t******************** · 2014. 3. 11. · each program madel effective teaching behaviors, and pre-pare teachers for creative adaptation to a dynamic future. Students whose teachers

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Penick, John E., Ed.Preservice Elementary Teacher Education in Science.Focus on Excellence, Volume 4 Number 2.National Science Teachers Association, Washington,D.C.National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.ISBN-0-87355-065-K87MST-821647250p.National Science Teachers Association, 1742Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009($7.00).Reports - Descriptive (141) -- Collected WorksSerials (022)Focus on Excellence; v4 n2 1987

MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.Awards; *Demonstration Programs; ElementaryEducation; *Elementary School Teachers; HigherEducation; *Preservice Teacher Education;Professional Recognition; Science Education; *SciencePrograms; Science Teachers; *Teacher EducationPrograms; Teacher Improvement*Excellence in Education; *National Science TeachersAssociation

ABSTRACTThe Search for Exemplary Preservice Elementary

Science Programs was undertaken to recognize programs that modeledeffective teaching behaviors and prepared teachers for developingappropriate attitudes and skills in students. This document describesthe seven exemplary programs that were recognized by the NationalScience Teachers Association's Search for Excellence. The criteriafor excellence are listed and explained and perspectives are offeredon what was learned from the search. Programs reviewed include thosefrom: (I) University of Toledo; (2) Ball State University; (3)University of Georgia; (4) Eastern Michigan University; (5) UtahState University; (6) Austin Peay State University (Tennessee); and(7) University of Southern Mississippi. (ML)

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Focuson Excellence

PreserviceElementaryTeacher Educationin Sdence

Edited byJohn E. PenickScience Education CenterUniversity of IowaIowa City, Iowa 52242

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Acknowledgements

Funding for the Search fur Excellence in Science Educa-tion and the "Focus on Excellence" series has been providedby the National Science Foundation, the University of Iowa,and_the National Science Teachers Association.

Volume 4, describing programs from the 1985 search,includes separate issues describing programs in:

Science Education and Career AwarenessPreservice Elementary Teacher Education in Science

The "Focus on Excellence" series, Volumes 1, 2, and 3,includes separate monongraphs on:

Volume 1Science as InquiryElementary ScienceBiologyPhysical ScienceScience/Technology/Society

Volume 2PhysicsMiddle School/Junior HighNon-school Settings

Volume 3ChemistryEarth ScienceEnergy Education

Other monographs reporting on the search for excel-lence include:

Teachers in Exemplary Programs: How Do TheyCompare?Centers on Excellence: Portrayals of Six DiStrictS?Exemplary Programs in Physics, Chemistry, Biology,and Earth Science

Monographs may be ordered for $7.00 each fromNSTA Special Publications Department1742 Connecticut Avenue, NWWashington, DC 20009.

This monograph has been prepared with partial supportfrom the National Sdence Foundation (1ST-8216472).However, any opinions, findings. conclusions, or recom-mendations expressed herein are those of the staff of theSearch for Excellence project and do not necessarily reflectthe views of the National Science Foundation.

Copy righ t@ 1987

National Science Teachers Association1742 Connecticut Avenue, NWWashington, DC 20009

ISBN Number: 0-87355-065-X

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Foreword Preservke Elementary Teacher Education in ScienceJohn E. PenickUniversity of Iowa 4

1 Excellence in Preservice Elementary Teacher Education inScienceBarbara S. SpectorUniversity of South FloridaTanipa, Florida 5

2 CBTE: An Individualized Elenientary Science Teacher Edu-cation ProgramJerome E. DeBruin, Tames R. Gress, and Jerry L. UnderferUniversity of Toledo 9

3 Ask: A Four-Year Teacher Preparation ProgramSusan M. JohnsonBall State University 15

4 Early Childhood and Middle Grades Science ProgramsJoseph P. Riley and Michael J. PadillaUniversity of Georgia 21

5 A Comprehensive Training Program for Preservice ScienceEducatorsSuzanne Stevens and Horace MacMahanEastern Michigan Univesity 27

6 SODIA ScienceDonald R. DaugsUtah State University 31

7 Collaboration in Preservice and Inservice EducaCon: ANeeds-oriented ModelRebecca Slayden-McMahanAustin Peay State University 37

8 Elementary Preservice Education in Science and MathIva D. BrownUniversity of Southern Mississippi 40

9 Excellence in Preservice Elementary Teacher Education inScience: What We Have LearnedBarbara S. SpectorUniversity of South Florida 45

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ForewordPreserviceElementaryTeacher Educationin Science

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here is a crisis in science education. Advances inscience and technology have transformed our livesin recent decades, and will continue to do so at an

ever-increasing rate. Responsiole citizenship in this demo-cracy requires citizens who can make informed decisions onthe uses of science. Yet most Americans still regard scienceas the province of stereotypical eccentric geniuses arid wild-.eyed mad scientists.

Science is not yet viewed as an integral part of either theschool curriculum or our day-to-day lives. Many otherwiseeducated Americans are illiterate in science. Otherwise com-petent teacheis are afraid to teach science, and students areafraid to enroll in science courses.

The root of the present crisisand the fertile seedbed ofa brighter future in science educationis the elementaryteacher preparatory program. If teachers can be taught topresent science in ways that reflect what we now knowabout the nature of science and the way children learnscience, tomorrow will be brighter for their students andtheir students' children.

At the present time, elementary teaching students arelikely to take too few courses in math and science-. Thecourses they do take are likely to be designed for careerscientists, not teaching generalists. Our search for exem-plary preservice elementary science programs aimed touncover the exceptions to this sorry situation.

Each of the seven exemplary programs described in thisvolume is carefully designed to focus on the science skills,knowledge, and attitudes that students need. Faculty ineach program madel effective teaching behaviors, and pre-pare teachers for creative adaptation to a dynamic future.

Students whose teachers are trained in these programswill learn with enthusiasm, and demand continued excel-lence in science education as they enter secondary schools.Pressure for improvement in secondary school science willresult in better prepared candidates entering preserviceprograms,and we will all move forward with the cycle ofexcellence thus begun.

=John E. Penick

Chapter 1Excelleftee- ittPresetviceElementary1-laeher Educationin ScienceBarbara S. SpectorUniversity of South FloridaTampa, Florida 33620

he quality of life in our society is, and promises tocontinue to be, highly dependent on science andtechnology. Biotechnology is altering our economy

and job markets through changes in agriculture, industry,and medicine. We are on the verge of breakthroughs inmany areas, from cleaning up oil spills to curing majorhuman diseases. Even now, each of us makes daily deci-sions that are ba§ed on sdence and technology. The needfor scientific and technological literacy is inescapable.

Where can the American people turn to meet this need?Science educators can exercise leadership in providing thetools to cope with and make a difference in this changingworld. There is a growing realizaiion that §tudents' atti-tudes towards science are formed in the elementary grades.These attitudes determine a student's capacity to learnscience and understand the technology ,Ir.on which oursociety is based.

The current national focus on science education beganwith attention to science in the secondary schools in 1952;As various states pushed for excellence in secondary schoolscience, a common lament began to be heard from second:ary science teachers:"If students had decent science pro-grams in elementary school, they would at least come to uswith positive attitudes towards science, and some §cienceskins on which we could build!"

Their cry has been heard. The national attention whichfocused first on secondary §cience is beginning to extend tothe elementary schools: Some states and school diStrictShave responded by requiring that science be taught in theelementary grade§ a certain nurnber of minutes per day orper week. Others are developing and implementing districtor state-wide tests to ensure that students attain basic§cience skills during their elementary school years.

Effective elementary science programs and effectiveelementary science teachers are the keys to developingappropriate attitudes and_skills in student§. But today scienceanxiety runs rampant among this country's elementaryteachers. A study by Stake and Easley (1978) suggests thatnot even half of the nation's elementary students have asingle year in which a substantial share of the curriculum i§devoted to science, and the teacher does a good job of teach-ing it. Many teachers ignore science completi::.

Science anxiety has combined with the "back to basics"movement (in which science was excluded from tne ba§icS)to inhibit progress in elementary science teaching at a timewhen our need for scientific and technological expertise isgrowing daily;

The science education community must face _and con-quer science anxiety. Educational institutions with teacherpreparation programs must identify and propagate prac:tices that relieve science anxiety, and provide teachers withthe attitudes, skills, and knowledge to teach science effec-tively at the time_ when children'S mind§ lend themselvesmost readily to inquiry, exploration, and discovery. It iSeasier to prepare teachers properly than it is to provideremediation once they have been certified and are teaching.

In 1981; NSTA's Steering COmmittee on Teacher Educa-tion, chaired by Ken Mechling, set out to gather the datafor a portrait of science teacher preparation in the 1950s:Stedman and Dowling studied certification practices; Dcn-nellan Mvestigated elementary teachers' perception§ of their

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preparation for teaching science; and Mechling inquiredInto program requirements in science for preservice ele-mentary teachers. These data revealed the need to identifya desired state for preservice elementary teacher educationprograms and to identify practices leading to the desiredstate.

The certification study found serious inconsistenciesamong the 46 states which responded. Nineteen statesrequire some science for early childhood certification, and36 states require science for elementary certification. Most,however, do not identify which science courses preserviceteachers are to take.

Only seven states specify even one course in biology orphysical science. Presumably, preservice teachers can satisfytheir requirements by taking_ courses_ with very limiteddassroom application, such as Famous Scientists, Food andDrugs, or Kinesiology. Moreover, only one quarter of thestates demand a science methods course for elementarycertification (Stedman & Dowling, 1982). Elementary teach-ers, science supervisors, and elementary school principalsall agree that most elementary preservice training inade-quately prepares teachers to teach science (Donnellan, 1982).

Mechling surveyed the 50 institutions of higher educa-tion with the largest number of teacher education gradu-ates in the U. S. during the 1979-80 academic year. His dataindicate that in half of the responding institutions preser-vice teachers were not required to earn any more sciencecredits than non-science majors who were not planning toteach. Eight credits or less were considered adequate forboth groups. Most institutions did not even specify disci-plines in their graduation requirements for teachers. As aresult, many teachers have had no preparation in eitherphysical or Earth science, both critical subjects in the ele-mentary curriculum.

The science courses teachers commonly take are surveysdesigned for non-science majors. Their only alternative isto enroll in courses designed as the first steps of series forpeople who intend to work in traditional science profes-sions. In neither case is the preservice teacher likely to seeany relationship betweeen the contents of these coursesand the science he or she will teach in elementary school.Only one third of the responding institutions offered sciencecourses which were specifically developed to meet the needsof prospective elementary teachers.

During 1981-1982, the Teacher Education Committee ofNSTA addressed the question: What kind of science teacherpreparation would produce a confident beginning te,a-herable to provide young children with a positive attitudetoward science and relevant science content and skills?(Since elementary teacher education traditionally integratesall the subjects taught in K through 6, Including science,into one comprehensive program, science teacher preparationhere indicates those courses, learning opportunities, andexperiences that prepare a person to teach elementaryscience, as opposed to language arts, mathematics, etc.) Thecommittee's work culminated in the following recommendedstandards.

Standard la: Science Content PreparationAll colleges and universities should require a minimum

of 12 semester hours or 18 quarter hours of laboratoryfield-oriented science, including courses in each of theSe

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areas: biological science; physical science; and Earth science.

Standard lb: Soence Content Courses for Elementary TeachersThese courses should be designed specifically to serve

the needs of preservice elementary school teachers. Theyshould

Provide knowledge of science content Selected for it§application to elei-nentary school classroomsIncrease skill in using the processes of scienceDevelop positive attitudes toward science and scienceinstruction at the elementary school levelif student enrollment does not warrant separate courses

in science content for preservice elementary teachers, therequired science courses should reflect the special needs ofthese preservice teachers.

Standard Ila: Science Teaching MethodsPreservice elementary teachers should be required to

complete a minimum of one separate course of approxi-mately three semester hours in elementary science methods.This course should be scheduled after the science contentcourses and just prior to student teaching.

Standard Mb: Content of the Sclence Teaching Methods CourseThe elementary science methods course should develop

instructional skills which will help preservice teachers teachscience processes, attitudes, and content to children in gradesK-6. The course should allow prospective teachers

To experience hands-on activities which promote processskill developmentTo select science content appropriate for the elementaryschoolTo design classroom environments that promote positiveattitudesTo choose and use a variety of instructional strategiesand materialsTo develop techniques for evaluating pupil progress inscience

Standard III: Field ExperiencesPreservice elementary teachers should have opportuni-

ties throughout their undergraduate years to teach scienceto children in schools. These field experiences in scienceshould begin with observation and tutoring and proceedthrough small and large group instruction. Student teach-ing must include experience in planning and teachingscience.

Standard IV: Faculty PreparatIonFaculty assigned to teach science content and methods

courses for preservice elementary teachers should have thequalifications, experience, and interest to provide high qual-ity instruction. They should be be instructed in sciencelaboratories and educational facilities that include equip-ment, instructional materials, and library holdingswhich promote science learning and exemplify outstandingschool science programs.

Standard V: Prpfessional OrientationThe professional orientation of preservice elementary

teachers should include experiences that

Standard V: Professional OrientationThe professional orientation of preservice elementary

teachers should include experiences thatInstill positive attitudes toward science and scienceteachingFoster an appreciation for the value of science in the totalcurriculum and in the lives of the childrenDevelop a commitment to continue their education asteachers of science through reading, professional organi-zations, and further education, Including inservic.2eXperiences.It is within the context of these standards that the Asso-

ciation for the Educacion of Teachers in Science (AETS)collaborated with NSTA to institute the 1985 Search for

Excellence in Preservice Elementary Teacher Education inScience. The standards were the basis for the actual criteriaused in the Search.

These criteria use course title§ and number§ of credit§that are common in higher education institutions. Thenumber of credits indicates that a minimum amount oftime is to be devoted to a Specific Subject. This is not in-tended to suggest that every institution must have a Spe=cific course for each topic with the prescribed title andnumber of credits. It is creativity, And not conformity, thatWill promote excellence in pre;ervice education for elemen-tary teachers. Innovative approaches to course developmentcan produce prospective teachers wha are willing and ableto use appropriate pedagogicai, scientific, and technologicalskills and knowledge in their teaching.

(Figure 1) Criteria for Excellence in Freservice Elementary

In the preService education of elementary teachers inscience, the program recognized for its excellence will pre-pare teachers who

Display positive attitudes toward science and scienceeducationRecognize the inherent value of science in the lives of allpeopleImplement courses which meet thr SESE criteria forelementary school scienceSeek continuing professional self-improvement in sciencea-:.! science teaching

With regard to background in science concepts and proTcesses, the preservice elementary teacher's preparationwill:Include 12 semester hours of study balanced among biol-ogy, physical science, and Earth sciencecover content specifically appl;cable to the elenientarycurriculumProvide understanding of the societal implications of sci-ence and technologyProwde competence in science processes such as observ-ing, classifying, measuring, interpreting, predicting, andexperimenting

With regard tb education in science teaching aporoachesand strategies, the preservice elementary teacher's prepara-tion will provide the candidate with

At least three semester hours of study, ideally undei -taken just prior to student teachingKnowledge and skills to work effectively with a widerange of student abilities and socio-economic and ethrt:cbackgroundsPersonal_problem7solving and process skills, acquiredthrough significant hands-on experienceThe knowledge and skills to develop a classroom envir-Onment that promotes positive attitudes toward scienceThe ability to use media, computers, and other technolo-gies appropriately in classroom science instructionThe ability to iise a variety of instructional strategies andmaterials, including local/community reSources and per-sonnel

Teacher Education in Science

An (understanding) of how to ensure safety in scienceactivitiesAn understanding of technique§ for evaluating pupilprogress which are congruent with instruction and whichaddress the processes as well as the content of science

The candidate's instructional program will be carefullyorganized to provide

Significant field and laboratory experienceat least 30percent of the candidate'S Science courSework Should bebased on direct experience in investigating phenomenawith scientific equipmentOpportunities throughout the program to teach scienceto children in schools--these experience§ should beginwith observation and tutoring and gradually proceedthrough various forms o: small and large group instruc-tionStudent teaching which includes experience§ in bothplanning and teaching science to elementary sch( olstudentsSignificant contact with the kinds of facilities, equipment,and instructional and library materials which are typicalof oUtstanding science teaching/learning programsA continuouS feedback process to keep the program cur-rent in both §cience and science education

Faculty who ,erve in the preservice education of elemen-tary teacher§ in Science Should

Have the qualifications, experience, and intereSt to pro:vide high-quality instructionHave specific preparation in and experience with theteaching of scienceModel exemplary instructional design and practice inscience teachingKeep current in science and science education researchModel participation in profeSSional aSSociationS in ScienceeducationMaintain a close continuing association with cooperatirq,elementary school§

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These criteria may appear reasonable, even obvious andreadily implemented, to those unfamiliar with the internalworkings of most colleges and universities. However, tothose who know the resistance to change in most tradi-tional teacher education programs, these criteria are chal-lenging Indeed. Traditional biases and the constraints ofbureaucratic functioning will confront those who promotechange _to meet or exceed these criteria:

The following are some of the biases that must be over-come in order to develop programs meeting these criteriafor excellence:

Scientists in some universities do not consider it appro-priate to develop job-related courses for any professionother than that of research scientist, whether the job isengineering; nursing; or teaching.Many university scientists dislike the use cf science pre-fixes on courses for preservice elementary teachers be-cause they say the courses lack academic rigor. Theythink that proponents of special courses are asking for"watered down" versions of courses that already exist inthe sequence for science majors.Most working scientists have little oceasion to et nsiderthat elementary teachers are generalists who mast beprepared to teach competently across the curriculum dur-ing a four or five year period of undergraduate education.

