The Causes of the Cold War

By Mustafa Ahmed

The Causes of the Cold War1945-1990

What Were the Factors Involved in the Cause of the Cold War?

• Yalta (2/1945) • Potsdam (7/1945) • Soviet creation and expansion of the “Iron Curtain”

• Propaganda • The growth of the “superpowers” • The Truman Doctrine

• Marshall Plan • The Berlin Blockade • The creation and role of NATO

• Containment / Roll back • Arms Race

• MAD / Nuclear weaponry

• Cuban revolution and the Bay of Pigs

• Cuban Missile crisis

• “Clean Up”

The

Back

grou

nd Is

sues The Clash of Ideologies

One of the background issues that was a long term cause was the clash of different ideologies. But ideology was not the sole long-term cause. Combined with the fear factor that the other side would attack and force their ideology upon the other, and the belief that only through violence, aggression and their ideology conquering the world would the world be happy, this at the core of the Cold War Crisis.

The U.S.A.The U.S.A. was a capitalist country- this meant that businesses and properties could be privately owned, with the individual having the right to make as much money. The created wealth would not be shared out equally. Similarly, for Americans, the belief of not being controlled by the government was better than equality. Next, the U.S.A. was a democracy. This meant the government was chosen in free democratic elections. Many Americans were bitterly opposed to Communism and feared it would take over. They also believed that the American Way was best.

The U.S.S.R.The U.S.S.R. was a communist state after the Revolution 1917. The communist ideology stated that the rights of individuals was less important that the well-being of the state- so the lives of individuals was more tightly controlled. In contrast to American elections, the U.S.S.R. had a one-part state, with Stalin as their dictator. He believed that capitalists were evil and harboured a grudge against the capitalist U.S.A. and the U.K. after they tried to crush the communists in 1918-19 when they invaded. Similar to the Americans, the Russians despised capitalism and believed in spreading the message of communism.

“The Russians only understand one language - how many armies have you got? I'm tired of babying the Soviets.”Harry S Truman, 1945- Truman was U.S. President in 1945 and extremely opposed to communism.

The

Yalta

Con

fere

nce February 1945

In 1945, when the war was coming to a close, the “Big Three”- the USA (Roosevelt), USSR (Stalin) and Britain (Churchill)- met in Yalta to discuss; primarily about what will happen to Germany after the war, although because Germany and Japan were not defeated, there were tensions over Poland. What was interesting to note was that each leader had plans and priorities of their own. There were a number of key points that were agreed and the main disagreement was about Poland.Probably the most important agreement decided at Yalta was the division of Germany and Berlin. Eventually, it was decided that Germany would divide into four allied controlled sectors- British, French, American and Russian (see above). Berlin was situated in the Russian and it too was divide into four areas. Churchill wanted Germany split into a North, South and West German State, whereas Roosevelt (the U.S. President) wanted Germany split into individual states like Hanover or Bavaria. One another points of agreement was the idea that Germany would have to pay reparations- though how much they would have to pay would be decided later on at Potsdam.

The U.S.S.R. had suffered terribly during World War 2- an estimated 20 million were dead and Stalin felt that Russia was insecure about the future security of Russia. As a result, Churchill and Roosevelt agreed for Eastern Europe to come under the Soviet “sphere of influence”. Similarly, as the allies liberated various countries that country would be allowed to hold free democratic elections. After the war, the three countries would join the U.N.- designed to promote world peace. The only “stumbling point” was Poland- Stalin claimed that Poland had always been aggressive to Russia, sometimes attacking the U.S.S.R. (like in 1920-21) or sometimes providing a route for invaders into Russia. As a result, Stalin felt the only way to secure the safety of Russia was to install a communist government. However, both the U.K. and U.S.A. were democratic and opposed Poland being run by communists. Churchill, in particular, wanted democratic elections in Poland, so was pleased when Stalin allowed a government of “national unity” which would comprise of communists and democrats. However, it clear that Stalin would not honour this commitment. Lastly, Roosevelt secured a promise from Stalin stating that 90 days after the defeat of Germany, Russia would help the U.S. in the War in the East.

"I just have a hunch, that Stalin doesn't want anything but security for his country, and I think that if I give him everything I possibly can and ask nothing from him in return, noblesse oblige, he wouldn't try to annex anything and will work with for a world of democracy and peace." -President Roosevelt to Wlliam C. Bullitt prior to Yalta- Both Roosevelt and Churchill had false trust in Stalin honouring his promises in Yalta; these hollow declarations would be exposed and challenged at Potsdam.

The

Pots

dam

Con

fere

nce July 1945

When the “Big Three” met again in a small suburb in Berlin called Potsdam, the war was over. Germany was defeated and the allies were victorious. However, Roosevelt had died and was replaced by the extremely anti-communist Truman, and Churchill had to depart half-way through as Clement Attlee replaced him thanks to the Labour party winning the 1945 general election. It is also important to note that at Potsdam, goodwill was lost now that the three countries no longer needed to stick together since Germany was defeated. Much of the relations between the two countries had become sour since Yalta- to such an extent that the British planned “Operation Unthinkable”; a plan to invade Russia if necessary. These two factors, along with the Atomic Bomb (see below) meant that Potsdam was not as successful as Yalta. This was evident when the Big Three disagreed on some of the finer points that were to be made from the agreements at Yalta.

