores for
Australia, England, New Zealand and the United States.
Table 2 Country Means for GLOBE Societal Cultural Practices
As Is Australia England New Zealand United States Averages
Collectivism I 4.29 4.27 4.81 4.2 4.39 Collectivism II 4.17 4.08 3.67 4.25 4.04 Power Distance 4.74 5.15 4.89 4.88 4.92