The fellowing are some organizational constraints thatmay inhibit the development of excel:ent preservice ele-mentary teacher education programs:

Most institutions require some minimum number of stu-dents in a course, in order to pay a faculty rns-mber'ssalary for teaching it.The misconception that teaching science requires thesame methods as teaching other disciplines may result ininstitutions requiring preservice teachers to enroll ingeneral methods courses, rather than offering specificinstruction in science methods.Lecture 1: the primary mode of instruction in traditionalscience courses, which focus on acquisition of the accruedbody of knowledge. The processes of science and prob-lem identification and solving are not emphasized.Laborato:y experiences; if they exist at all, are often inseparate sections ks: coure-:, and may not be synchro-nized with the lectures. The laboratories are usually con-firmation and deduction exercises, providing few chancesfor prospective teachers to experience open-ended induc-tive investigation.Since teachers teach as they were taught, they are likely

to provide an environment for children which supportscuriosity, investigation, and inquiry only if they are taughtin a similar environment. The lack of science teaching inelementary schools suggests that preservice elementaryteachers are not able to, or not willing to, translate practicesfrom general methods classes into methods for teachingscience. These criteria call for a specific science methOdScourse separate from general methods courses, though notnecessarily separate from science content courses.

In education departments or coftes which offer separateelementary science mahods courses, the need to equalizeteaching loads sometimes means thzt non-science educa-tors, generalists in elementary education, or even specialistsin other discipline§ are a: signed to teach the elementary

science methods courses. This is why we stress the qualifi-cations of faculty.

There are other cautions to remember when reviewing aprogram for conformity to these criteria for excellence.Course titles and abstracts cannot give a comprehensiveidea of what prospective teachers will learn from a programof courses. Be sure to obtain specific information whenevaluating a program or a course.

The evaluation procedures used in courses are crucial towhat the prospective teacher learns. Undergraduates willtake what is tested as their nv?asure of importance, ratherthan what a professor says is important. If the two are notcommensurate, the student will behave in response to whatis graded. Fbr example, if a prospective teacher's task waspracticing process skills, but testing covers only the body ofscientific facts, concepts, and theories used to develop theprocess skills, the prospective teacher is unlikely to believethat process skills are Important. One could expect to findthat person teaching children only the accrued body ofknowledge.

It should not come as a surprise that no institutions areidentified which excel in all aspects of the criteria delineatedfor this search: However; the goal of the search was toidentify institution§ in which_desired practices are beingimplemented. The Search for Excellence in Preservice Ele-mentary Teacher Education in Science is a strategy forchange: We believe that publicizing institutions which aresuccessful in some areas will stimulate them to furthergrowth, and inspire others to adopt, adapt, or generatetheir own versions of these practices. In this way, thesearch will ultimately improve the condition of elementaryscience teaching throughout the nation.

References

DOnnellan, K.M. (1982). NSTA elementary teacher survq on pre-service prepAration of teachers of science at the elementary, middle, andjunior high school levth; Washington, DC: National ScienceTeachers Associa tion.

Mechling; K. (1982):Survey Results: Preservice preparation of teachersof _science at thelementory; middle, and_ junior high school levels:Washington, DC:National Science Teachers Assodation.

National Science Foundation: (1978): The status of pre-collegescience; mathematics, and social studies education vacates_ in U.S.schools: Ah overview and summaries of three studies. Washington;DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

National Sc'ence Teachers Associa'cion (1983). Recommemkdstandards fo the reparation and certification oi teachers of science at theelementary and mid:lit/junior high school levels, Washington, DC:Author

Stedman, C., & DOWlihg, K. (1982). Dahl summary and discus.Sion of staie requirements for feather certification in sciencc quest:onnaire.Washington; DC: National Science Teachers Association;

Stake, R.E. & Eagley, J. (1978). Case studies in science educatioh,Vols: I & 2. Washington, DC: U.S. Government PrintingOffice.

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Chapter 2CBTEt AnIftdividualizedElementary ScienceTeacher EducationPtogram

Jerome E. De Bruin, James R. Gress,and Jerry L. UnderferDepartment of Elementary andEarly Childhood EducationUniversity of Toledo2801 W. Bancroft StreetToledo, Ohio 48606

The University of Toledo is a state-supported urbaninstitution that serves about 1:2 million persons innorthwest Ohio and southeastern Michigan. The

College of Education and Allied PrOfeSSions has full timestudents in baccalaureate; masters; education specialist, anddoctoral programs, with one half of the_students enrolled inteacher certification programs. The Department of Ele-mentary and Early Childhood Education prepares profes-sionals at the early childhood, elernetaary, middle, and juniorhigh school levels. Our 150 students, including those whohave an area of specialization in Science, work with 17department faculty in the interdisciplinary undergraduateCompetency Based Teacher Education Program (CBTE).

Design of the ProgramPreService elementary science teacher education at the

University of Toledo is an integral part of the Undergrad-uate CBTE Prograrn. The program was designed in 1%8-1969;implementation began in 1970;__and by 1973_the Collegeoperated a fully developed CBTE program. The programrepresents a single, comprehensive effort to bring aboutchange in the way elementary arid secondary teachers areprepared for teaching. Corresponding changes have oc-curred in the schools where theSe graduates are most likelyto teach. The premise that changes in teacher educationshould also change the schools has led to a working agree-ment among university and public and private school per-sonnel to educate preservice and inservice teachers at thesame time.

Our enhanced teacher education program is practical,exacting, and flexible. It is field based, so students learnabout teaching in actual claSSroornS. The broad goals ofeducation are clearly articulated, so that success is easy todemonstrate. The University of Toledo's teacher educationprogram specifies the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and valuesneeded by teachers, but allows alternative mean§ and vary-ing lengths of time far achieving these specifications.Together, members Of the c011ege faculty and local schoolpersonnel have created a school-based curriculum forteacher education which respects the uniqueness of learnertby individualizing the instructional process. Each teachereducation student meets common educational objec-tives, but each does not meet them in the same manner ortime frame. Science education at the University of Toledohas been unique in these respects.

Goals and ObjectivesThe developers of the University of Toledo's CBTE pro-

gram adopted a statement of ten broad goals of teachereducation. Each teacher is prepared to employ teacher be-haviors which will help every child

Acquire the greatest possible understanding of himlher-self and appreciation of his/her worth as a member ofsocietyDevelop an understanding and appredation of personsbelonging to different social, cultural, and ethnic groupsI' laster basic skills in the use of words and numbersExhibit a positive attitude toward school and toward thelearning process

ii

Acquire habits and attitudes associated with responsiblecitizenshipAcquire good health habits and an understanding of theconditions necessary for physical and emotional well-beingReceive opportun7ty _and encouragement to be creative inone or more fields of endeavorUnderstand the opportunities open to preparing for aproductive life and how to take full advantage of theseopportunitiesUnderstand and appreciate human achievement in thenatural sciences, the social sciences, the humanities, andthe artsPrepare for a world of rapid change which demands con-tinuing education throughout adult lifeObjectives were prepared for each of the ten program

goals in five contexts. The objectives, broadly stated interms of behaviors which can be observed and measured,lie at the heart of the CBTE program. Each objective tellsthe teacher-in-training what is expected as a demonstrationof having mastered the sk:lls it requires. The objectives arealso the backbone of the .nstructional modules. A singlemodule consists of one oi more objectives, a rationale, sug-gested instructional activities, materials to be used, and eval-uation procedures.

The professional education program at the University ofToledo involves three career decisions courses, four blockcourses for elementary education students, and a full quar-ter of student teaching. All courses are accompanied byclinical and field-based experiences which include teachingyoungsters in local schools. These early experiences add upto 300 hours of field-based teaching over three years. Stu-dent teaching, done in the senior year, comprises another300 hours of teaching experience.

One of the blocks is Elementary Teaching and LearningIII: Teaching Science in the Elementary Classroom. Today,the elementary science education program includes scienceand science education in general studies, the professionalsequence, and work in areas of specialization.

General Studies ComponentAll students in the program complete a general studies

component that provides a firm liberal education founda-tion and specialized content and process skills. This compo-nent of the curriculum is fully integrated and consistentwith the general goals of the undergraduate teacher educa-tion program.

The general education component is important to thegraduates' long term success in working with youngsters inschools, for it provides a basic understanding of both sciencecontent and teaching skills. In general studies science classesstudents obtain the fundamental experiences; skills; andinsights they expect to develop later in their own students.Minimum requirements in science for undergraduate ele-mentary education students include courses in biology,naturai sciences; and geology. In addition to these generalcourses, teachf r education students should graduate with

An understanding of the central concepts, structures.,and processes of one of the physical or natural sciencesKnowledge _of the ways in which a specific science disci-pline has influenced human achievement

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Skills of scientific inquiry in a selected physical or naturalscience disciplineRefined skills of observing, recording, classifying, orga-nizing, and interpreting phenomena unique to the Selectedscience disciplineAn attitude of scientific objectivity when observing z,ndevaluating data in their physical and natural environ-mentsAn understanding of the necessity of an ecologically bal-anced environmentAn appreciation of the benefits society has received fromscientific experimentation in general

The Professional SequenceThe principal focus in the preparation of elementary

science teachers occurs in the eight quarter-hour profes-sional block course, Elementary Teaching And Learning III.This course includes various on-campus sessions and a min-imum of fifty quarter hours of related field experience in aschool setting. Modules in the interdisciplinary science edu-cation course include instruction in

Unit Planning and Implementation in Science TeachingTeaching Science in the Elementary SchoolCritiquing and Improving Faulty Test Items in ScienceOassroom Management Techniques in ScienceProblem Solving in ScienceConcept_Lessons in ScienceInquiry Teaching in ScienceQuestioning Lessons in Science

Unit Planning and Implementation in Science TeachingA. Each student will be able to deSigri a §cience unit planwhich meets criteria established on the Unit Planningchecklist: Components of the unit include:

Rationale and goal statementsBehavioral objective§Concept statements (science content outline)Pre- and post-instructional strategies and activitiesAssessment of pupil learningEvaluation of the science instructional system

B. Each student will be able to design daily lesson planswhich are consistent with the overall unit plan and withmodule requirements for lesson plans in inquiry, que§tion:ing, and concept te iching in science.C. Each student will select, prepare; and use instructionalmaterials that are consistent with daily lesson plans and theoverall unit plan.D. Each student will be able to implement daily lesson plansthat meet predetermined criteria and include the followingcomponents:

Rationale, goals, and objective§Pre-assessment of pupil learningInstructional strategies and activities for learningPOs-assessment Of pupil kaining

E. Each student will be able syStematically lo collect, ana-lyze; and interpret data on the ef fectiveness of units whichmeet criteria stated on the science unit implementationcheckliSt.F. Each student will make appropriate revisionS in thescience unit plan; based on the evaluation dlta and criteriaof the science unit planning checklist.

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G. Each student will be able to function as a full; collabora-ting member of a two-person instructional team in theplanning, implementation, evaluation, and revision of aninstructional unit, according to criteria stated on the teammember checklist and the personal and professional fitnesschecklist.

Teaching Science in the Elementary SchoolAs a result of this experience, the prospective elementary

school teacher of science will accomplish all of the follow-ing:A. Complete the Richard Moore Science Attitude Inven-tory (SAL) Pretest and PosttestB. Complete the State of Ohio Eighth Grade Science Con-tent Pretest and Posttest, with a minimum of 80 percentscience content masteryC. Construct an interdisciplinary elementary science unitof instruction following the unit format used in studentteaching (The science unit includes components of the stu-dent teaching unit, a daily master plan outline with appro-priate bridges and self-evaluation sections, and one lessonplan per teaching day following a lesson plan format.)D. Prepare a videotaped microteaching peerpresentation ofat least one science concept, employing one of the followingfour instructional strategies: divergent inquiry, convergentinciuiry, questioning, or concept teachingE. Prepare and teach at least two science activities appro-priate for science learning centers in the fieldF. Review and evaluate at least one computer softwareprogram that can be used in teaching in the fieldG. Successfully complete the teaching of at least 16 elemen-tary science lessons to children in the field (The student willsupply a lesson plan and checklist to the observer, teach thelesson, having children manipulate concrete science mate-rials at least 50 percent of the time, complete the self-evaluation section of the checklist, and return it to theobserver upon completion.)H. Choose and complete at least two elementary scienceproject activities from Chapter 8, "My MiniBook of ScienceActivities" in the text Creative Hands-On Science Experiences(De Bruin, 1980) or from field experience activity in theschools ( These_ activities are to be written, duplicated foreach member of the class, and presented during the sciencefair at the end of the quarter.)I. Complete all assigned readings from Science and Children,Science Activities, the text, and other pertinent sourcesJ. Attend class regularly and promptly (especially importantbecause of the laboratory orientation of the class)

Test Items in ScienceGiven ten exi..mples of faulty test items in a variety of

formats (including multiple choice, true/false, matching,completion, short answer, and essay items), and using thismodule, each student will identii), all test construction errorsand rewrite those faulty items in the same item format. Atleast nine of the ten items need to be in corrected form,according to the criteria in this module, with no major testconstruction errors remaining.

Classroom Management Techniques in ScienceA. Each student will implement positive social reinforcersduring the first two weeks of field experience and meet the

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criteria specified on the positive reinforcement, ignoringinappropriate behaviors, and avoiding criticism checkliSt.B. Given a simulated problem, each student will role play,using reality therapy with a partner, giving evidence of allof the eight components specified in the handout RealityTherapy: Each student will turn in a written script follow-ing the role-playing with all components labeled correctly:C. Given a videotaped teaching segment, each student willbecome familiar with and use the positive reinforcement,ignoring inappropriate behaviors, and avoiding criticismchecklist. Each student will write at least three examples ofthe Premack Principle, at least one of which is applicable toan elementary science setting.

Problem Solving in SnenceThe student develops an understanding of the process of

problem solving in science and applies that process to prob-lems in science education. Given a set of hypothetical cir-cumstances or an opportunity to experience real or simu.,latecl problems, the student analyzes the experiences andlists the effects of rigidity; inflexibility, impulsivity, failureto identify the problem, and failure to organize informationas possible barriers in problem solving efforts.A. Given appropriate information, the student must orga.,nize the information _correctly to solve the problem and listat least five steps in the problem solving process in approp-riate sequence.B. Each student works cooperatively with other interns toprovide acceptable solutions to several given problems; andworks independently to solve another set of simpleproblems.