Yet again one of the talking points in the Potsdam Conference, like Yalta, was the issue of Germany and Berlin. Beyond the idea of the division of Germany, there was no long-term plan about what would happen after that. When it came to reparations, however, there was quite a lot of disagreements. The Soviet Union was allowed to take reparations form their Russian zone in Berlin and Germany, as was the U.S.A. and Britain. However, what the U.S.A and Britain both argued over against the Russians was the fact that the U.S.S.R. was allowed to take 10% of industrial equipment form the western zones. Both Attlee and Truman felt this was too much. The U.K. and the U.S.A. decided not to take reparations, and there were disagreements over the details of the locations of the boundaries and the size of the zones.

There was one issue that highlighted the treachery of Stalin and the false chimera he promised. From Yalta, the three leaders agreed that a government of “national unity” was to be set up in Poland and this would comprise of both communists and non-communists. However, Atlee and Truman in particular was concerned not only about the growing number of communists in power in Eastern Europe, but also the fact that Stalin arrested those non-communist leaders, politicians and intellectuals in Poland and other Eastern European countries.

One big disagreement in Potsdam was over the Atomic Bomb . Midway through the conference, Truman learnt that the U.S.A. had tested the A-Bomb. This gave the U.S. a huge military advantage. Then, in August, the Americans dropped the bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This meant that the U.S.A. would not have to rely on the Soviets to help

defeat the Japanese. This was ideal to the mindset of the Truman who opposed communism vigorously. When Stalin found out he had been tricked, he was furious that the U.S.A did not tell the Russians.

“Now I know what happened to Truman yesterday. I couldn't understand it. When he got to the meeting after having read this report he was a changed man. He told the Russians just where they got on and off and generally bossed the whole meeting.”Churchill, talking - on 22 July - about Truman's behaviour on that day (i.e. the day after Truman had found out about the atomic bomb).

The

Iron

Curt

ain

Creation and

Expansion- Eastern Europe 1945-89

The term “Iron Curtain” was first coined by Winston Churchill in Missouri 1946. It was used to describe all those Eastern European countries that had come under communist rule, west of Austria. This metaphorical boundary symbolises the two different sides, ideologically and militaristically that were created after WW2; the Warsaw Pact and “Comintern” countries to the East, and the NATO countries to the West and the South. Churchill believed that that Soviet power was growing and had to be stoppedAt the end of the War in 1945, The Russians had lost 20 million people. Thus, Stalin felt that in order for Russia to become secure, he needed a “buffer zone” of friendly states. During WW2, exiled members of Nazi occupied Eastern European countries fled to Russia and set up Communist governments-in-exile. After the war, they returned to their homelands. At Yalta, these countries were to come under “The Soviet Sphere of Influence”. We first saw the communist takeover of an Eastern European country in Poland. Here, the government of “national unity” was destroyed after the non-communist leaders were arrested in Moscow and others too. In 1947, the communists won the election and came to power.

The takeover from democracy to communist governments was a common sight throughout Eastern Europe. In 1945, Albania immediately entered into communist rule, with a communist run coalition leading to the execution of non-communist politicians in Bulgaria. In East Germany-the Russian Zone- communists took charge and in 1949, the name was changed to the “German Democratic Republic”. Similarly, in 1947 and 1948 Romania, Hungary and Czechoslovakia fell into communist rule. In Romania, the takeover of power was similar to Bulgaria but it resulted in the abolition the monarchy. In Hungary, the takeover was the more extreme- the non-communists were elected, but the communist leader Rakosi, took control of the secret police (the AVO), and executed and arrested his opponents. Then, the democratic leader, Tildy was forced to resign and by 1948, Rakosi had full control of Hungary. Lastly, in Czechoslovakia, Benes was the leader of the non-communist coalition. But, Gottwald the Red leader, took control of the Radio, the Army and the Police. When Gottwald became Prime Minister he created the Secret Police and arrested non-communists. In 1948, communists went on strike, the Czech leader killed himself and Gottwald ruled.

In 1947, Stalin set up an alliance of Eastern European Communist states. This was to be known as COMINTERN. This alliance was designed so that all the Eastern European countries agreed to obey to Soviet rule. It was signed by eight nations and this showed the extent of the power and influence that the Soviets had in that region. By ‘49 all but Yugoslavia were run by “hard line Stalinist” regimes. Yugoslavia was communist, but declared neutral after Marshal Tito and Stalin split. The Warsaw Pact was the communist equivalent to NATO and was created in 1955 after West Germany joined NATO. Like NATO, it was a mutual defence program, with the aim of preventing an invasion of Russian Soil- like Napoleon and Hitler in 1812 and 1941-44 respectively- at all costs; which meant that Stalin could position troops within the Eastern Bloc satellite states at anytime.

“From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an "iron curtain" has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia; all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in some cases increasing measure of control from Moscow.”- Churchill at Fulton, Missouri 1946

Sovi

et P

ropa

gand

aCommunist Propaganda-

Printed and RadioCommunist propaganda was used extensively in the U.S.S.R and Eastern Bloc countries . It aimed primarily at the workers; this meant linking the working class with other worker, expressing the feelings and opinions of the working class and to spread opposition and attack the bourgeois and the capitalists’- during the Cold War it was aimed at the U.S.A. This form of propaganda that attacks other ideologies is called “negative propaganda”. The Soviets also used “positive propaganda”- that is to say, propaganda that promoted and supported aspects of the Soviet rule; one such example was Stalin- through posters the greatness of Stalin and how he will lead the U.S.S.R. and Communism into a new brighter era. This mirrors the “Cult of the Fuhrer” in Nazi Germany. There were a number of means used by the communists and these included printed media such as newspapers, film and radio. All the Soviet newspapers were state controlled and censorship was very strictly controlled, particularly when it came to anti-communist satirical cartoons. Most of the time, the cartoonist would be arrested as would the editor and just as happened to The Moscow News the newspaper would be shut down.

In these newspaper, satirical cartoons would be aimed at captalist countries, leaders and ideologies. The cartoons would mock them, expose their faults and show how dangerous they are to communism. One such example was this, which claimed that under communism schools and beneficial institutions are being created regularly, so that the people are educated and happy, but in the U.S.A, under capitalism, the life is harder, with people unhappy as schools are rundown, poor, decrepit and being shut down regularly.

One other theme that was repeated regularly was the greatness of Stalin- he was portrayed as the benefactor of the U.S.S.R. who would strengthen the U.S.S.R., crush capatalism and spread communism. Throughout Russia, posters were placed everywhere, radiating his eminence. One such example was placed on street corners in St Petersburg and shows how he is leading the U.S.S.R. and communism into better days.

Not only was printed media used, but radio was also an important propaganda tool. Not only was radio broadcast in the US.S.R., but in Europe and parts of Asia, the communist broadcasts were located in India, Italy and Finland to name a few countries. Because of this, the broadcasts were said in their respective native languages. This was in order to spread communism in the world whiclst at the same time, attacking the captalist governments, leaders and ideologies. In Europe a 1952 article "Communist broadcasts to Italy" reported that as of June 1952 the total communist radio broadcast to Italy amounted 78 hours per week, as compared to 23 hours of the Voice of America and BBC, noting that Italy occupied a pivotal position in the East-West conflict of the time.

“The State propaganda of communism becomes in the long run a means for the eradication of the last traces of bourgeois propaganda dating from the old régime; and it is a powerful instrument for the creation of a new ideology, of new modes of thought, of a new outlook on the world.”- Nikolai Bukharin, a Bolshevik theoretician.

Capi

talis

t Pro

paga

nda

U.K. and U.S.A. Propaganda

Like Communist propaganda, Western Propaganda had multiple objectives. Firstly, propaganda was aimed at attacking communist life. Western propaganda aimed to portray life as a citizen of the communist countries as being controlled by the state, with brainwashing rampant and being held captive by the state a norm. The west also portrayed an aggressive U.S.S.R. aiming to destroy the U.S. and in America in particular, Cuba was the target for negative propaganda, particularly when it came to Radio. Just like the communists, the U.K. and the U.S.A. used radio and printed media- the latter of which consisted of cartoons and novels. When it came to Radio, the U.S. was particularly interested in indoctrinating Europe. As a result, throughout Europe, the U.S.A. launched “Radio Free Europe”. This radio station provided Eastern Bloc countries with American entertainment and telling the Europeans of how life in the U.S.A. was better. Funded by the American Congress and run by the CIA, this radio station was broadcast in a number of different European languages, including Russian. Similarly, the BBC was used as a tool to indoctrinate the people into supporting the capitalist ideology.

Printed Media, in the form of cartoons and novels, were used extensively. When it came to cartoons, the western cartoonists would portray the Communists, particularly Stalin and later Khrushchev as aggressive towards America and planning the downfall of the U.S.A. In these cartoons, the U.S.S.R. would be symbolised by the “Bear”. This represented the hostility and threat the U.S.S.R. posed to the democratic nations- in particular the U.S.A. At the height of “Red Hysteria” when paranoia was at it’s highest during this period, cartoons were published attacking the Russians and Communists every chance they got. One such example of a cartoon published by the U.S.A was found in the cover of a comic book that depicted communism as an iceberg that could sink the ship which is representative of the U.S.A.

This was found on the cover of a comic book that only cost ten cents. This meant that it was very cheap and could be bought by anyone. This meant more people could be indoctrinated, particularly children since they tend to buy comic books. Because it was found in a comic book, it showed just how much propaganda was present, wherever it could be. In the U.K. one of the earlier forms of propaganda was

George Orwell’s novels Animal Farm and 1984. These two novels highlighted how a totalitarian rgeime, much like Stalin’s Russia, ended up with failure, after the leaders would corrupt language for proganda means. Ironically, the books were used for extensive propaganda- including an animated film that the CIA changed for their own purposes.

“The Marine Corps is the Navy's police force and as long as I am President that is what it will remain. They have a propaganda machine that is almost equal to Stalin's. ”Harry S. Truman

The

Gro

wth

of t

he “

Supe

rpow

er” The U.S.A. & U.S.S.R.

The term “superpower” was first applied in 1944 to the United Kingdom, Russia and the United States. What it means is that these states have a dominant position in the international scene, exerting this dominance in order to influence events for their own interests. Similarly, they tend to be the strongest and wealthiest nations in the world. These nations have power on a world-wide scale. The fact that these two countries were superpowers and the strongest, wealthiest and most powerful was one cause of the Cold War because they had the resources to wage war and engage in this conflict. At the end of WW2, Britain was exhausted; both financially and literally. Six years of war had taken their toll on the U.K. and much of Urban Britain was left in ruins. Since running an Empire requires money, and Britain was penniless, the Empire was breaking up into what is now the Commonwealth States. Because of this, it was evident that Britain was losing its influence on foreign policy matters and that it could not pursue these aims on the same footing as the U.S.S.R. and the U.S.A. The Suez Crisis in 1956 highlighted this. Now that Britain was seen as a reduced power, the two “superpowers” of the post-WW2 world were the U.S.S.R. and the U.S.A.