Concept Lessons in ScienceA. Given materials and a field placement, the student willdesign and implement a science concept lesson, giving evi-dence of the six relevant components and meeting criteriaon the concept lesson checklist in this module.B. Given ten statements of concept definitions, attributes,and examples, the student will match each with its mostappropriate descriptor, with a minimum accuracy of 80percent.C. Given ten statements involving referent definition andits use in teaching, the cone of learning experiences, andthe order of components in teaching a concept lesson, thestudent will match each with its most apprrpriate descrip-tor with a minimum accuracy of 80 percent.D. Given seven examples of segments of a concept lesson,the student will label each with its component name withno more than one error.

Inquiry Teaching in ScienceA. In an actual classroom situation, each student will teacha lesson using Suchman's methods for convergent inquiryin science. These include

The rules and purposes of inquiryPre-assessmentStudent inquiryStudent and/or teacher summariesA follow-up analysis of the more effective questions forsubsequent inquiry sessionsEach student will receive d cooperative peer evaluation

11

averaging 3.5 or higher on the inquiry lessons group eval-uation form and/or on the instructor's evaluation of speci-fied criteria on the convergent inquiry self:evaluation form.B. Having completed objective A above, each student, in anactual classroom situation, will teach a lesson expandingupon the inquiry process and making it more inductive.This technique is known as divergent inquiry. The studentwill demonstrate ability as a planner, introducer, questioner,and sustainer of inquiry; a rephraser; and a value investiga-tor. The student will receive a cooperative peer evaluationof 3.5 or higher on the expanded inquiry leSon group eval=uation form and/or the instructor's evaluation of specifiedcriteria on the divergent inquiry lesson self-evaluation form,items 1-7.

Questioning Lessons in ScienceA. The student will understand how to design and imple-ment a science questioning lesson and incorporate recall,convergent, divergent, and value questions.B. The student will use all four types of questions in awritten science lesson plan. In the questioning lesson, theremust be at least twice as many convergent, divergent, andevaluative (higher order) questions as there are cognitivememory (recall; or lower_order) questions,_ with at least twoexamples of each type. Furthermore, each question or setOf queStibris muSt be labeled attording tb type, suth ASrecall; convergent; divergent; and evaluative: This lessonplan and the unit plan must be approved before implemen-tation in the field.C. In A 7-15 minute time peribd during field experience, thestudent will teach a questioning lesson that meets thestated criteria on the scieriee questiOning observationcheckliSt.

Fieldi Laboratory and Clinical ExperiencesMost undergraduate laboratory experiences take place in

local off,campus settings. These formal, organized, course-re!ated field activities begin early in each student's programand continue in a Sequential manner from the fre§hman/sophomore career decisions courses through the upper divi-sion block courses. University faculty senze_as liaison per-sons between the school and the college (De Bruin, 1978).

Laboratory experiences may be associated with generalprofessional education courses which all students in a givenprogram must complete, or they may occur in conjunctionwith elective courses for students who seek special certifi=cation or who are pursuing special interests in educationand allied professions. The major purposes in providingcontinuous laboratory experiences are to enable students tomesh theory with yractite and to help students to reflecton and evaluate their own personal qualifications as futureeducators. ilerefore, we choose a wide range of siteswhich will provide riChly diver§e field placement§ at allcourse levels. Before student teaching begins, each of ourelementary science education students has_ already had anopportunity to work with children from urban, surburban,and/or rural settings, and with children from minority 3ndnon-minority groups. We also try to provide experiencewith handicapped children or adults, either in a special Or amainstreamed class.

Over the past f:ve years, the actual number and diversity

12

of field assignments per student has increased significantly,as mandated by the Ohio Standards for Colleges or Uni-versities Preparing Teachers Edb-303-02, "Curriculum"(1983).

Clinical experiences occur in on-campus classes, seminarsessions, and unit labs, and at off-campus sites. Unlike typi-cal classroom experiences, in which students are confrontedwith situations as they arise spontaneously, clinical labora-tory activities are preplanned and regulated so that all stu-dents can participate in similar educational experiences un-der relatively controlled conditions. Clinical experiencesinsure that students experience typical classroom p lemsbefore they embark on in-school field expenences. Clinicalexperiences may also be used to reenact situations thatalready have occurred in the field. These experiences includerole playing, peer teaching, developing and using educa-tional media, microteaching, observing and evaluatingvideotaped mini-lessons, developing and/or administeringand evaluating tests, participating in simulation activities,and improvising specific activities to be taught to young-sters in the schools.

Areas of SpecializationEvery elementary education major select§ an area of spe-

cialization from one of five academic fields or completes asecond major in special education. A minimum of 20 hoursof coursework in science is necessary to develop a sciencearea of specialization. In addition to a variety of coursesoffered in the College of Arts and Sciences, special teachereducation courses include Environmental Concepts, Physi-cal Science Concepts, Earth and Space Science Concepts,and Biological Science Concepts. Each of the requiredcourses covers science concepts and processes, scienceteaching strategies, and classroom, laboratory, and fieldexperience opportunities.

Modules in the science education block are taught bymterdisciplinary teaching teams of regular faculty fromEducational Psychology, Curriculum and Methodology,Educational Media and Technology, and Social Foundationsof Education. The teams spend out of class time each weekto plan various class sessions. A block course usually meetsthree hours a day, four days a week, including scheduledclinical and field-based experience in the schools. Each inter-disciplinary faculty team elects a team leader who meetsregularly with other team leaders and college administra-tors to solve day-to-day logistical and admini§trative prob-lems and to evaluate the effectiveness of team plans andthe program in general.

Science instruction in the professional sequence and thescience area of specialization is directed by faculty membersin science education. The science education faculty workclosely with members of the College of Arts and Sciencesto articulate the science instruction featured in the generalcomponent of the program with their own instruction inthe professional component of the program.

Program EvaluationPrior to the 1979-80 academic year, funds were allocated

to develop an internal system for monitoring all students inelementary and secondary certification programs. A ques-

1 4

tionnaire was developed and ined as part of a follow-up§tudy of elementary school teachers. During the 1979-80academic year, a form was devised and used to follow up onour secondary school teachers: The college continues torefine procedures to follow up its graduates in the teachereducation program who are employed at both the elemen-tary and secondary levels. in a CBTE program, evaluationis an important aspect of the total teacher education pro-cess. Modules are refined when data dictate a change.Thus, the program uses both summative and formativemethods of evaluation:

Observations using high and low inference instrumentsare completed on all student teachers to assess their teach-ing competencies and to determine whether the competen-cies taught in the program are being demonstrated in theclassroom. A preliminary report of this activity is found inthe monograph "Research and evaluation in teacher educa-tion: A concern for competent, effective teachers" (Dickson& Wiersma, 1980), in Empirical measurement of teacher perfor-mance (Dickson & Wiersma, 1984), and in DeBruin, 1983.

Attitudes Toward Science and Science TeachingPretests and posttests of undergraduate student attitudes

toward §cience and science teaching have been adminis-tered quarterly since 1975. As reported by DeBrum inPiper's:Attitudes _toward science: Investigations (1977), initial studyof results found greater change in attitude relative to scienceteaching than to science. The longitudinal study is cur-rently in its eleventh year, and results of the first ten yearswillsoon be submitted for publication.

The central thesis of this study is that the process under-graduates go through in solving on-campus and field-basedteaching problems and the degree to which they experiencesuccess in solving these problems affects their attitudestoward science and science teaching. If undergraduates ex-perience success in their early teaching situations theydevelop a positive attitude toward science and science teach-ing. The converse may also be true: unsuccessful expe-riences may lead to negative attitudes.

During the planning phase of instruction a 70-item scienceattitude inventory entitled "What Is Your Attitude TowardScience and Science Teaching," by Richard W. Moore (1970),is administered to the undergraduate students. The inven-tory is also given at the conclusion of the quarter to noteany change in attitude toward science and science teaching.We have recently completed the thirty-first successivequarter of collecting and analyzing data with this instru-ment. In each quarter, over three-fourths of the subjectshave reflected positive changes (pre/post) in attitude towardscience.

The mean scores from pretest to posttest for attitudestoward science and attitudes toward science teaching in=crease as students move through our program. It should beeMphasized that results from the first and ensuing years ofthe study were consistent with different groups of stu-dents. Attitude improvement has been evident in everygroup.

Our plans for future research will focus on isolatingfield-based success factors from factors operating on cam=pus. To accomplish this, the attitude inventory will beadmini§tered prior to and immediately following field expe-rience. Once field-based variable§ are identified and iso-

1

lated, additional factors and the frequency Of theSe factorswill be noted for further study. Tape recordings of seminardebriefing sessions may contribute to this study.

Mastery of Science ContentBeginning in the fall quarter of 1981, a science content

test developed by a panel of Ohij §cience educatorS wa§administered to all univer.lity students taking TeachingScience in the Elementary School. This science content testwas developed for uSe with eighth grade students as part ofthe Ohio Educational Assessment Program (1979), de§ignedto identify statewide learner needs for selected subject areasand grade levels. To insure that undergraduate elementaryeducation students at the UniverSity of Toledo maStered atleast eighth grade science content, the test was made partof the course's core requirements. A criterion level of 80percent waS required for Completion of the course. Approxi-mately 90 percent of the univerSity Students passed thetest, and the other 10 percent engaged in further scienceactivity to meet minimum requirements. A status reportfeaturing the reSultS of thiS four-year study is currentlybeing written.

Prograin Needs and Plans for Improvement of the_ProgramDeSpite it§ eXemplary citation§ by NCATE and NSTA,

members of the University of Toledo's elementary §cienceteacher education program have identified areas that needrefinement and further needs to be met in the program'scontinuing emphasis on excellence. Fir§t, the monitoring ofall aspects of the program needs to continue. Second, thereis a need for a complete follow=up study of undergraduate3cience teacher education students, especially those withscience areas of concentration. The §taff will continue tostudy the progress made by its graduates and will vigorouslyrecruit experienced teachers and graduates of the programto further their StudieS in maSter's and doctOral degreeprograms with an emphasis on science education. Third, ASthe program continues to grow in status, additional teacherswho are familiar With the program need to be identified asmaster teachers under whom current undergraduates mayteach. This will insure continuity with local school person=nel and further strengthen existing relationships.

Other program need§ include the following:Additional personnel, financial Support, and §ciencematerials from international, national, state, and localSourcesExpanded physical faCilitieS to accomodate growingenrollmentMore computers to keep pace with technological advance-ment§Further clinical facilitie§, Such a§ an additional micro-teaching center and various labs in which undergradu=ates could teach demonstration science lessonsExpanded tie§ With local business and industrial centerswhose staff would be willing to act AS Science mentorS forteachers conducting scientific researchRetired scientists to work with undergraduate and grad-uate student§ in the Science education centerHighly qualified high school science §tudent§ who willpursue science teaching in the elementary and middleSchool§

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Additional graduate students to assist in teaching andbecome involved in further program developmentsOutreach to faculty members not yet involved with theprogram, e.g., members of the College of Arts and Scien-ces and the College of Pharmacy, to work closely withscience education personnel from the College of Educa-tion _and Allied Professions Joint programs need to bedeveloped which feature cooperative use of faculty andreSources.

References

De Bruin, J. E. (1977). The rffect of a field-based elementaryscience teacher education pi ogram on undergraduates! atti-tudes toward science and science teae ling. In M. K. Piper,Att;:udes toward science: Investigation . Columbus, OH: ERICClearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and Environmen-tal Education.

De Bruin, J. E. (1978). Bridging the gap between undergraduateeducation programs and the elementary school classroom location. Asso-ciation for Individually Guided Education Forum.

14

DeBruin, J. E. (1983). A developmental perspective on thegrowth of student teachers using the COKER and TPAI, inResources in education ED228223 . Washington, DC: ERICClearinghouse on Teacher Education.

DeBri lin, j. E. (1984). Update on science education: Researchparticipation for honors teachers program. Tokdo TechnicalTopics, 38-39: 1.

Dickson, G., & Wiersrna, W. (1980). Research and evaluation: Aconcern for competent, effective teachers. Toledo: Center for Educa-tional Research and Services.

Dickson, G.; & Wiersrna; W. (1984). Empirical measurement ofteacher performance. Toledo: Center for Educational Researchand Services.

Moore, R. W., & Sutman, A. (1970). The development, fieldand validation of an inventory of scientific attitudes.

Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 7: 85=94.

Ohio Department of Education. (1979). Ohio educational assess-ment program. Columbus: Author.

Ohio State Board of Education. (1983). Standards for colleges oruniversities preparing teachers. Columbus: Author.

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Chapter 3ASK: A Four-yearTeacher_PreparationProgramSusan M. JohnsonBiology DepartmentBall State UniversityMuncie, Indiana 47306

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raduates of Ball State University's teacher prepara-tion program in elementary education can saywithout hesitation that they are prepared to teach

science to children.Ball State students attend classes on a 94.6-acre residen-

tial campus in Muncie, Indiana, a city with a population of80,000 which provides industry and services for the sur-rounding agricultural drea. In addition to serving as theinternational headquarters of Ball Corporation, which hasgrown into a leading space technology manufacturer;Muncie houses major automotive-related plants.

We draw students from across the country and aroundthe globe, but many of the university's 17,000 students hailfrom the communities and farmlands of north central Indi-ana. Many students represent the first generation of theirfamilies to attend college. While students may enroll in oneof six colleges, BalLS tate has distinguished itself in teachereducation since its foundingas a state institution in 1918. Ithas received awards of excellence from the National Coun-cil for the Accreditation of Teacher Education for the EXELProgram, the Teachers of the Disadvantaged Program, andthe Multi-Cultural Education program. It ranks first in thecountry in the number of b....-ielors and masters of arts ineducation degrees awarded annually.

Our program makes use of a number of university facili-ties, including well-equipped science teaching laboratoriesand classrooms; Burris Laboratory School, a K-12 publicschool which attracts_750 students from varied backgrounds;three preschool facilities; Bracken Library, which house5over one million volumes and contains a special educationalresource collection of teaching materials and children'sliterature; Christy Woods Arboretum and greenhouse; aplanetarium; an observatory; and an official United StatesWeathei Station. Additionally, students have laboratoryexperiences in classrooms of local public schools through-out the state.

The BeginningsOur preservice science program was very limited until in

the early 1970s, three strands were woven together as thebasis of the current program. One strand was the process-oriented science approach_rnodelled by the early SAPA,SCIS, and ESS materials. This transformed the methodsclasses. At the same time, innovators in the science depart-ments and elementary education were exploring integratedapproaches to scienefic problem solving and saw the_needfor additional science laVoratory and field experiences. Theseconsiderations led to revision of science course offerings tomake them more laboratory-oriented and expansion oftailored course offerings from the departments of biology,chemistry, natural resources, Lleology, health sciences, nu-trition, and geography.

The third strand was development of EXEL. Faculty inTeachers College felt I need to help students integrate andtranslate the knowledge from their university courses intopractical, effective teaching experiences. The EXEL programrecruited highly capable high school graduates who wantedto teach. The program called for students to have twoquarters of practicum experience in an elementary class-room each year. In addition, the selected students wouldtake courses in a block so that, for example, social studies

15

subject matter could be used to complement science, andvice verSa.

These three strandsprocess-oriented science, integra-tion of scientific knowledge from a number of disciplines,and the EXEL model of ektensive preservice classroomexperienceled to the current preservice science program.The state of Indiana modelled muth of its 1977 teachercertification program on the Ball State plan.

Creative, resourceful, enthusiastic, and talented facultyfrom across the campus have been willing to spend theirtime and energy to design; develop, implement, evaluate,and revise our program on a continuous basis. Sometimesthe proceSS iS formal, and at other times informal andexperimental. The university governance system regulatesadoption and review oE major changes, while course im-provements are handled informally. Task forces, commit-tees, and small groups of energetic faculty continue tocreate new ideas and options. This process can workother institutions with a desire for growth and excellence.

Program GoalsWe can summarize the science competence we want for

our preservice teachers in an acronymASK. ASK standsfor Attitudes, Skills, and Knowledge: scientific attitudes;science process skills, and scientific knowledge. Science hasat itS Source the asking of questions, and teachers whotrain at Ball State do more asking of leading questions thandirect telling of answers.