Since the majority of fighting between 1941-45 had not reached the national borders of the U.S.A, that country found itself in a beneficial position after the war. America had not suffered the huge industrial destruction or experienced the massive human casualties of war that had scarred Europe and Asia. The war did have some benefits for the U.S.A; it reinforced the position of America as the leading creditor in the world and it strengthened the rank of America as the leading manufacturer of goods. Moreover, the war had helped the U.S. in that America had built up strong technological and industrial infrastructure that consolidated its growing and increasing military strength. These new weapon included the Nuclear Weapons that are synonymous with the Cold War, but also increasing Aircraft Carriers and Fighter Jets. These gave the U.S.A. an advantage over other countries in that they could wage war/pursue their foreign policies away from home in order to combat what they saw as the growing and dangerous threat of communism. This is one characteristic of a superpower.The end of WW2 also elevated the U.S.S.R. to superpower status; despite the fact that 60 million Russians were killed in the war, in 1989 Russia had a population of 286 million, the third largest in the world, and this contributed to the fact that the U.S.S.R. also had the world’s largest armed forces. They also possessed Nuclear weapons- from the second half onwards. They had the world’s largest stockpile of WMD’s. When it came to the economy, the Soviet Union was the world’s second largest economy with a GDP of $2.9 trillion in 1990. They had enormous mineral reserves and fuel supplies, which they owed some part to the fact that they are largest nation by surface area on Earth. The Soviet economy used Five-Year Plans to achieve economic goals, and through minimal imports, the Russians were generally self-sufficient. Through satellite Eastern Bloc countries, the Warsaw Pact and links with other communist countries like China and North Korea, the U.S.S.R had allies, but also a great sphere of influence.

“The superpowers often behave like two heavily armed blind men feeling their way around a room, each believing himself in mortal peril from the other, whom he assumes to have perfect vision.” Henry A. Kissinger

The

Trum

an D

octr

ine

March 12 1947The Truman Doctrine was the policy set forth by Harry S Truman, President of the U.S.A. in 1947, to the American Congress stating that in order to keep Greece and Turkey from falling into the Soviet Sphere of influence, those two countries would require financial and military aid. The Republicans agreed to this and $400 million were sent to Turkey and Greece. The result of this doctrine was the acceptance of democracy and in 1952, both nations joined NATO thus securing their position in the region. For many historians, this Truman Doctrine marked the beginning of the Cold War, from where America moved from friendship with the U.S.S.R (détente), to the period of “the containment of communism”; that is to say, stopping the Soviets from getting any more powerful. It is interesting to note that Truman did not call it that, but referred to this as “rolling back communism”. For years, Britain had supported Greece against the communist wave. Since the start of Greek Civil War in 1944, the British Army had supported the National Army from preventing Athens and ultimately Greece from becoming Communist. However, Britain’s economy was in ruins and close to bankruptcy and no longer had the financial capabilities

to support the National Army. As a result, London formally requested that the U.S.A. take the helm of the containment of the Soviets in Eastern Europe. From this, Truman told the American Congress that it was now America’s responsibility to challenge the tide of Communism that was spreading in Europe and Asia. Apart from containing communism, Truman also knew that if Greece was supplied then U.S., NATO and Western Naval Ships could dock and sail through the Mediterranean and warm-water Greek docks. Similarly, if Greece did fall, then the West would lose an important strategic ally. If Greece became communist then it would strengthen the Russian flank, and subsequently make it easier for the U.S.S.R. to prevent Western Aid through the straits, seas and lakes.Just as if Greece fell, Turkey would more likely slide into communism and like Greece, British assistance to Turkey ended in 1947 thanks to huge financial troubles. Thus, the U.S.A. pledged $100 million in financial and military aid. After the war, in 1946, Stalin demanded that the Dardanelles Straits be kept in Russian hands. However, if that was the case, then the Russians could block Western ships from passing by, which could mean less military help in regions such as South-East Asia. One important aspect of this doctrine was that the military aid that the Americans sent were used to help the Turkish gain control of the Dardanelles. This meant that the Western, American and NATO Naval boats could easily pass through this body of water. In this way, by helping Turkey and Greece, the Americans helped contain communism, but at the same time, guaranteed strategic allies in a communist affected areas. The Truman Doctrine marked the beginning of “nation-building” that would be at the forefront of U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War

“The policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." Harry S. Truman stating what the doctrine would be in 1947.

The

Mar

shal

l Pla

nEuropean Recovery

ProgramIn June 1947. General George Marshall visited Europe to see the state of the continent after the war and what was needed. After the trip he concluded that Europe was so poor that it would eventually slide into communism. After he and Truman asked Congress for $17 billion and it was granted in 1948, this American money was used to restart the European economy again. Some historians see the Marshall Plan as a cause of the Cold War, because by giving the Europeans money to develop, they could strengthen themselves, become allies of the U.S.A since the Americans funded recovery and helped them redevelop. Similarly, because many communists saw this as a good economic plan, they were tempted to accept it, but Stalin forbade all Eastern Bloc countries from doing so. This increased the tension between the U.S. and NATO, and the U.S.S.R. and the Eastern Bloc countries.

After the war, much of Europe was in ruins. Major urban areas, particularly the industrial areas where the factories and docklands were, were the targets of heavy aircraft bombing. Transport networks, such as railways were destroyed, food shortages were strife,

particularly in the winter of 1946-7 and despite the fact that smaller villages and towns were not as heavily destroyed, because the transport sector was down, they were isolated. In the beginning, economic recovery was slow, with strikes being commonplace and civil unrest set very high. In West Germany, the situation was particularly bad; 5,000,000 homes were destroyed and what increased this predicament was the vast numbers of refugees from the East- around 12 million. The Americans realised that if West Germany was not economically revived, then the rest of Europe would into stagnation. As a result, in West Germany and the Western Bloc countries, aid was given in the form of food, grants to buy equipment, improvements to transport systems, and everything "from medicine to mules". Most (70 per cent) of the money was used to buy commodities from US suppliers: $3.5 billion was spent on raw materials; $3.2 billion on food, feed and fertiliser; $1.9 billion on machinery and vehicles; and $1.6 billion on fuel. Much of the goods that were spent by the Europeans came from the U.S.A. and Canada, which meant that these two countries also benefitted in the long term.

The impacts on the European Economies were near miraculous. Between 1948-52, the European growth levels surpassed all those in history. Industrial production increased by 38%, whilst the agricultural productions surpassed pre-war levels. The immediate problems of starvation and poverty, that were present directly after the war were eradicated and for two decades, Europe embarked on unprecedented growth that saw the standard of living soar. Historians argue that the Marshall Plan wasn’t the main cause of this incredible recovery; rather it just initiated the growth because growth was already taking place, though very slowly. One other impact was that since the ERP was aimed primarily at helping the children, it resulted in the “Americanization” of the those Europe countries that sought this economic help. This meant a rise in Rock’n Roll, Jazz and Music.One other impact is that it helped unify the Europeans countries though the guides provided by the Marshall Plan. The predecessor to the E.U., the European Steel and Coal Community was created in a bid to create links between Germany and France in order to prevent a war.

“The truth of the matter is that Europe's requirements for the next three or four years of foreign food and other essential products — principally from America — are so much greater than her present ability to pay that she must have substantial additional help or face economic, social, and political deterioration of a very grave character .”- George Marshall

The

Berli

n Bl

ocka

de

The Crisis of ‘48We already know that in the Yalta Conference it was decided by the Big Three that Germany, and Berlin would be split and divided. Then, at Potsdam, we know that Britain, France, America and the U.S.S.R. each had a sector of that divided Germany and Berlin. Whereas the U.S.S.R. took huge reparations from East Germany and their Berlin zone, the Western Allies aimed at improving the conditions in their sectors. Then, in June 1948, those three countries merged their sectors together into one new state; this would become known as West Germany. This unification of the western zones would be know as “trizone”. The Allies then decided to introduce a new currency (Deutsche Mark) that would be used throughout the trizone that would replace the over-circulated and de-valued Reichmarks that was present in Germany. Despite threats from Stalin, these measures took place. In retaliation, Stalin created East Germany and introduced the “East German Mark”. When the Allies created the Deutsche Mark, there was economic chaos in the Russian Zone as people rushed to change their old money into this DM. Before the initial blockade of 1948, there were already restrictions in place in the Russian Zone of Berlin. For example, in January 1948, the Soviets banned all western literature being sold in their sector and then in April ‘48, the Russians imposed a partial blockade- which meant the Allies had to apply for permits and be inspected to enter the city.

The day after the new currency was introduced (the 24th of June), Stalin instigated the blockade. Since Berlin was well into the Russian Zone, Stalin effectively cut of all road and rail networks that the three other nations used to enter West Berlin. This was the beginning of the Berlin Blockade, and the Allies saw this as an attempt to starve Berlin into surrender. If Berlin fell, then Western Germany would be in the firing line and the whole of Europe would be threatened. So, the Americans decide the best way to free Berlin would be through the form of an airlift. The American General Clay, who was in charge of the U.S. Zone of Occupation, then contacted the R.A.F. they found that the British were already using an airlift to supply their troops. The British Zone had two air corridors that permitted them to fly into Berlin and the British had already calculated that because each person needed 1700 per person, 646 tons of flour and wheat, 125 tons of cereal, 64 tons of fat, 109 tons of meat and fish, 180 tons of dehydrated potatoes, 180 tons of sugar, 11 tons of coffee, 19 tons of powdered milk, 5 tons of whole milk for children, 3 tons of fresh yeast for baking, 144 tons of dehydrated vegetables, 38 tons of salt and 10 tons of cheese. In total, 1,534 tons were needed daily to keep the over two million people alive. Additionally, the city needed to be kept heated and powered, which would require another 3,475 tons of coal and gasoline. It wasn’t just the U.S.A.F. and the R.A.F.- the Canadian, Australian and South African Air Force all helped to constantly supply the Berliners with the necessities required. Everything, did not always run so smoothly. On what was to be known as “Black Friday”, three aircraft crashed due to bad weather and the Soviet media used this to ridicule the Americans as inefficient and trying to “do the impossible”. Despite initially not having sufficient aircraft to supply the 5000 tons required, later through increased aircraft this was achieved. The last straw came in the Easter Parade-this was a morale boosting achievement by the American overseer, Turner who decided to break the monotony of the airlift and he decided to break all airlift records. This meant being as efficient as possible and the staff worked round the clock. In the end, around 12000 tons of coal was sent without any accident and in April the total deliveries were calculated at 234,476 tons. Embarrassed, the Soviets lifted the Blockade on the 12th May 1949. In total, it took 308 day, transporting 1.5 million tons in 275,000 aircraft with 101 casualties. The impact of this was that Germany divided into a West and East Germany, the Iron Curtain became permanent, the Cold War broke out into open confrontation, and the two superpowers began an Arms Race and lastly, in 1949, the Allies set up NATO in order to resist Soviet Russia.