The attitude component is extremely important. If westimulate the curiosity of our preservice teachers, give themthe joy of trying their wings in their own investigations,guide them through inductive and deductive risk-taking ina relatively safe environment, invite them to discoverwonders in the ordinary, and reward their persistence, theylearn science, and look forward to opening the same doorsfotheir own students.

The Scientific skills, interpreted broadly, include suchlearnedprocesses as observing, measuring, identifying prob-lems real to the student, and proposing and testing possiblesolutions. An emphasis on attitudes and skills implies thatour courSeS must go beyond textbooks to active science.

The knowledge component of ASK means that studentsneed to develop concepts and principles which will helpthem make sense out of their environment. Lecause realworld problems require information from biology andphysical science as well as Earth/space science, studentsshould study basic concepts from each realm.

The major goal of preservice elementary teacher educa-tion in science at Ball State University is to produce teacherswho

Have mastered basic sCf .ice knowledge and process skillsso that they are able to teach science well, have confi-dence in their ability, and look forward to learning morescience themselvesFirmly believe that science is intrinsic to the goals of theelementary school, and therefore have a commitment toteach scienceUnderstand the role of classroom science in enhancingthe cognitive, social, and moral development of childrenUse a variety of teaching strategies effectively in arrang-ing concrete science experiences for children, and match

16

content and strategies to the development level of indi-vidual children

Subjects CöveredPreservice teachers complete at least 22 quarter hours of

science work, plus a science methods class. During each ofthe four years they also participate in a fully supervisedpracticum course in an elementary school setting in whichthey observe and participate in science teaching. Each yearduring this school experience students spend progressivelymore assigned time in the school§ and assume more andmore responsibility. At each level they have specific scienceteaching assignments_ They begin working will. smallgroups of children in the freshman year. Full-fledged stu-dent teaching occurs in the senior year.

A number of nonscience courses also include scienceactivities or integrate science concepts with other curricu-lum areas. For example, the language arts course usesscience lessons as a basis for the language experience ac-tivity approach. The creativity course demonstrates thedevelopment of concepts such as "sandness," (the qualitiesof sand) and uses science activities as a springboard forcreative thought.

About 14 percent of the elementary education majors atBall State seek licensing for grades K-3. The science meth-ods course, Teaching Science in the Early Childhood andPrimary Grades, meets their specific needs. Students en-rolled in early childhood education (pre-kindergarten) alsotake this special class in science methods for young children.

Close to 40 percent of our education students participatein the EXEL program. These students, selected as fresh-men, demonstrate excellent academic performance andcommitment to teaching before and during their work atBall State. Unlike other Ball State Elementary Educationmajors, they participate in supervised teaching field expe-riences not once, but twice, each year. They also have theopportunity to do part of this internship in British infantschools.

The EXEL coursework is carefully blocked and coordi-nated with school practicums so that students experiencethe integration of disparate disciplines in the classroom. Forinstance, a student might see how a population study pro-posed in the 2 o'clock social studies methods class can becombined with a sampling technique demonstrated in the 3o'clock science methods class, to make a fascinating con-crete investigation for her fifth graders at 10 the nextmorning.

Obtaining an elementary science endorsement of 32 hoursis a way for preservice students to gain additional depth inscience. Students may select from a variety of sciencecourses. A number of these, such as Map Reading forTeachers, Preparation of Materials to Teach Physical Sci-ence, and Sound and Light, are specially 'esigned for ele-mentary teaching majors.

Pattern of Science-related Coursework Suggested for Stu-dents Seeking K-6 Endorsement

Freshman YearBiological Concepts for Teachers*-4 qtr. hrs., 40 percentlab

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Physical Geography/Earth Science Concepts forTeacherS*-4 hr§., 25 percent labNutrition 3 hrs.

Plus at least one of the following:Field and Classroom Experiences in Biology forTeacherS* hrS., 33 percent labAstronomy Materials for the Teacher*--=3 hrS., 33 per:cent labCOnServation for Teachers*-3 hrs., 33 percent labElements of Human Health-3 hr§.Global Geography for Teachers*-3 hrs.

Experience in the Elementary_School:Intrbduction to Teaching: Seminar and Laboratory*-4hrs. (observing and tutoring children from a variety ofcultural and ethnic backgrounds)

Sophomore YearPhysical Science Concepts for Teachers*-4 hrs., 25 per-cent lab

Experience in the Elementary School:Introduction to Elementary School Cla§§room Organiza-tion and Management*-2-4 hrs. (observation, tutoring,Small group instruction)

Courses with Components Directly Related to ScienceTeaching:Hu Mari Growth_and Development*-4 hrs.Introduction to Exceptional Children*-4 hrs.Sensory Awareness and Re§pon§e to Mu§ic*=-=4 hrs.Creative Experiences for Young Children*-4 hrs.

Junior YearTeaching of Science in the Elementary School*-3 hr§.,70 percent hands-on (includes assignments tearLiing chil-dren)

Experience in the Elementary School:Principles of Teaching and Classroom Management: Ele=Mentary School*--4 hrs. (small and large group instruc-tion; Student§ teach Sets of lessons from each curriculumarea, including science; stresSe§ u§e of in§tructional media

_ and materials)_Courses With Components Directly Related to ScienceTeaching:

Educational Psychology: Tests and Measurement§4 hr§The Teaching of Language Arts in the Lower ElementaryGracleS*=3 hrs.

Senior YearSchool Health Practices*-4 hrs. (includes materials forteaching health)

Experience in the Elementary School:Student Teaching*--14 hrs. (students teach science andother subject areas)

Courses with Component§ Directly Related to ScienceTeaching:

Computer Literacy in the Elementary School Class-room*-2 hr§.Discipline and Classroom Management*-4 hr§.Materials and Techniques for Teaching Children of Mul-tiethnic Backgrounds 4 hrs.Teaching Reading in the Elementary School*-4 hrs.

*Courses marked with an asterisk are specifically designe,Afoi elementary teaching majors.

1 9

Content ContteSScience courses are taught in the departments of biology,

geography, health sciences, natural resources; and physics.MoSt of theSe courses are designed specifically for futureelementary school teachers. This does not by any meansimply that they are watered down versions of more exact-ing courses. Instead-, it means_ that the courses have beentailbred, in collaboration with the department of elementaryeducatk;o, to provide content and skills which are basic toscientific literacy and which are applicable to the elemen-tary science curriculum.

Furthermore, the cour§e§ generally are taught by facultywho have certification credentials and who have, in addi-tion to subject matter expertise, a background in sciencemethods, Well:honed teaching skills-, a genuine enthusiasmfor working with preservice teachers, and continuing con-tacts with the elementary schools.

The chart also shows that a substantal portion of in-claSS tiMe for the science classes is devoted to field andlaboratory experiences during which students practice pro-cesses such as observing, classifying, measuring, collectingdata, and draWing conclusions. Because the size of thescience elaSSeS i§ uSually limited to 24, stLients can receiveindividualized attention.

During SeVeral Of the science courses-, students exploregraphic examples bf the societal iMplications of science andtechnology: For instance,the physical science faculty pre7sents the awesome power of the atom, and then challengesstudent§ td make ethiCal decisicins about efforts to harnessnuclear energy. In the geography/Earth science courses, aswell as in the natural resources offerings; students delveintO t!-Ie concepts of spaceship earth population crisis, andcOnservatibri Of km:3d, water, and air quality. Natural re-sources classes investigate local land and energy use. Biol:ogy classes visit the local water treatment facilities:

Science Methods ClassThe science methods class generally comes in the junior

year, after most of the other science requirements, andoften run§ concurrently with the 4-hour school participa-tion course. This means that approaches and materials canbe applied immediately to real children in a real classroomSetting. The class precedes the senior year student teach-ing. Student§ earn three credit hours.

The methods instructor models effective science teach-ing strategiesfrom the creation of _a classroom environ-ment that promotes positive attitudes toward science, to small-group inveStigation, questioning, discussion,use of instructional media; role playing, recording data,building models, and brainstorming. In each case, studentsareinvolved in an activity from a student's point of view andthen discuss the structure and purpoSeS of the adivityfrom a teacher's point of view.

The firSt dav of class We always do some interactivescience, something that Student§ leave the room thinkingabout in a positive way. For instance, students love to beamaied at the large number of pennies which a seeminglyfull glaS of water can hold Without spilling. The first dayalso demonstrates how student§ can work in small groups,needing just a brief question to get them started, with verySimple materials, and how from this they acquire scientificattitudes, skills, and knowledge.

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Since a specific room is dedicated to science educationclasses; we can begin immediately to set up long-term pro-jects that are left out c,t counters or windowsills, andwhich each group of students checks as soon as they arriveeach day: College juniors are as eager as second graders tosee if their bean seeds or crystals or mealworms havegrown.

The course is about 70 percent hands-on science. Duringthe first half of the course; the instructor arranges most ofthe investigations. During the second half, students peerteach, directly experiencing a wide range of concepts, skills,and strategies.

Typical discussion questions after _an investigation are:Was this something truly worthwhile to teach children?Why? What safety precautions were or should have beentaken? How could the distribution of materials have beenhandled more efficiently? How else could we have ap-proached this topic? What skills do students need in orderto do this activity? Would you teach this to apreoperationalchild? How could we WI if students have accomplished theobjective?

Thus, sensitivity to safety, the ability to facilitate positivescience experiences, and the ability to evaluate student pro-gress on process skills develop from concrete experience.Students also practice and experience a variety of instruc-tional strategies.

Our science courses strongly support the focus on han-dling materials and equipment which students receive inthe methods course. The biology courses stress laboratoryskills. The physics and astronomy courses teach studentshow to plan a good program with "science on a shoestring"sorts of materials. The physics department sells students apractical and inexpensive science kit, which they regularlyuse for teaching. The physics offering also deals with thephysics of toys, which students find entertaining as well asuseful in instructing students.

A major theme of the methods class is that, although wecannot learn every interesting way to approach every con-cept or skill, we can identify major sources of informationabout science and science teaching and learn how to usethem. Many students leave Ball State as members of theHoosier Association of Science Teachers; NSTA, or CESLOur students gain firsthand experience with community

ources and personnel through field trips in the sciencecourses, projects in science methods class, and excursionswith their participation classes to places such as the plane-tarium, a dairy farm, the Indianapolis Zoo, the IndianapolisChildren's Museum, the Muncie Children's Museum, orthe Ball State weather station and television/radio station.Through the methods class, students attend the state scienceteachers convention, assist with after-school science classesat the YW/YMCA, and serve as science fair judges.

Students in the methods class often recognize differen-ces in Piagetian levels of functioning for the first time inthe Piaget-style interviews they conduct with children ofdiffering abilities and backgrounds. We analyze science ac-tivities in_ terms of the operations which they may teach orrequire. We also examine the development of levels ofunderstanding causality, as, for example, in observing flota-tion. We discuss grouping and regrouping students forscience teaChing, as is commonly done for reading.

During this course, and during the formal participation

18

course, students are required to teach science lessons atBurris Laboratory School or in the Muncie Public Schools;where they must adapt to wide ranges of ability and socio-economic and ethnic backgriund. They also participate inovernight camping with elementary students and have workat a day care cer,:or for disadvantaged children. This coursebuilds upon material introduced in the reading courses, aswell as in the course Materials and Techniques ..or Teach-ing Children of Multiethnic Backgrounds:

Several courses contribute to the ability of students touse media, computers, and other technologies appropriatelyin science instruction. This is a major focus of the formaljunior participation experience. Every classroom in whichour students are placed contains its own microcc.mputerand science software unless the school has a bank of micros.The elementary faculty at Burris School has been veryactive in using the computer to teach science. The Burristeachers and Bail State participants also bring classes to theBall State physics department to use its computer bank.The methods course now requires students to run andcritique several software packages. We encourage enroll-ment in the elective course, Computer Literacy in the Elé=mentary School Classroom.

Role of the Teacher and the StudentThe role of the teacher in this preservire elementary

science education program is multifaceted, but its foremostcomponent is modeling excellent science teaching. In orderto do this, each teacher keeps current in a field of expertiseby reading, attending professional meetings, conductingresearch, and conferring with colleagues. The teachers alsoparticipate in professional science education organizations,read the science education research, and remain abreast ofconditions in elementary schools through ongoing contactwith the schools. The teacher continues to grow profes-sionally and to maintain enthusiasm for the students andthe field of study. The teacher is also a primary contentresource for the preservice student.

The role of the student is to become the best possibleteacher of children. To do this, students need to developexcellent teaching skills, but they must also learn to knowthemselves, as they assume the responsibility of developingtheir scientific, intellectual, and interpersonal capabilities tothe fullest.

EvaluationOf Shidenis

Evaluation of st..dents is done by the faculty and by thestudents thernselv, s. Science courses such as BiologicalConcepts for Teac, ers provide feedback to studentstheir laboratory perf, irmance, manipulative skills, and prob-lem solving; as well aE. on content mastery.

In the science methods class, every student provides awritten critique to every other student on the lessonstaught in class. After teaching lessons to children, themethods students critique their own performance, whichhas often been taped, and has also received feedback fromthe instructor. The ability to plan highly motivating, validscience lessons and to recognize appropriate use of tech-niques is also evaluated. Students are expected _to applyinformation discussed in claSs. We stress writing SkillS, and

20

look for their application in lesson plans and reports ofstudents' assigned experience§ with children.

Ball State faculty ant: elementary teachers who superviSeour students in their work with children observe and meetregularly with students to record progress and make sug-gestions. The elementary education department maintainsindividual student development folders in which the pro-gress of each student is tracked from freshman throughsenior year.

Faculty members submit faculty alert report§ on anystudents who -.nay benefit from special advisement andcounseling regarding their Professional skills, knowledge,speech patterns, or performance.

Of Courses and thEProgramStudents evaluate courses each quarter on forms pro-

vided either by faculty members or by the university edu-cation center: The Teacher Preparation Council, a facultygovernance board, conducts a first year teacher evaluationof all recent graduates each year. This includes employeropinions and self-evaluation by the teaching graduates.Both before and after graduation, students COnsigtentlynote the folloWing strengths of our program: excellentfaculty and instruction, useful applicatiOn of theory to prac-tice; positive attitudes and motivation, valuable curriCulumand instructional materials; increase in knowledge, and ex-cellent teaching assignments.

Faculty regularly measure our program against researchdata and successful models described in the literature.

AchievementS

Placement bureau reports indicate that 87 percent of ourelementary education graduates have found teaching jobS,in spite of a tight_job market. Because of the quality of ourgraduates, Ball State University is a major exporter ofteachers to other states in the Midwesi- and the rest of thecountry.

A visitor to our program would see our students actuallyengaging children in science and doing a good job of it, asmeasured by the children's obvious intereSt and increa§e inknowledge and skills, and our students' growth in planningand management skills, creative expression, and self-con-fidence.It is not uncommon for both our Students and theirsupervisors to say that their science lessons are the mostsuccessful lessons they have taught. Many say that of alltheir professional courses they enjoy science the most. Stu-dents often comment that their participation in class inves-tigations has taught them to enjoy science and made themmore confident about their personal problem solving skills:

We hear reports such as, "The child actually cried becauseshe was scheduled to go to the gifted and talented roomduring science timel" Student teachers are proud of theexcellent, creative lesson plans they produce, and the re-sponse their lessons earn from pupils. When a visitor asks,"Nhat science have you been doing?" the children's excitedand involved replies tell the whole story.

Keeping the Program HealthyThe ASK program has a number of unique strengths.

Eliminating any of them would threaten progress.Students have practical experience with science in the

21

elementary classroom every year beginning in 4-he fresh-man year. The experiences in the elementary school beginearly and are continuous, allowing students to steadilygain confidence and gkill§. ClaSSroom experiences aresupervised by the classroom teacher and the universityprofessor.A§ a re§ult of our early success with the EXEL program,courses are blocked together and faculty demonstrateintegration of information in teaching. Hence scienceactivities are used to develop language arts skills, sciencere§ource boOkS become valuable materials for readinglessons, recording scientific obgervations becomes anopportunity to utilize new handwriting skills, and prob-lem Solving skills help overcome geography problems.Our teacher education majors turn theory into practiceand concepts into activities.Students receive continuous evaluation and feedbackalong with diagnostic suggestions to promote growth.This is a cooperative program which pools the expertiseof faculty members from the College of ScienceS andHumanities and the;r peers_ from Teachers College. AScience and Mathematics Advisory Resource Team, rep-resenting these two groups, facilitate§ communication.Faculty members who teach the science methods coursesare mernbers of science dRpartments and teach in thescience diScipline a§ well. Thus they remain current inscience and they maintain contactS with the elementaryschools.The content Of science courses is designed specifically forpreserv:ce elementary school teachers.Students are able to gain additional depth in science byObtaining a specifically tailored science teaching endorse-ment of 32 hourS.Faculty who teach in the program have established a tra-dition of continuing service to the public schools and toscience education, and are committed to maintaining ahigh level of leader§hip. For instance, Dr. Mim Ballou is apast president of CESI and past Secretary, board member,and national convention chairperson of NSTA. Dr. JonHendrik, Dr. James Watson, _and Mrs. Nancy Watsonhave contributed paper§ to NSTA and conducted inser-vice workshops for many years. Dr. Sugan M. Johnsonchairs the Youth Activities Committee of the IndianaAcademy of Science, is a science textbook author, andworks extensively with teachers. Drs. Ballou and John-son have developed a modc.I elementary science prograinwith the Fort Wayne, Indiana Community Schools.The experienced and innovative teachers at Burris Lab-oratory School, a K-12 institution operated by Ball State,make it an excellent facility for teacher training and edu-cational research.We experiment with small modifications every time acourse is taught, so the program is alive and re§pon§ive.

Ideas for the FutureIt is always enjoyable to dream about possibilities. Our

dreams include the development ofA summer science camp where children, teachers in train-ing, and university faculty could promote the sciencecompetence of children and teachersA Science Seminar §erie§ which would bring scientists and

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science educators to our campus for 1-2 week periods ofintensive work with students, practicing teachers; andfaculA science education center which would rrovide state-wide leadership and resources for science educationA science stimulation program to encourage classroomteachers to come to Ball State and be "refueled" to enrichtheir science programs during a 6-9 week sabbatical.When the teachers went back to their classrooms, Ball

20

State faculty would be available to assist them withimplementation of their new ideasLeamingIteaching support teams of university studentsand faculty who would work for blocks of time in set-tings needing their services to develop the science knowl-edge, attitudes, processes, and skills of inservize teachersWe know that dreams can become reality. We've seen it

happen with ASK.

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Chapter 4Early Childhoodand Middlegrades SdencePrograttiJoseph P. Riley and Michael J. Padilla212 Aderhold HallUniversity of GeorgiaAthens, Georgia 30602

Elementary education At the University of Georgia isdivided into two distinct programs, the Early Child--hood Program for grades K through 4; and the Mid-

dle Grades Program for grades 4 through S. Each is_anoutgrowth of tertification requirements in the state. TheState of Georgia revamped its certification program in themid-1970s, providing, instead of elementary (grades K-8)and secondary (grades 7712), early childhood (grades K-4),middle grades (grades 4-8), =Ind secondary (grades 7-12)certificates. Early childhood and middle grades programsmaintain a Strong focus On field-based teacher education:Students are placed into schools the first quartei of theirjunior year, with the time spent in the schools increasingeach quarter until student teaching; when the full quarteriS -Spent in the schools. What follows are separate descrp-tions of the early childhood and the middle grades pro-grams at the University of Georgia.

Early Childhood TeAther EdlicationThe Early Childhood Preservice Program is a four quarter

sequence in which each quarter has a distinct purpose andbuilds sequentially on those before. Courses Are selectedand planned to contribute to the overall goals for eachparticular quarter.The four quarters are focused as follows:I. The professional deciSionguiding the interns to under-stand the teaching responsibility and their feelings about itII. Creative and effective teaching/learning encountersplanning individual lesSons far one child or small groupsIII. Building turriCulumdeveloping sequential lessons overlonger periods of time arid with more childrenIV. Intensive internshipachieving a co-equal status withthe teacher

In addition to overall goals, the program identifies var-ions roles a teacher must learn and experience in a preser-vice program. We focus on five important aspects of teacheractivity:

The teacher as a custodian of childrenThe teacher as a diagnosticianThe teacher as a tutorThe teacher as a manager Of learning gruupsThe teacher as curriculum developer or plannerAlthough there is some overl2p each quarter, the roles

are explored as shown in the chart below. (An a stands for amajor emphasis, a b for a minor one.)

Teaching RoleCustodianDiagnosticianTutorManagerPlanner

aa

_Quartet_II IIIA

aa

aa

Iv

The first quarter introduces the intern to the communityand the roles of the individuals in that community, leadingtoWard the professional decision'Do I really want toteach?" To bring that basic decision into focus, each internspends two weeks in the school, observing the schoolcommunity, but paying particular attention to the respon-sibilitieS of the teacher. The intern also studies and practi-ces communication skillS with children and peers, and iden-

21

tidies cultural and developmental differences among thechildren.

During Quarter ll the intern, as the tutor/planner, pintsindividual lessons prescribed by the classroom teacher orcollege instructor. Inteins teach lessons to peers on campusto cemonstrate a model before using it with students in thepublic schools. They learn and practice a variety of teachingmodels, such as role playing; concept teaching. and discov-ery lessons. While in the public school clasin-oom the internsalso study interactions betWeen teachers and students. Thepurpose of intern activities during the second quarter is tocreate an effective teacher/learner encounter focusing onskills appropriate in a tutorial setting.

Quarter III interns deve!op skills in planning curriculumand delivering plannc d. lessons to largo- groups ofchildren over longer periods than on level II. At this levelmanaging skills are emphasized, as the intern begins to takemore responsibility for group instruction.

The fourth quarter is an intensive internship: Studentscomplete special teaching assignments during their firsttwo weeks in the schools. As the term goes on, the interns'teaching efforts are monitored by school and universityfaculty using state-developed performance assessmentinstruments.

The Early Childhood Science ProgramPhilosophy of the Program

The program for the preparation of early childhood. sci-ence teachers recognizes the teacher's need for definitecompetencies, and provides experiences designed to developthese competencies. The prospective teacher is givenopportunities to learn science skills, to examine the philo-sophy and methodology of teaching science, and to demon-strate developing teaching competence. The program em-phasizes the goals and values unique to science in relaticnto the total elementary school program. The preseiviceprogram also reflects the prospc ctive teacher's need for abroad liberal education.

Science Content CoursesA unique feature of the University of Georgia science

education program is the special set of science coursesdesigned for undergraduate students preparing to enterthe early ,hildhood and middle grades programs. Studentswho enter the early childhood science program in theirjunior year have already completed the 20 quarter hours ofscience and mathematics required by the state: Most havetaken 15 hours of science, 10 of which included labs, inspeciat sections which provide potential teachers with boththe content and the process of science, as well as appro-priate models for instruction. These courses have limitedenrollments and are taught by faculty in the science depart-ments as well as science education faculty. Biology andgeobgy are the most popular offerings;

The Science Teaching CourseEarly childhood preservice teachers sign up for their first

science methods course in the first quarter of the fourquarter sequence. The performance objectives of this coursehave been written to take advantage of its early placement.Each competence has been identified in three ways: as a

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knowledge or behavior to be acquired in the dassroon-t, as abehav'or to be evidenced in peer teachin& and as a behaviorto be used in teaching children. These objectives arearranged under four head:ngs: instructional planning, thenature of elementary scnool science, teaching strategiesand tactics, and classroom management skills.

The course is taught by five faculty members in thedepartment of science education: While teaching styles vary,all subscribe to the same general goals and cooperativelyidentify the objectives to be covered in the course. Theycover the what as well as the how of teaching. The nature ofthe course can be ..3eer most clearly, however, in the typesof activities students perform.

Peer Teaching AssignmentsStudents are assigned a science topic to plan for and then

teach to a group of peers. This teaching session is generallyvideotaped and later analyzed with the instructor, using asystem of interaction analysis. Further along in the coursethe students are again videotaped teaching a lesson. Thetwo sessions are compared for evidence of improvement inteaching competence. The Department of Science Educa-tion has its own video classrooms designed specifically forrecording and playback.

Computer AssignmentsStudents are expected to develop a "user" level of comput-

er literacy in hands-on experience with a personal computer.Students learn what is available in elementary sciencesoftware by critically reviewing a selection oFprograms inthe Center for Educational Technology (CET). The CET,located on the same floor as the department of scienceeducation, _houses enough computers to allnw students allthe time they wish on their assignments. In addition tolearning about instruchonal uses of the computer, studentsare introduced to teacher utilities, programs designed forthe teacher that include such titles as Test Writing and GradeBook.

Process Skill InvestigationsAfter learning the basic and integrated science process

skills, students are required to apply this knowledge bydesigning individual research investigations. These investi-gations grow out of the subject mattei the students pre-pare for their microteaching. Worked on during the quarterand then reported to the class, these researches reinforcethL process skills and give Audents further insights into thenature of science.

Masteny LegrningDiagnostic and prescriptive procedures play an important

part in the biology courses designed for the elementarypreservice student. Through multiple administrations ofdiagnostic tests, students can receive individual remedialassignments, and then take a differem- version of the examcovering the same unit objectives. Tnis procedure is alsoused in testing student knowledge of elementary sciencecontent, in the same sections of the methods course. Sty -dents are allowed to retake tests for each content objectiveuntil they have attained mastery.

Hands-on InstructionThe class format of the methods course typically involves

24

science activities. On any given day one might see studentsmeasuring out a scale model of the Solar Sy Stem doWn ahallway or flying paper airplanes to determine what varia-bles affect ilying time and distance. Materials from ESS,SCIS, 3APA, OBIS, and many other science programs areavailable to ctudents, along with a complete library centerand trips to the university's marine educational facilities Onthe coe.:=.t. The activities orientation of these classes reflectsthe philosophy and goals set forth in the posiii:-,n statatalents of the National Science Teachers A§§ociation andearlier guidelines_frcm the Ainericar Association for theAdvancement of Science.

Middle Grades Teacher EducationGeneral Requirements

The Middle Grades certificate requires specialization inat least two distinct teaching fields and the completion of astate-certified four year teacher preparation program.Forty-five quarter hours (25 in the fir§t major teachingfield and 20 in the second) beyond the first two core yearsof college courseWork must be completed in two of thefollowing areas: language arts, science, mathematics, orsocial studies. In addition, all applicants for first-time middlegrades certificates must take a five quarter-hour course inthe identification and education of children with specialneeds, and must complete a five quarter=hour cour§e in theteaching of reading.The Professional Education Component

The heart 0:A the professional education component ofthe middle grades program is four sets of courses desig=nated as Phases I-IV. The basic courses in each phase areinterspersed throughout the junior and senior years. Allcourses in a phase are taken as a block. Many are fieldbased, with numerous opportunities to observe and teachin middle grades classrooms.

Phase I courses introduce the student to the nature ofthe middle grades and the eariy adolescent. College §tu=dents are gently eased from observing in classrooms toworking with small groups of students. Phase II coursesfocus on planning for instruction and the inStructional pro-cess itself. Students plan and teach their own week-longunits. During Phase III the focus continues to be on plan-ning and instruction, with the Students preparing and teach-ing a two-week unit. This phase also emphaSize§ the middlegrades curriculum.

Phase IV, student teaching, begins with a formativecomponent in which supervisors from the tWo arees Ofspecialization; the university supervisor, and the §pon§orteacher gradually give the student increasing teachingresponsibility, providing feedback and Suggestions through-out. During the last three weeks, while the Student teacherhas full-time responsibility for teaching, a summativeassessment (u_ing a state-wide assessment measure calledthe Teacher Performance Assessment InStrurnent) isscheduled and conducted by the sponsor teacher and theuniversity supervisor (see Capie, Johnson, Anderson, Ellett,& Okey, 1979). Science education faculty supervise middlegrades science_teachers._

Since the state of Georgia does not certify middle gradesteachers for specific subject areas, prospective teachers must

be ready to teach all subjects. Therefore, all of bur studentstake five-hour methods courses in their two non-specialtyareci§ a§ Well. For example, al: studFmts who identify them-selves as math/language arts Majors must take methodscourses in social science and science in addition to theirSpecialty methods courses.

Middle Grades Science SpecializationEach specialty area (science, math; language arts, and

social studies) is responsible for advising its students for 30quarter hour§ of work, whether that area is considered thefirst or second major cOncentration. In science, studentsusually take 20 quarter hou,-s of science courses (in additionto the 10 quarter hours taken in the core, normally a iol-ogy sequence) and tWo five-hour science methodsclasses._ One goal of science specialization is to confer asbroad a science background as possible on prospectiveteachers sci that they will feel comfortable teaching all thesciente topitS in the middle grades curriculum. Students areurged to take science courses that match the local curricula.Since the most common local pattern is general science inSiXth grade, life Science in seventh, and Earth science ineighth, most student§ take at least five hours each of biol-ogy. geology, and physical science.

The two specialist science methods courses are field basedand taught concurrently as one ten-1,our course. Thesecourses are usually taken after Phase III but before PhaseIV. In general, students meet their instruct& on campusfor three or four two-hour periods per week, and spend theother twci to four cla§§ hours in a middle grades scienceclassroom as arranged by the instructor.

Goals for Middle Grades Science Teacher EducationThe training for middle grades teachers who identify

science as one of their two specialty area§ has been designedto meet a set of goals adopted by the program faculty.The§e goalS, their rationale, and a brief description of goal-related activities follow.

Goal IMiddle grades teachers should demonstrate a pro-ficiency in the ba§ic and integrated process skills.

The general trend in middle grade§ §cience curricula is tostress process skill objectives and activities. Science contentcourse§ generally do not allow students to become familiarwith and competent in the process skills. Therefore, thisneed must be met in the teacher education program.

Process skill learning revolves around 16 self-instructionalmodule§, each focused on a single process skill (Funk, Okey,Fiel, Janus, & Sprague, 1979). Each module includes a list ofperformanc: objectives, activities, self-checks, a masterytest, and idi as that can be used in the classroom. The activi-tieS require ,imple to uSe and easy to acquire materials suchas candles, k by food jars, spring scale§, batteries, and bulbs.Many are appropriate for future use with middle grade§§tudentS.

Although the module§ are self-instructional and self-paced, the students are closely monitored as they completethe activities. Class discussions and short introductory orevaluative proceSs skill exercises are regular parts of classmeetings.

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Goal IIMiddle grades teachers should demonstrate a fullrepertoire of teaching strategies and behaviors.

No single teaching behavior or strategy is effective for allsituations. This is especially true at the middle grades levelwhere the interests, needs, and abilities of pupils varytemendously. Therefore, middle grades teachers must ac-quire a full range of teaching behaviors and be able to usethem appropriately.

t ypes olactivities are used to influence the teachingbehavior ot middle grades teachers. First, the students be-come familiar with two teaching strategy analysis systems,the Teaching Strategy Observation Differential, or TSOD(Anderson, Strothers,_& James; 1974), arid the Data Pro-cessing Observation Guide-, or DPOG (Yeany & Capie,1979. ) Second, they view videotaped models of middle schoolteaching situations and code the behaviors they observeusing the TSOD or DPOG. From these tapes; they abstractand discuss general principles for teaching specific types oflessons, including lecture, demonstration, activity, and pro-cess skill activity.

Third, the students engage in peer teaching; they arevideotaped and then required to analyze and code theirown teaching behaviors. Research on these proceduresindicates that the teachers acquire a broader set of moreindirect behaviors as a result of this self-assessment. Finally,students teach several public school lessons. At least one isvideotaped and critiqued by a university instructor.

Goal IIIMiddle grades teachers should understand and beable to respond to the needs of adolescents in terms of theirsocial. emotkmal, physical; and cognitive development.