When Berlin falls, Western Germany will be next. If we withdraw our position in Berlin, Europe is threatened... Communism will run rampant.General Clay- German commander in Berlin

NAT

OCreation & Role

NATO stands for the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. Signed by the 12 original founding members on the 4 April 1949, the treaty states that if one member country is attacked (at the time the greatest threat seemed to come from the Soviets), it was as if all the countries that signed were attacked. Thus, NATO was the intergovernmental military alliance between those original 12 states that signed the treaty, which included the U.K. and the U.S.A. though the latter only ratified it in August. The main threat seen at the time of the creation of NATO was the Soviet Union and their Eastern European Satellite States. NATO was firstly and foremost a military alliance; as a result it was necessary for them to build up and develop an armed forces. At the outbreak of the Korean war in 1950, it highlighted how NATO needed to form a concrete armed forces since the threat of communism was raised as it seemed that communist countries (North Korea, China and the U.S.S.R.) were working together. As a result, 35 divisions were created for NATO military use if required with an additional 10 that were positioned in Scandinavia and Italy. Then in September 1952, NATO conducted it’s first maritime operations calling upon 200 ships and 500000 personnel. These military activities boasted NATO’s strength, warning the U.S.S.R. against confrontation.

In 1952, both Turkey and Greece joined NATO, which highlighted the success of the Truman Doctrine. Then, in 1954, the Soviet Union requested that, in order to preserve the peace of Europe, the U.S.S.R. should join the alliance. However, the nations were suspicious about the intentions of the Russians, believing that if they allowed the U.S.S.R. to join, they could weaken the alliance from within. A year later, on the 9th May 1955, West Germany was allowed to join NATO. West Germany was vital to NATO in that the Budeswahr (the German Land Forces) provide nearly 12 out of the 26 divisions of the NATO Central European forces. This strengthened NATO, better preparing them against an invasion of Russia.

In response to NATO, Stalin created the Warsaw Pact- this, like NATO, was a intergovernmental military organisation that stated that if one member was attacked it was as if all were. However, it comprised of Eastern Bloc communist states that had the sole aim of protecting “Mother Russia” at all costs. It was created in 1955, after the inclusion of West Germany in NATO was the last straw for Stalin. He felt threatened and thus, the Warsaw Pact was created. These two “camps” added to the tension of the Cold War, and could be cause of the Cold War.

“”The organization's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down“- Lord Ismay

Cont

ainm

ent

U.S. PolicyContainment was the U.S. Policy instigated to stall the spread of communism using the military, political and financial means. One of the main objectives that containment aimed at undertaking was preventing the “domino effect”- that is to say, an area of the Earth falling completely into communist rule in a fairly quick amount of time. It was mainly associated with South East-Asia. This policy occupies the middle ground between roll-back, which is the complete take-over of country through military means, and détente; which means relaxed tensions and relations between two nations. The most famous advocate of containment was Harry S. Truman who was President of the U.S.A. between 1945-53. One example of the Americans pursuing this foreign policy was in 1948 at the Truman Doctrine. By supplying Greece and Turkey with financial and military aid- $400 and $200 million respectively- the Americans gave these two nations the means, both economically and militaristically to combat the wave of communism that was spreading through the region. If Greece fell, so would Turkey and vice-versa. This would be a domino-effect so this policy of containment would prevent that. Similarly, one other form on containment was the Marshall Plan. This helped prevent the take-over of Western Europe because the Americans funded the Europeans with money and aid, believing that a stronger economy would more likely resist a Soviet takeover.

When it came to militaristic forms of containment, when the Soviets invade Afghanistan in 1979, the U.S. felt that would lead to the domino-effect of the takeover of communists in India and the Middle East, where the oil fields lay. As a result, in order to prevent the Soviets from taking over Afghanistan, and bringing communists to rule in that country, the U.S. supplied the Afghan militia with weapons and guns, which were supplied though trade routes in Pakistan, where CIA operatives trained the Mujahedeen. This was a form of militaristic containment- the U.S.A. never invaded Afghanistan, but they aimed at removing the Soviets. This was not known as roll-back since the Americans did not aim at changing the Afghani government. Whereas the policy of containment deals with

preventing the spread of communists using political, military and financial means, the foreign policy of roll-back was basically forcing the change of a government or forcing major changes in their policies. Usually this would be through violence, such as invasions and war, an it is associated with regime change. During the early cold-war days in the 50’s, this policy had notable failures, including the Korean War, where the U.S. led coalition aimed at defeating the North Korean government, but as can be seen today, they failed. Similarly, roll-back was seen as too risky by Lyndon B. Johnson when he was challenged to intervene in the Hungarian Uprising of ’56, believing that it could lead to conflict and a possible Nuclear war with the Soviets.

“In either case we should take no avoidable initiative which would cause it to become a war of annihilation, and if we have the forces to defeat a Soviet drive for limited objectives it may well be to our interest not to let it become a global war”. Paul Nitze

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MADOne of the most iconic images associated with the Cold War were the nuclear weapons. At the close of WWII in 1945, The Americans dropped the world’s first nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively. This was a top-secret classified development in the U.S.A. with not even Truman knowing about these weapons until he became president. However, the Soviets’ still knew that the Americans were developing weapons in this type of field, and this was confirmed thanks to a Soviet Spy Ring. The Russian Scientists, did, at first try to develop nuclear weapons, but this was hindered by the scare amounts of uranium. Similarly, the U.S. scientists thought that uranium was a rarity. Initially, the Americans believed that because they had these new weapons, it could be used as a deterrent and a bartering tool against any hostility or problems aimed at the U.S.A. However, the world was shocked in 1949, when the Soviets launched their first Nuclear weapons. After these nuclear weapons, the Americans developed hydrogen bombs, testing their first in 1952, and the Russians responded by testing theirs a year later. Both nations were eager to pursue these weapons, and as a result, spent huge amounts of money developing and increasing their stockpiles. At the height of the Cold War during the period of 1960-75, it was the Americans who had vast quantities of Cold War, outnumbering their European rivals. In 1965, the Americans had around 31,000 nuclear weapons, compared to the Soviet 5000.

In 1985, however, the Russians increased their nuclear stockpile, outnumbering the U.S.A. because the U.S.S.R. possessed 41,000 compared to the U.S.’ 24000. The Americans had these weapons situated all-round the world. Firstly, they contained long range missiles called Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles. They were stationed in the U.S.A. and could take just half-an-hour from launch to destination, aiming at major Soviet cities, such as Moscow. Similarly, Khrushchev persuaded the Kremlin to develop their own ICBM’s. In 1957, they tested their own ICBM’s from their secret rocket base in Kazakhstan. Just like the Americans, these weapons would attack major American cities quickly and accurately. These were prior to the American long-range missiles, but what the Americans had was the fact that short-range missiles were placed in NATO countries- notably the U.K. and Italy. As well as this, the US always kept soldiers and weapons constantly ready for action. For example, the American Strategic Air Command kept a fleet of 12 B52 bombers armed with nuclear weapons up in the air 24hrs a day. Thankfully, the Cold war stayed Cold and the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. never launched their nuclear weapons upon each other. Both nations knew that even if one side obliterated the other, that destroyed nation still had the capability to still attack the other nations-primarily though the use of nuclear submarines. This was known as a Second Strike. This created the notion of M.A.D. (Mutual Assured Destruction) and that if the two countries and their allies launched these nuclear weapons, then both sides would definitely be destroyed. It would create near-apocalyptic consequences. Thankfully, this harrowing doctrine of military strategy acted as a deterrent for both nations and the nuclear weapons were never launched. The arms between the US and the USSR caused extreme tensions in both camps, fearing that one had more, or less or that one was testing or that one seemed to attack. This added to the conflict politically and militaristically in the Cold War and could be a cause of the extreme tension and rivalry that was the Cold War.

“But scientists on both sides of the iron curtain played a very significant role in maintaining the momentum of the nuclear arms race throughout the four decades of the Cold War. ”Joseph Rotblat

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s 1959-1961Located just 160km from Florida, Cuba is a large island. Before the Fidel Castro era, Cuba was ruled by General Batista- a corrupt, right-wing dictator. In Cuba, his rule was very unpopular and yet the Americans supported him with economic and military support. Why? Well, the Americans had three main reasons; firstly, Batista was just as opposed to Communism as the Americans were. Secondly, Americans actually owned most of the businesses in Cuba and lastly, Cuba was strategically vital in that the Americans possessed a naval base there. However, in 1959, after three-years of vicious guerrilla fighting, a rebel called Fidel Castro took power. Castro was a charming, clever and charismatic Cuban who vision of a better Cuba won over the majority of Cubans. Not only this, but Castro was also ruthless. Once he gained power, he quickly killed, arrested or exiled many political enemies. At first, the U.S. agreed to recognise Castro as the leader of Cuba. However, over time, relations were to turn sour. When Castro first came to power, he nationalised all American companies. This meant that Castro took over U.S. businesses (particularly the agriculture) and distributed these to the Cuban peasant farmer population.

The Americans had both secret and public methods of retaliating against this protocol instigated by Castro. Firstly, as early as June 1960, the U.S. President Eisenhower authorised the CIA to find ways of ousting Castro form power. Economically, the CIA also investigated ways to disrupt the Cuban economy. This meant possible attacks on the Sugar plantations; sugar was the mainstay of the Cuban economy. However, the Americans, stopped all aid to Cuba and banned all imports- particularly Sugar- entering America from Cuba. Naturally, Castro was forced to look towards the U.S.S.R. for help and in 1960, Khrushchev and Castro signed an important agreement. The U.S.S.R. would give $100 million worth of aid, and promise to buy 1 million tonnes of Cuban sugar each year. The Cubans would also buy arms from the Soviets and for President Kennedy, this was the last straw. Although he did not invade the Island, after breaking relations with Castro in 1961, could not tolerate a Soviet Satellite State within the American sphere of influence. Now the plans to overthrow Castro that were in place during Eisenhower’s time were being completed. In 1961, Kennedy supplied arms, equipment and transport for 1400 anti-Cuban exiles that were based in the U.S. and had powerful pressure groups. They would land in the Bay of Pigs and attempt to oust Castro from power. However, at arrival they were met by 20000 Cuban troops armed with tanks and modern weapons. It was a spectacular failure, with all of the exiles being either killed or captured. What was the impact of these events? Well, firstly, the half-hearted attempt of an invasion suggested to Cuba and the U.S.S.R. that despite the initial opposition to Communism, the Americans were not willing to get involved directly in Cuba. Secondly, this fiasco only strengthened Castro position in Cuba, and this would later lead to the Cuban Missile Crisis. To the U.S.S.R. it made Kennedy look weak and ineffective, and to both Cuba and Russia, it made Castro and Khrushchev wary of U.S. foreign policy. Had there been no revolution, the Cuban Missile Crisis could have been avoided, reducing the tension between the Superpowers, and reducing the threat of a nuclear holocaust.