The middle grades learner is unique and perplexing;undergoing rapid change in social, emotional, physical andcognitive development. These changes cannot be ignored,since they strongly affect the learning process. Middlegrades science teachers must be able to respond to thechanging individual both in a personal way and through thecurriculum experiences they present.

Early preservice activities designed to meet this goal cen-ter around the observation of pupils in the public schools.Students have observed middle grades pupils throughoutthe program, but the emphasis is now directed to scienceclasses, where they continue to work with entire classesand Individuals, including problem students. Social, emo-tional; physical, and especially cognitive development havebeen taught before; but students review them now withspecial attention to their effect on science learning andinstruction. Two major goals are stressed: matching thelearning method to developmental characteristics, and usingprocess skill activities to promote cognitive growth.

Goal IVMiddle grades teachers should demonstrateknowledge of the range of_science curriculum materials andactivities appropriate for different pupils and grade levels.

Time, effort, and money have been liberally expended inrecent years to develop science curricula at both local andnational levels. Some of these materials are effectively de-signed to meet the special needs of the middle gradeslearner. Middle grades teachers need to be made aware ofthe nature and extent of these materials in order to intelli-gently select and/or develop the best science curricula fortheir own SituationS.

24

The major emphasis in this area is on examining andcomparing middle grades curriculum materials, such asIntermediate Science Curriculum Study and BSCS Human Sciences;and getting to know the activity units that can be used tosupplement traditional textbook programs (e.g., ExaminingYour Environment and Elementary Science Study). The studentsare also directed toward journals as sources of activities andteaching ideas (i.e., Science and Children, The Science Teacher andThe Georgia Science Teacher). Representative activities are se-lected and presented to peers, who participate much asmiddle grades pupils would. Preservice teachers also reviewrepresentative science software on topics taught in themiddle grades:

Goal VMiddle grades teachers should demonstrate anability to manage both materials and pupils in a way whichmaximizes learning.

One of the skills most often cited as lacking in middlegrades teachers is the ability to manage time and materialswhile controlling pupil behavior. Order is a prerequisite toeffective instruction, especially when student activity has ahigh instructional priority. Our program spares no effort inhelping teachers to acquire the management skills theyneed to keep order in their classes.

During their school observations, university studentsrecord the on-task behavior of middle school students andlook for teacher behaviors that correlate with either highon-task or high off-task pupil behaviors. University class-room discussions of effective and ineffective managementare based on these data. We especially emphasize appro-priate methods of handing out, retrieving, and storingscience equipment and appropriate methods of managingstudents during activity lessons.

In one succe:zful role-playing activity, a student engagesin peer teaching while peers act out roles related to typicalbehavior problems. The peer students are instructed onhow to project this misbehavior during instruction. The"teachers" are judged and counseled on their ability to iden-tify and control the behavior problems.

Goal VIMiddle grades teachers should plan and preparescience instruction for achieving objectives with learners ofdifferent abilities and interests:

Careful planning and preparation is the first step towardsuccess in any venture. Planning for middle grades teachingrequires not only knowledge of content and organizationalskills, but also an attitude that values planning. The func-tion of the training program, then-, must be to instill bothskills and attitudes in the middle grades teacher.

The planning emphasis here is a continuation of trainingthat starts very early in the middle grades program, sostudents have already mastered most of the basic skills inplanning. The task now is to direct these skills towardobjective writing; lesson planning, and unit planning forscience instruction.

Students practice writing behaviorally stated objectives,using Bloom's taxonomy, and selecting and writing science-specific objectives. They review lesson planning and writeseveral plans during the course, for microteaching andmiddle grades teaching sessions and for their final unitplan. Since unit planning brings the teacher's creative abili-ties to bear on the many resources already available, unit

26

development is a natural outgrowth of the review of var-ious curriculum resources: Students submit a unit as onecomponent of their summative evaluation. They receiveformative feedback regarding this unit at various timesthroughout the course:

Goal VIIMiddle grades teachers should be able to con-struct formative and summative measures of scienceobjectives.

An important but often neglected area of teaching isassessment and evaluation of instruction and pupils. Onlythrough objective assessment of desired outcomes can theplanning and execution of lessons be judged for effective-ness. Also, it is only through systematic assessment of pupilachievement that we can diagnose learning difficulties andmake decisions about the learner's acquisition of skills andconcepts. We make every effort to impart sound measure-ment techniques to our middle grades teachers.

The characteristics of a good classroom test and the rea-sons for testing are reviewed and discussed in regard toscienre instruction. Instructors stress the importance ofusing a table of specifications to be sure thosp characteris-tics are present. The class discusses different types of tests,underscoring the concepts of formative and summativeevaluation and the uses of pretests.

Item construction is strongly emphasized and practiced,ith the proper use of multiple response, short answer,

and essay items examined and discussed in a science con-text. Discussion also covers the construction and imple-mentation of a laboratory practical exam suitable for middlegrades students. Students then construct both formativeand summative measures for a unit of instruction.

Goal VIIIMiddle grades teachers should be able to iden-tify resources available through professional organizationsand journals.

Any well-rounded professional is aware of the organi-zations and publications unique to the profession andunderstands the purposes and services of each. Many pub-lications and several organizations can serve as excellentresources for middle grades teachers. Our training activi-ties call attention to these sources of ideas, information,ancLassistance.

The activities related to this goal are interspersed withother goal-related activities. For example, students examinethe how-to and curriculum review sections of journalswhen they are assessing curriculum materials. The specialmiddle grades services and materials of the National ScienceTeachers Association are explored in this process.

Goal IXMiddle grades teachers should be able to use thecomputer to enhance science instructioi

Each middle grades teacher is given four to six days ofbasic computer instruction, which includes using the com-puter for testing and grading, and evaluating sciencesoftware. In addition, about a third of our middle gradesstudents take a special five quarter-hour course, Microcom-puters and Science Education. This course emphasizesgeneral computer literacy, word processing, simple pro-gramming techniques, and software review, as well as theuse of teacher utility programs. The course is taught byscience education department faculty.

2 7

Methods fer the Non-Science MajorThe sdence methods course for those students not select-

ing science as a major field has objectives similar to those ofthe major's course. However, by necessity, the treatmentof these objectives is somewhat abbreviated. Other differ-ences are that the course is not field based, students do lessmicroteaching; and there are fewer total hours of course-work (50, versus 100 for majors). Since most of these stu-dents have a poor attitude toward science, the course givesspecial emphasis to relieving their anxieties and fears andreplacing them with positive attitudes.

Early and Middle Grades Programs: What Needs To BeDone?

The department of science education faculty would liketo see additional science courses made a prerequisite forearly childhood science teachers. Although a special physicschss for elementary teachers was offered; there has notbeen enough enrollment to support it. Students avoidchemistry and physics by taking their required sciencecourses in biology and geology. We need to add anothercourse requirement in the physical sciences.

Another major problem area is the lack of subject mattercertification at the middle grades level in the state of Geor-gia. Presently the state has a surplus of teachers in lan,guage arts and social studies and a shortage in science andmathematics. Because there is no subject matter certifica-tion, an administrator can legally place any middle gradescertified teacher in a science classroom. Those withoutscience as a specialty have only minimal preparation toteach science, usually two content courses and one methodscourse. Many do an inadequate job: While professionaleducators have long argued for subject matter certification;it seems unlikely that this will come about soon. Manysmall, rural school districts would be especially hard hit by achange, due to the lack of teachers in math and science andtheir inability to attract those who are available.

The evidence collected from supervisors of studentteachers and principals indicates that our program preparesexcellent middle grades science teachers. Above all; theprogram prepares individuals who want to be middle gradesteachers and who want to work with preadolescents andyoung teens. This is a distinct, positive, and much neededchange from the situation of recent years.

Program MaintenanceThe most important factor in program maintenance for

the department of science education is continuous programreview. Every two t.- three years department facultythoroughly review all programs in the department. Changesusually reflect changes in the public schools and other earlychildhood and middle grades programs, as well as new cur-ricula and teacher training techniques.

EvaluationFormative and summative evaluations are conducted to

see if students are attaining the objectives of the program.Both the student and the program are evaluated. In theearly childhood methods course students are givenpretestsmeasuring their content and process knowledge. The con-tent test is derived from the released items of the NationalAssessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), and is updated

25

with newer items as NAEP releases them. The NAEP itemswere intended to assess the science literacy of nine, 13, and17 year olds. The released items for the nine and 13 yearolds are given to the early childhood preservice teachers asa pre- and posttest to evaluate the program's effectivenessin improving their science content knowledge. These scoresare not criterion referenced to course objectives and are notincluded in the student's grade. Criterion referenced con-tent items are administered at the end of the quarter and insome classes in a mastery learning model. In this model,students can continue taking some form of the test untilthey maSter the objectives.

Process skills in both the early childhood and middlegrades programs are evaluated using two instrumentsdeveloped in the department_The basic process skills aremeasured by using the Basic Process Skills Test, or BAPS(Padilla; Cronin, & Twiest, 1985). The integrated processskills are_measured using the Test of Integrated ProcessSkills (TIPS: Okey & Dillashaw, 1979).

We will build on our own strengths, and learn fromthose of our peers, as we continually improve preserviceelementary education at the University of Georgia.

References

AnderSon, R. D., James, H. H., & Struthers, J. A. (1974).The teaching strategies observation differential. In G. Stan-ford A. Roark (Eds.). Human interaction in education. Boston:Allyn and Bacon, Inc.

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Capie, W., Johnson, C. E., Anderson, S. J., Ellett, C. D., &Okey, J. R. (1979). Teacher performance assessment in-struments. Athens: Teacher Assessment Project, Univer-sity of Georgia.

Funk, H. j., Okey, J. R., Fiel, R. L., Jaus, H. H., & Sprague,C. S. (1979). Learning science process skills . Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

Okey, J., & Dillashaw, F. G. (1979). Assessing the science processskills. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the South-eastern Association for the Education of Teachers in Science,Kellyton, AL

Padilla, M., Cronin,I., & Twiest, M. (1985): The developmentof a test of basic process skills. Paper presented at annual meetingof National Association for Research in Science Teaching,French Lick Springs; IN.

Yeany, R. H., & Capie, W. (1979). An analysis system fordescribing and measuring strategies of teaching data mani-pulation and interpretation. Science Education, 63, 355-362.

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Chapter 5Compreherisive

Training Programfor PregerviceScience EducatorsSuzanne StevensDepartment of BiologyandHorace Mac MahanDepartment of Geography and GeologyEastern Michigan UniversityYpsilanti, Michigan 48197

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Eastern Michigan University (EMU) is a multipur-pose institution whose roots date back to 1849, whenit was established by the Michigan Legislature to

educate teachers for the state's public schools. During itsfirst hundred years the Michigan State Normal School, asEMU was then called, certified thousands of teachers. Itcontinues to emphasize teacher education today, eventhough it has broadened its scope and diversified its pro-grams since becoming a university in 1959. Eastern Michi-gan is one of the largest teacher education_institutions inthe nation and is widely respected in this field.

Student enrollment has continued to increase during the1980s, in spite of rising tuition and a falling college-agepopulation nationwide, reaching 20,200 during the winter1985 term. EMU's focal point is southeastern Michigan, anarea of small cities and towns like our home base, Ypsilanti,population 24,000. Thirty miles to the east is Detroit, indus-trial and business hub of the Great Lakes; an equal distanceto the south is Toledo, northernmost city on the Ohioborder.

In the fall of 1968 representatives from four sciencedepartmentsbiology, chemistry, geography and geology,and physics and astronomyformed a committee to studyways to improve the science education program for ele-mentary education majors at Eastern Michigan University.Prior to that time, elementary education majors wereallowed to elect a four-credit-hour introductory course ineach of Iwo science fields and a three-credit-hour course inmethods of teaching elementary science. Most elementaryeducation majors elected to take courses in biology andEarth science. Because they were intimidated by the morequantitative sciences, most of them received no preparationin either chemistry or physics.

The committee studying this problem met weekly forseveral semesters, and after many hours of discussion,formulated objectives for an elementary science educationprogram and plans for a pilot project to achieve these objec-tives. They agreed to set up a new science program fortraining elementary teachers as an alternative to the regu-lar university program. This optional program, wouldrequire its students to take four separate three-semester-hour courses in physics, chemistry, Earth science, and biol-ogy. The program would be spread over four semesters,ending no later than the middle of the student's senioryear. The course in methods of teaching science could beomitted because teaching methods would be included ineach of the four discipline courses.

For five years the four courses were taught as a pilotproject with volunteer student participants. In 1975 theuniversity recognized the project for the strengths that itadded to the elementary education major by making it arequirement for all students in that field. Nearly every stu-dent who has enrolled in the early and later elementarycurriculum since the adoption of the program has gradu-ated from the university with at least one course in each ofthe four sciences: biology, choW3try, Earth science, andphysics. These same courses provide specialized instructionin the techniques of teaching each science subject to ele-mentary School children.

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Our ProgramIn order to provide prospective elementary science

teachers with a comprehensive background in science con-tent and teaching_ methodology, the College of Arts andSciences and the College of Education at Eastern MichiganUniversity have developed a program that is innovative inat least six respects.

Teacher-trainees complete courses in each of the fourmajor areas of sciencebiology, chemistry, Earth science,and physics.Four separate science departments and the teacher edu-cation department have joined in the program's planningand continued review and revision.The program blends methods and content into an Inte-grated teacher education curriculum. Methodology in-struction is incorporated into each of the four courses. Asa result, the trainee learns how to teach science at thesame time that he or she studies content material.The concepts taught in the courses are selected to matchthe basic scientific understandings elementary schoolteachers need.The laboratory portion of each course is designed to givethe prospective teachers hands-on experience with sim-ple and inexpensive laboratory materials. These activitiesintroduce science principles, teach process skills, anddevelop scientific attitudes.Throughout the program, trainees teach science to chil-dren in local elementary schools. These experiences beginwith small-group microlessons and gradually build to theteaching of full-periocl lessons to entire classes.Blending methods and content into an integrated teacher

education program, our courses stress the basic under-standings elementary school teachers need. No attempt ismade to cover every aspect of content as might be done intraditional college science courses. The laboratory programis designed to give prospective elementary teachers hands-on experience with simple and inexpensive laboratorymaterials. Furthermore, the laboratory program providesexperience with all the process skills recommended by theMichigan State Department of Education.

The total program departs from standard teacher train-ing programs in its laboratory emphasis, content, metho-dology, materials, and curriculum.

bboratoryThe learner is actively involved in a greatly modified

science laboratory setting. In traditional laboratory programsthe learner is given sophisticated materials that illustratescience principles already presented by the lecturer. In ourprogram the laboratory experience, using simple apparatusor equipment the students have made themselves, is thecatalyst for active inquiry. Out of the laboratory experiencecomes understanding about the science endeavor and itsimpact on people and society.

ContentIn the traditional program the student moves through

individual science courses which are presented as if theywere unrelated to one another. In contrast, our elementaryscience program involves students in four science disci-plines in a manner which reveals the intricate relationshipsbetween the physical and biological sciences. Each student

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actively participates in the four-course program using lab-oratory experiences as the medium for science content:

MethodologyThe standard, isolated methods course has been elimi-

nated in our elementary science program. InsteaJ, method-ology is included along with the content at those timeswhen it is most appropriate. Students take part in a largenumber of methods activities, including lesson and unitplanning, microteaching experiences, computer assistedinstruction, and evaluation of various science textbooks. Inaddition, students often attend science conferences andjudge at science fairs. Integrating methodology with con-tent has proved far superior to the former approach.

Resources and CurriculumScience for Elementary TeachersEarth Science

Earth science instruction belongs in the elementaryschool. It is especially effective when it is integrated withphysical science and biologicd science in the curriculum.Experience has shown, however, that elementary schoolteachers generally shy away from teac'ling Earth sciencetopics unless they have considerable background in the sub-ject. Our Earth science course ensures that EMU-trainedelementary teachers have received adequate and up-to-dateinstruction, both in subject matter and methods of teachingEarth science.