“The revenues of Cuban state-run companies are used exclusively for the benefit of the people, to whom they belong. ”Fidel Castro

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October 1962After the Bay of Pigs fiasco in 1961, Castro was sure that the Americans would plan an invasion of the island. As a result, he asked what the Soviets had publicly promised- nuclear weapons deployed on the island. Khrushchev was delighted with the thought of placing ballistic missiles so close to the U.S.; just the like the Jupiter missiles that the Americans had in place in Turkey. From the very beginning the Soviets ran the operation in the utmost secrecy, with few people being told. Then in 1962, Soviet engineers were sent to Havana, with this delegation meeting with Castro. The fact that Congress instigated a bill to invade Cuba if necessary, and that the U.S. Navy were conducting “exercises” in the region only strengthened Castro’s and Khrushchev’s resolve that America would invade- for Khrushchev, this would be damaging to the Communist Cause, particularly in Latin America. The missiles were to placed on the island so that they would be hidden by palm trees, under the impression of “irrigation control” and “machine operators”. Then on the 14th October 1962, American U2 spy planes, saw something disturbing; Soviet Nuclear Missiles on Cuba, which could destroy every American town within 2000km of the isle.

On the 22nd October, Kennedy went live on the U.S. Television to warn people of the imminent crisis that faced them; as of now, the Crisis began and if unsolved, could lead to a nuclear war. The Joint Security Council had to do something to deal with the

threat. The Joint Chiefs of Staff believed that a full-on invasion was required to deal with Cuba, but Kennedy thought otherwise. He believed that although he had to deal with the missiles, he could not invade an ally of the Soviets; it could lead to a World War, the loss of Berlin and a nuclear holocaust. So it was decided that a naval blockade was to be implemented. Since the Russians delivered the equipment required for the building of the missiles by ship, the U.S. Navy would isolate and cut-off Cuba by sea, thereby preventing the development of the missiles. Khrushchev saw this as an act of war and Russian forces were put on alert. In response to this, the U.S.A.F. sent up bombers flying with nuclear weapons. Tension was high in both Moscow and Washington with the belief that this Crisis would cause the end of the world. It seemed as if war was to break out. The Russians then made the first public move. Khrushchev ordered that Soviet Ships were to head back. Despite the initial relief, the Americans were still on high alert, so Khrushchev sent a telegram to Kennedy stating that if the Americans removed the blockade and promised not to invade Cuba, then the Soviets would dismantle the Cuban missiles. After this, another telegram was sent to Kennedy. Being more forceful and almost as if Khrushchev was having second thoughts, the telegram demanded that the Americans dismantle Turkish and South Italian Ballistic Missiles on the border with the U.S.S.R. Then, a complication in the crisis; a US U2 plane was shot down. For the Joint Chief of Staff's they saw this as an act if war and believed that they had to invade, vowing revenge for the dead shot down serviceman. But Kennedy ignored this, and publicly agreed to the premier letter whilst secretly agreeing to the latter. The reason being, that if publicly exposed it would show America as having double-standards. Kennedy was seen as the hero who prevented annihilation, whilst the Soviets and Khrushchev were embarrassed. The Cubans felt betrayed by the Soviets at the time, but later Khrushchev argues that the Soviets had won since they got what they wanted; the dismantling of Missiles in Turkey.

"Direct aggression against Cuba would mean nuclear war. The Americans speak about such aggression as if they did not know or did not want to accept this fact. I have no doubt they would lose such a war.” —Ernesto "Che" Guevara, October 1962

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1960-1970Before the collapse of communism in the 1990’s, during the 1960’s and 70’s the two superpowers shared a foreign policy of détente. This was time period where the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. eased tensions against one another and aimed at cooperating with each, for the purpose of preventing conflict. There were a reasons why the two nations decide to pursue this foreign policy. Firstly, after the Cuban Missile Crisis, both nations knew just how close they came to annihilation and from that, Khrushchev and Kennedy set up a direct hotline to contact each other in emergencies. Similarly, the Vietnam War was a disastrous conflict for the Americans. They couldn’t prevent the takeover of Vietnam by the Communists and the horrors of war were exposed to the American public. This lead to the withdrawal of troops and strengthened the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND). Lastly, the arms race was very expensive for both superpowers and then, the price of oil rocketed in the 1970s, and both superpowers experienced economic problems.There were a number of protocols instigated during the détente period. Firstly, in 1968, the Nuclear Proliferation Treaty was signed.

This treaty was signed by the countries, that at the time had nuclear weapons. What they agreed to was that none of the countries were allowed to nuclear technology to other countries. This aimed at reducing the numbers of WMD’s and thus, reducing the chance of a nuclear war. However, it did not prevent other countries, such as Israel and South Africa from developing their own nuclear weapons. 3 Years later, in 1971, the U.S. Ping Pong team entered China to play in a tournament. They were the first Western Nation to do so and aimed at improving relations with the Chinese, particularly since the Sino-Soviet Split, where the Russians and Chinese fell out diplomatically. The Americans then dropped it’s veto in the United Nations and subsequently allowed China to become a member of the Security Council. This new relationship with the Chinese aimed at creating a wedge between the Soviets and the Chinese, and therefore hindering the international communist movement. Similarly, a year later, Nixon visited China. In 1972, the U.S. and the Soviet Union signed the SALT1 agreements. This stood for Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty and aimed at the superpowers reducing the amount of ICBM’s and Ballistic Missiles. However, this would be a farce as neither side kept to their promise. After that, in 19754, The Helsinki Agreement recognised Soviet control of Eastern Europe, and established trade agreements with the proviso that the Soviets adhered to human rights. But this only strengthened the Iron Curtain and the Russians still abused human rights. Lastly, as the Space Race intensified, both nations’ spacemen docked in Space together. But for many, this and the Chinese Ping Pong visit, were nothing more than ne-off propaganda stunts.

“I call upon the scientific community in our country, those who gave us nuclear weapons, to turn their great talents now to the cause of mankind and world peace.”Ronald Reagan

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