The lectures given in the course describe and demon-strate non-quantitatively some of the basic Earth scienceprinciples dealing with the materials of the Earth, processesat the Earth's surface and within its atmosphere, and Earthhistory. Recitation/lecture sections permit the students tointeract with one another and their instructor regardingthe elementary school level. The instructor makes everyeffort to stimulate interest in Earth science and to conveyits interdisciplinary nature. No one can fully understandany of the Earth science processes without at least a begin-ning understanding of physics, chemistry, and biology.

The laboratory portion of the course is designed to leadthe student to discover some of the basic Earth scienceconcepts. The investigations deal with minerals, recks, soil,streams, fossils, geologic history, weather, and topographicmaps, using simple, inexpensive equipment of the type thatis readily available for use in the elementary school class-room. The laboratory experiences are similar to those whichthe teacher will in turn present at the elementary schoollevel.

Science for Elementary TeachersBiologyThe goal of the course is to prepare students to teach the

biological aspects of modern elementary school science. Thelecture portion of the biology course introduces biologicalprinciples that are basic to most college biology courses andemphasizes those that are found in elementary scienceprograms. They include characteristics of living things,plants, animals, ecology, systems of the human body, andenvironmental education. Students explore these contentareas through laboratory and field work experiences usingsimple equipment and materials.

The laboratory investigations stress exploration and dis-covery and are selected for their appropriateness to ele-

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mentary teaching. Students are given the opportunity totry some of these investigations with children as they teachscience lessons in local elementary schools. During thecourse, the teacher-trainees teach at least four science les-sons in early and late elementary classrooms. In planningtheir lessons they make extensive use of the science teachereducation center, located next to the biology educationclassroom and housing elementary science curricula frommore than 20 publishers.

Other laboratory sessions provide opportunities for thestudents to explore such topics as using the school site toteach science, organizing the classroom for science teach-ing, and the use of computers in science teaching. A majorgoal of the course is to allow students to experience thefascination of science and to gain confidence in their abilityto teach it.

Sciffice for Elementary TeachersChemistryThe lecture portion of the chemistry course includes

many of the basic topics found in introductory textbooks.Special emphasis is given to topics suggested in the Ameri-can Association for the Advancement oEScience Guidelinesfor Preservice Science Education of Elementary SchoolTeachers. Topics that receive heavy emphasis because oftheir relevance to the chemistry found in many currentelementary science programs include introductory atomictheory, properties of states of matter, behavior of gases,solubility and solutions, common chemical reactions, andacids and bases. The course is structured to eliminate anyseparation of textual material from laboratory work. In thisway it resembles the approach used in the Physical Sciencefor Nonscience Students program which was developedwith support from the National Science Foundation.

Like the other three science courses in the program, thechemistry course involves considerable laboratory work.E.petiments are based on activities frequently found inelementary science curricula. Whenever possible, simpleequipment is constructed from readily available materials,using chemicals which can be obtained from grocery stores,drug stores, and other local sources:

Students gain practical teaching experience by conduct-ing classroom demonstrations, presenting lessons to fellowstudents, and teaching microlessons with elementary stu-dents who are brought into the chemistry classroom.

Science for Elementary TeachersPhysicsThe lectures given in this course describe and demon-

strate in qualitative terms some of the basic physical princi-ples dealing with matte,- and measurement; the effect offorces on matter and on the motion of bodies; work, energy,and heat; the nature and properties of wave motion, withapplications to sound and light; the properties and effects ofelectricity and magnetism; and the history and currentstate of astronomy, particularly in relation to the solarsystem.

Recitation sections of no more than 20 students enablethe menthe: s of the class to interact with each other andthe professor about the basic scientific principles and pro-cesses that pertain to elementary education. The coursestimulates interest in science and insight into its processes,rather than offering a large body of knowledge to be mem-orized and dealt with in a mathematical and theoreticalmanner.

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The laboratory portion of the course leads the studentinto a rediscovery of some of the basic principles of science.Students learn to use inexpensive equipment of the typethat is found in elementary school classrooms. They prac-tice the basic kinds of measurement used in science pro-cesses and gain confidence in their own ability to do science.The laboratory experiences are similar to those the teachercan and will direct in the elementary school, and deal withdensity, buoyancy, pressure in fluids, elasticity in solidS,measurement of force and motion, properties of sound andlight, magnetism, and the effects of eleccricity.

The textbook has been selected from physical sciencebooks written at an elementary level and uses a very simplemathematical approach.

Because teachers teach as they are taught, the elemen-tary education science program rrovides the kinds of in-struction we expect prospective teachets to give their stu-dents. This includes extensive hands-on experience withsimple and inexpensive laboratory materials. Putting simpleequipment into the hands of prospective teachers helpsthem overcome their fear of science and builds their confi-dence in their own ability to teach it_

In add'Hun to the University Center of EducationalResources and the Instructional Materials Center, studentsin the ekinentary science program have access to two otherresow ce libraries. One is located in the biology departmentand contains a wide collection of elementary science text-books, periodicals, teacher resource books, equipment, anda microcomputer. The other library is located in the physicsdepartment and contains science programs and materialsprimarily related to middle school and junior high school.The physics department also houses a Science MaterialsCenter where students may check out teaching materialsto use during their student teaching or, after graduation, intheir own classrooms.

Our students learn to use outside resources through thenumerous field trips the prograrn_provides. They visit theDetroit Zoo, the Detroit Science Center, the University ofMichigan Botanical Gardens, and the University of Michi-gan Museum of Natural History. In addition, students aregiven an opportunity to attend at least one science educa-tion conference each semester. University transportation isprovided for those whoparticipate. During the past year,students have attended conferences of the Michigan ScienceTeachcrs AssociatIon, the Metropolitan Detroit ScienceTeachers Association, and the Michigan EnvironmentalEducation Association. Students also have the opportunityto take classes at the Kresge Environmental EducationCenter, owned and operated by Eastern Michigan Univer-sity. The Center consists of a 240-acre tract of land wh.chincludes a variety of terrain, vegetation, and animal life.Classroom, dining, and lodging facilities are available at theCenter for students and staff.

EvaluationAt the time that the elementary science education pro-

gram became a requirement for elementary teachers, anextensive series of surveys was done to determine whatshould be included in the program and to obtain informa-tion concerning its graduates.

Feedback obtained through questionnaires, student eva-

29

luation reports, and unsolicited comments from studentsenrolled in the project has been very favorable. Studentsreport that the program gives them the type of prepara=tion they need to teach science to children, and that theymuch prefer the type of instruction they have received tothat provided in the regular introductory science courses.

The University Council on Teacher Education iS themajor intercollege agency responsible for monitoring theteacher education programs. The four science departmentsrecently made an extensive presentation to the councilregarding the science education component. The councilwas in agreement that the programs lend strength andcontinuity to the teacher training curriculum, and extendedits continued support.

Every instructor of the required science courses is evalu-ated each fall by the campus-wide student evaluation pro-gram. While the questions are mainly directed to the qual-ity of instruction, students also express opinions about thenature of the courses. Their responses are invariably verysupportive of the program.

In addition to these formal evaluations, much evaluationhas been done by informal means such as talking to Stu-dents and graduates. Instructors of _the science coursesspend extensive time in area schools observing the perfor-mance of students currently enrolled in the program andits graduates.

Numerous students come back to their science instruc-tors after completing the course to borrow science equip-ment and materials to use in their student teaching. Super-:visory teackers and employers report that the graduates doteach science and teach it well.

Response to EvaluationsThe four science courses have been changed over the

years since they were first instituted because of the formaland informal feedback just described. Some of the moresignificant changes that have been made are:

Increased practice with actual science teaching, both topeers and to elementary studentsWiser selection of content: courses have become morepractical and less theoreticalGreater emphasis on the methods and professional aspectsof teaching scienceMore appropriate experiments, as course activities havebeen revised by instructors over the yearsa.eater exposure to a wider variety of activities, includ-ing examination of and use of commercial elementaryscience programs

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Increased numbers of student§ and faCUltY attending andparticipating in_science conferences

Creised numbers of faculty and students serving asjudgeS at Science fairS, and an increase in the number offairs judged

Plans for ImprovementWe would like to have the §tudent§ enrolled in the four

science courses participate in a greater number of TVmicroteaching experiences. Since one of our instructoServed as director of the Microteaching laboratory at WeberState College, he is qualified to instruct and supervise stu-dents in the use of this technique. In conjunction with theother training techniques, additional TV microteachingshould be a uSeful adjunct to our program.

We are currently in the procesS of writing a proposal tothe National Science Foundation to fund several portableTV carneraS and playback equipment. If we obtain this basicapparatus, our students will have additional opportunitiesto teach brief lessons to small groups of elementary schoolpupils while being videotaped.

Then, in addition to the usual methods of evaluating thelesson (pupil feedback, Supervi§OrS' critiques, etc.), theteacher trainee will have chances for continuous self-evalua-tion, because the lessons will be on videotape. There will bea permanent record against which to measure future per-formances. If the student has failed to demonStrate mas-tery of, for example, asking questions effectively, he or shecan teach the same lesson later to another group of stu-dents. The trainee can maSter each skill in turn beforemoving on to the next.

Another aspect of our program is its emphasis oncomputer=a§§i§ted instruction. In the near future, EasternMichigan University Students enrolled in the early and laterelementary curriculum will be required to take a one-credit-hour microcomputer course. We expect that these studentswill come to the Science for elementary teachers courseswith a basic foundation in the educational applications ofcomputers.

We plan to build on this background and continue toprovide opportunitieS for them to examine and evaluatethe science software used in elementary school teaching.More importantly, they will explore those data basemanagement and sp: ead sheet systems which are appro-priate for elementary school pupilS. The§e systems providean exciting new tool for elementary pupils to syntheSizeinformation and draw generalizations from it.

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Chapter 6SODIA ScienceDonald R. DaugsDepartment of Elementary Edu.:ationUtah State UniversityLogan, Utah 84322-2805

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The acronym SODIA sums up the Utah State Uni-versity elementary teacher education program. Thename is derived from the first letters of five descrip-

tive wordsSelf, Others, Disdplines, Implementation, andAssociate Teachingwhich represent the five levels of theprogram.

Level I, Self, is represented by the letter S in the acro-nym. At this introductory level we develop the student'sunderstanding of the relationShipS betWeen perSonalcharacteristics and the ability and desire to teach. Studentsin Level I spend a minimum of 10 hours observing in ele-mentary schools at various grade levels. Classwork andcounseling provide a variety of other experiences to helpstudents decide whether teaching is really the professionthey want to pursue.

Level II, OtherS, is repreSented by the 0 in the acronym.Entrance to Level II requires prior admission to teachereducation, awarded after successful completion of Level I,and a 2.5 grade average. In this block students are assignedto one of the cooperating public schoolS, where they spendapproximately half of each day working in classrooms astutors and aides. They spend the rest of their time inseminars and classes, either at the portal schools or oncampus. The 15 hours of courses include EducationalPsychology, Education of the Exceptional Child, andFoundation Studies in Teacing, as well as the Practicum inElementary Education.

Level III, Disciplines, is represented by the D in the acro-nym. Students are assigned to classroom and seminarexperiences at the Edith Bowen Laboratory School on theUSU campus, where they take 18 hours of methods coursesin reading, social studies, language arts, science, and mathe-matics. They diagnose, prescribe, teach, evaluate, and re-teach in ail five subject matter areas. Students develop avariety of methods and approaches using diagnostic andprescriptive techniques.

Level IV, Implementation, is represented by the I inSODIA. This is the student teachIng phase of the program.Students spend a full quarter teaching in the schools intheir junior year.

Level V, Associate Teaching, is the A in the acronym.Associate teaching is an optional, individualized programfor senior students who have successfully completed theirstudent teaching and want additional experience in theschools. Students may earn from three to 12 extra credits,functioning as full-fledged members of the teaching teamunder the direct supervision of the cooperating teacher.Associateships are for the full academic year. Associateswork with a master teacher and receive 518 salary.

In the program's early years both students and facultyconsistently reported that the Level III methods term placedexcessive demands on students. Over the years successiveadjustments were made to achieve a reasonable balancebetween methods course requirements and practicum expe-riences. The number of college class hours in the 15 credithours of methods courses was redtxed, on the groundsthat students learned theory as well as practice in theirelementary classroom experience. While this may have beentrue for the other content areas, many students reportedthat their classroom assignments offered little or no oppor-tunity to teach science.

For this reason, the on-campus time for the science

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Meth &Is course was increased to more nearly match thatOf a Standard three-hour ,:ontent course. Even after thisadjustment; however, students consistently indicated thatthey wanted more time for science methods, and gave highratings to the science methods course.

At abbtit the game time, ha tiOnal and §tate Concern Forthe science competencies of elementary teachers (NationalScience Board, 198_3;_ Milne_ 1983; Daugs, 1983): led toMeetings betWeeri College Of Science and College of Educa-tion faculty. A USU Science education AdviSory Gr bupwas initiated in 1983 to include the dean of education, thedean of science two science educatOrs, and the biology;geology, physics, and chemistry department heads.

As a result of the group's recommendation, USU changedthe science requirements for elementary school teachersand deVelOped a new science methods course. The changesmet dr ekceeded the 1983 NSTA retbm menda Hong for cer:tification of elementary teachers;

The science methods course, including a science-onlypracticum, was made a five-credit prerequisite to the LevelHI course block, and introduced as ari intermediate stepbetween Level II and Level Ill. This requirement insured amore uniform exposure to science teaching than had beenpossible ir the previouS program.

RationaleEarly research (Rutledge, 1957; Beryyessa, 1959; Wishart,

1961) revealed a positive correlation between science back-ground and various science and nonscience teaching com-petencies. More recent research (DeRoSe, 1979; Fitch, 1979;Donellan; 1982) demonstrates that many elementaryteachers feel unqualified to tea.."11 science because of theirpoor preservice preparation.

Although there is almost universal agreement on theSefindings and on the importance .f science education, fewcolleges and universities ho-qe matched research findingsWith program offerings. Many §cience educators havemphasized the importance of the content foundation inprocess-oriented sdence (Blosser, 1969; Victor, 1974;McDermott, 1976; Suchman, 1976; Rowe, 1978). Yet onlyone-third of the institutions Stedman surveyed in 1982 haddesigned their science content courses to meet the needs ofelementary teachers.

AAAS guidelines released in 1970 called for a matchbetween science topics that are taught to children andthose that are taught to teachers. In accordance with theseguidelines and the weight of research evidence, our ad .4-sory group recommended changes in the content offeringsfor Utah State elementary education majors. Science con-tent courses were revised to cover all the components ofthe state-mandated Utah Elementary Science Core. Thenew required courses are Biology 101, ChemiStry 101,Geology 101, and Physics 120, each offering five credits.

The methods course is organized around len compo-nents, as illustrated in the figure, a composite flowchart.

Curriculum goals and objectives for each component arepresented in the section that follows in the form of a con-ceptual framework. The framework lists the major goalsand objectives upon which the content and activities of thenew course are based, and also serves as the basis for firstlevel evaluation of student competency.

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Course

Pretest 2.0

Science, Technology,and SocietyCOrrOondnt 4.0

TeachingStrategies 6.0

State CoreCURICUIUM 5.0

Practicum_8.0

I---*Remediation3.0

EitemplaryMaterials_7.0__

Convocation9.0_

IPosttest10.0

Program Goal 1.0: To provide an overview and outline ofcourse requirements and proceduresTopic 1.1 Course Outline

The student should be familiar with the components ofthe course.Topic 1.2 Requirements and Grading

The student shouldBe aware of course requirements and options for achiev-ing themUnderstand grading procedure§ for all components of thecourse

Topic 1.3 Record KeepingThe student should be able to use computer-managed

record keeping procedures to demonStrate progressionwithin the course.

Program Goal 2.0: To determine student level of scientificliteracyTopic 2.1 Content Area Assessment

The student must achieve a score of at least 80 percent ineach of the four cOnterit area assessmentsbiology, geol-ogy, chemistry; and physics.Topic 2.2 Science Process Skills Assessment

The student must achieve a score of at least 80 percenton a comprehensive Stience prcfce§§ §kills assessment.Topic 2:3 Science Attitude Assessment

The student must attain a score of at least 80 percent ona science attitude assessment.

Program Goal 3;0: To facilitate remediation of deficienciesidentified in pretest proceduresTopic 3.1 Science Content Deficiencies

he student who is below criterion in any of the fourmajor science content areas (2.1) must do one of thefollowing:

Enroll in or audit courses in that areaUse a computer-mediated instructioni] program in thatareaArrange an individual remedial program with a facultymember

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Propose, and have approved by the course instructor, astudert-designed remedial program

Topic 3.2 Science Procesc Skills DeficienciesThe student who is below criterion in science process

skills (2.2) must do one of the following:Use instructor-specified exercises from prescribed sourcesAttend and participate in scheduled science process skillsimprovement sectiois

Topic_33 Science Attitude DeficienciesThe student who is below criterion in science attitude

(2.3) must do one of the following:Review with the instructor any attitudes specified in thepretest that contributed to a low scoreDiscuss, on a one-to-one basis with the instructor, possi-ble implications of science attitude for future scie:.ceteachingDevise a personalized improvement plan and set goal§ toimprove attitude toward scienceParticipate in science/math anxiety alleviation exercises

Program Goal 4.0: To peovide a fundamental understand=ing of science and technology, in order to make informeddecisions about the interactions of science, technology, andsod 2tyTopic 4.1 Science and Technology

The student shouldCompare and contrast science and technologyAppreciah how science and technology contribute tonew knov.LcIge

Topic 4.2 Impacts on SocietyThe student shouldExamine past and present examples of the impact scienceand technology have had on society, economic growth,and the political processInfer globalperspectives on the in _Trelationships among

_ science, technology, and societyTopic 4.3 Practical Applications

The student shouldExamine issues that affect her/his life, family, and com-munity, and that relate to themes of broader significanceFocus on one or more contemporary problems that canbe examined in a scientific mannerUse decision7making strategies to answer the question:"What can I really do?"Conduct a personal investigation in the area of science,technology, and society

Program _Goal 5.0: To provide background on the originand requirements of the Utah Elementary Science Core(UESC)Topic 5.1 Elementary Science Core Overview

The student shouldBe familiar with the UESC numbering system in order touse it in a computer-assisted curriculumBe familiar with the hierarchical arrangement of stan-dards and objectives stated in the UESCExamine across-the-curriculum relatiOnships as presentedin the Resource Guide to the UESCUnderstand and explain how all aspects of the ResourceGuide relate to the UESC

Program Goal 6.0: To apply teaching principles, skills, andmethods to teaching elementary scienceTopic 6.1 Scientific Literacy

The student shouldBe able to define scientific literacyIdentify and/or devise lesson plans that promote scientificliteracyIdentify andlor devise means of assessing student levelsof scientific literacy

Topic 6.2 Cognitive ProcessesThe student should know and apply principles of cogni-

tive psychology to teaching elementary science.Topic 6.;.; Interdisciplinary Aspects

The §:udent ShouldBe able to relate science objectiveS tb goals and objectivesin other subject matter areas at the same grade levelBe able to identif). and/or plan science lessons that inte-srate other Subject matter area§ With Science

Topic 6.4 Laboratory Techniques and EquipmentThe student shouldBe familiar with laboratory equipment commonly used inelementary science program§Be _aware of hazards and safety precautions associatedWith elementary science laboratory work

Program Goal 7.0: To familiarize students with exemplaryelementary_science curriculaTopic 7.1 Curricula Produced by Industry and Non-profitOrganization§

The student should be able to describe the major fea-tures of Project Laming Tree, Project Wild, Water Education K-6,and Energy and Man's Environment materials.Topic 7.2 Curricula Produced by Commercial Publishers

The student shouldBe able tO describe the major features of one or morecommercial elementary science textbook seriesBe able to describe the major features of one or more

_ commercial elementary science process-based curriculaTopic 7.3 Journals and Supplementary Materials

The Student ShouldBe familiar with Science and Children, Science Scope, and similarpublicationsBe familiar with a variety of commercially-producedteaching aid§

Program Goal 8.0: To provide the opportunity for studentstO teach a series of scieme lessons in an elementary ormiddle school classroomTopic 8.1 Practicum

The student shouldContact a cooperating teacher and make plans to teachthree or more science lessor.sSubmit-appropriate lesson plans to the cooperating teacherfor approval prior to teachingTeach three or mr e Science lessons in an elementary ormiddle school classroomSubmit lesson plans, a self-evaluation, and the cooperat-ing teacher's evaluation for the instructor's final review

Program Goal 9.0 (optional): To provide a culminatingexperience that demonstrates science and teaching corn-pete.ncies

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Topic 9.1 Excursion or ConvocationThe student may eitherFian and make all arrangements for a special sciencelearning experience for a small group of children, orConduct a §C.ence cc nvocation

Program Goat 10.0 To provide a means of measuringgrowth anil exit level of performanceTopic 10.1 Pogue St

The student should demonstrate mastery of all courseobjectives at prescribed criterion levels.

Conformitv to NSTA Recommended Standards for thePreparation and Certification of Sc:ence Teachers; 1983

The rationale ;or the SODIA science methods course isSimilar to the rationale for the NSTA standards. The firstNSTA standard reads as follows:

All colleges and universities should require a minimumof 12 semester hours or 18 quarter hours of laboratoryor field-oriented science, including courses in each ofthese areas: biological science, physical science, and Earthscience.

The SODIA Science program exceeds this standard inthat all students are required to earn a total of 20 credits,five each in biology, geology, chemistry, and physics. Eachof these courses has a laboratory component.

Our program itl§o follows thc 1970 AAAS guidelineswhich recommended that prE.§ervice courses relate to thescience taught in the schools. The four SODIA contentcourses cover all the objectives of the Utah ElementaryScience Core.

Our new methods course meets the second NSTAstanclArd in all respects. This standard concerns scienceteaching methods. It reads as follows:

Preervice elementary teachers should be required tocomplete a minimum of one separate course of approxi-mately three semester hours in elementary sciencemethodS. ThiS cour§e should be scheduleJ after thescience content courses and just prior to student teaching.

Standard II b adds that this course should help preser-vice ceachers teach science processes, attitudes, and con-tent to children in grades K-6.

Our methods course emphasites the content, process,and attitude components of scientific literacy. ProcessSkill§ are learned through hands-on activities, and con-tent is directl., coordinated with curricula appropriatefor elementary grade children. The following coursecomponents relate specifically to this recommendation:

Topics 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3 Content, process, and attitudeassessmentTopic 6.1 Scientific literacyTopic 6.2 Cognitive processesTopics 7.1, 7.2 Curriculum materialsThe third area of emphasis in the NSTA standards is

field experiences with children.Preservice elementary teachers should have opportuni-ties throughout their undergraduate years to teach sci-ence to children in schools. These field experiences inscience should begin with observation and tutoring andproceed through small and large group instruction. Stu-dent teaching must include experiences in planning andteaching science.

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_The initial experience with students in Level II of theSODIA program may or may not include sci;:nce lessons.The classroom exposure at that level is unstructured to theextent that students may or may not be present at a timewhen science is being taught. The practicum component ofthe science methods course, however, provides every stu-dent the opportunity to teach science. ThiS i§ Followed byLevel III, a full quarter practicum during which every stu-dent is required to teach science. The culmination is aquarter of full-time student teaching that normally includesscience lessons.

Standard four deals with faculty preparation: Faculty forboth the content and the methods course in the SODIAprogram meet NSTA recommendationS. Method§ courSefaculty are well versed in content and in teaching method-ology. The_principal instructor is a senior faculty memberwith a Ph.D. in science education.

Standard five emphasizes the value bf an atmoSpherz inwhich students can exolore; investigate; and discover._ Pre:service teachers shoulclexperience scientific inquiry becauseteachers prepared in environment§ that inVite and supportcuriosity, investigation, and inquiry are likely tb providesimilar iituations for their students:

Pre..,ervice elementary teachers should be instructej insc:ence laboratories and educational facilitie§ with equip=ment, instructional materials, and library holdings thatpromote science learning and exemplify outstandingschool science programs.Our combination of science course laboratorie§; bur Sciz

ence, technology, and society methods course component;and our Edith Bowen Lab School facilities collectively satisfythe requirements of this recommendation. Our One area ofdeficiency is that we have no annual budget fbr suppliesand equipment._

The final NSTA standard defines conditions relative toprofessional development. The§e criteria range from posi-tive attitudes toward science to an appreciatit n for theposition of science in the total elementary curriculum.

The prclessional orientation of preservice elementaryteacheis should include experiences that (a) in§till pb§i=tive attitudes toward science and science teaching, (b)foster an appreciation for the .ialue of science in the totalcurriculum and in the lives of children, and (c) develcipcommitment to continue their education as teachers ofscience through reading, pal ticipation in professionalorganizations, and further education, including inserviceexperiences.Item c above has not been evaluated, but items a and b

are integral parts of the philosophy and objectives of ourmethods course. We expect to continue to develop towardthe vision of excellence embodied in the NSTA Standardsand tne SESE Criteria for Excellence in Preservice Elemen-tary Education.

ReferencesAAAS Commission on Science Education . (April 1970).Preservicescierce education of elementary school teachers. VVash ington,DC: Author.

Beryyessa, M. (1959). FactorS contributing to the competency of

3 6

elementary Science teachers in teach:ng science. Unpublished doctoraldissertation University of California, Stanford.

BloSSer, P. E., & Howe, R. W. (1969). An analysis of researchon elementary teacher education related to the teaching cfscience. Science and Children, 6:51-52.

Daugs: D. R. (1983). Utah elementary science, the days ahead: Pro-gression or death. Unpublished position paper. Utah State Uni-versity, Logan.

DeRose, J. V., Locard, J. D , & Paldy,L. G. (1919). Theteacher is the key: A report o. three NSF StudieS. The ScienceTeacher, 46:31-37.

Donnellan, K. M. (1982). NSTA elemrntary teacher suney onpreservire preparation of teachersof _science _at ;he ekmentary, middle, andjunior_ high school levels. Washington; DC: National ScienceTeachers Association.

Fitch, T., & Fisher, R. (19: '). Survey of science education ina sample of Illinois schools: Grades K-6. Science Education,63:207-216.

McDermott, L. C. (1976). Teacher eciucation and theimplementation of elementary science curricula. Americanjournal of Physics 44: (5) 434=441.

Milne, J. (1983). Unpublished letter addressed to all deansof Science and education in Utah colleges. Salt Lake City:Utah Science Teachers Association.

Nationai Science Board. (19_83). Educating America for the 21stcentury. Washington D.C.: National Science Foundation.

National Science Teachers Association. (September, 1983).Science preparation for elementary_teachers: NSTA Position State-Merit. Washington, DC: NSTA.

Rowe, M. B. (1978). Teaching science as continuous inquini. NewYork: McGraw Hill.

Rutledge, J. _(1957). A study of elementary School Science teaching andelementani teacher preparation_in scknce in Ohio. Unpublished doc-tbral diSSertation. OhiO State University; Columbus.

Stedman, C., & Dowling; K. (March, 1982). Data summaryand discussion of state requirements for teacher certifica-tibn in science que§tionnaire. Washington, DC: NationalScience Teachers Association.

Suchman, J. R. (1976 April). Heuristic learning and scienceeducation. OccaSional paper Series, DREW . Washington, DC:National Institute of Education.

Victor, E. (1974). The inquiry approach to teaching andlearning: A primer for teacherS. Science and Children, 12: (2)23-26.

WiShart, A. (1961). The relationship of selected teather factors to thecharacter and scope of the science teaching program in self-containedelementary school_classrooms. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.University of Texas, Austin.

35

Chapter 7_

Collaboration _inPreservice andhigerviteEducation:A Needs-orientedModelRebecca Slayden-McMahanEducation DepartmentAustin Peay State UniversityClarksville, Tennessee 37044

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ur needs-oriented model involves three groupspreservice teachers from Austin Peay State Uni-versity's Education Department, inservice teachers

from Barksdale Elementary School, and Barksdale elemen-tary students (K-5). Both theuniversity and the elemen-tary school are in Clarksville, Tennessee, a community of85;000 near tlie Tennessee/Kentucky border which iS hometo a military insl-itution (Fort Campbell) as well as the stateuniversity.

Of Austin Peay's 5,000 students, approximately 15-20percent are elementary education majors, most from sevencounties across the state and some from outside the state.The traditional agrarian nature of the community ancLitsclose proximity to Tennessee Valley Authority Land Be:tween the Lakes, Mammoth Cave State Park, Dunbar CaveNatural Area, Montgomery Bell State Park, and ReelfootLake provide many opportunities for hobbies and interestsrelated to science and the outdoors. Clarksville'S induStrialresources include Acme Boot, Trane, Thun, Jostens, andUnion Carbide.

Determining the Need"The only person who knows what I need to learn is me."

That's why our model was designed to respond to theexpressed needs of the three role groups whose need§ con-cerned us most as educators: preservice teachcrs, inserviceteachers, and elementary students.

In 1980 we administered a questionnaire to three Mont-gomery County elementary faculties. Inservice teachersidentified very similar reasons for either not teaching scienceor not feeling competent as science teachers. At approx-imately the same time, 90 preservice teachen in prepara-tory classes at the university were asked to identifycompetencies_they wished togain from their science educa-tion course. The outcome of these two assessments was acollaborative model integrating preservice and inService ed:ucation through science labs or centers established in theelementary school.

The Needs Inset-Dice Teachers &pressThe inservice teachers named eight elements which

hampered their teaching of science.The various reading levels and ability levels of Student§The lack of appropriate, up-to-date reading materials, aswell as laboratory materials, equipment, and fundsThe lack of time for preparation of materialsThe lack of appropriate space for work and storageProulems with labs: extra noise, movement, and cleanup;behavior problemsLack of motivation and poor attitudes towazd science onthe part of studentsInadequate scope and sequence of the science program;inadequate measurement and evaluation of studentprogressPersonal discomfort and lack of confidenceBarnes' 1981 research describes the inservice training he

saw as generally remedial in nature. He found that suchtraining usually sterns from untested assumptions of whatteachers need, and has general, rather than specific applica-tion to problems and shortcomings. Inservice is offered as asort of universal remedy, for problemS which are alwaysindividual and specific.

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The Competencies Preservice Teachers WantDuring that same period we asked Austin Peay preser-

vice teachers to identify the competencies they hoped togain. Their answers centered around skills in eight areas.

Designing science units, writing lesson plans, andchoosing and using educational materials, including eval:Elation materials.Developing self-awareness and self-confidence, includingclass management and discipline skillsStrengthening the child's self-concept, fostering positivescience attitudes, 3nd reducing science anxiety forstudentsMeeting_ the individual needs of students throughstrategies such as individualized instruction and the useof learning centersCommunicating with and learning from other teachersBecoming familiar with the resources of the school andthe school system (facilities; environment, and organi-zation)Gaining perspective on career decisions such as gradelevel preference

The Opportunity Students DeserveWhat students need from their elementary science pro-

grams has been exhaustively documented in recent years,along with the fact that few of them are currently havingthose needs met. Teachers do not devote adequate time toscience instruction. A great deal of the Instruction that doesoccur is still a matter of isolated facts and principles. Toomany students regard science content as boring, and sciencelabs as "yutchy." Classes are large, and teachers have littletime to recognize or respond to individual interests andlearning styles.

Educators cannot expect to put the pieces together, toapitalize on curiosity and mold problem-solving and inven-

tive minds, unless their teaching builds integrated concep-tual models. Thc., can only do this by allowing children toapply !earring, to initiate investigations, and to solve real orrealistically simulated problems. Teachers must be preparedto teach process skills, as well as science content, in a logical,progressive, meaningful sequence to m2et the needs oftoday's students and prepare tomorrow's scientifically liter-ate adults.

The Science Center Model: A RationaleWhat followed seemed only logicalto develop a train-

ing model to integrate the education of preservice andinservice teachers and enrich, supplement, and even re-structure the existing elementary science curriculum by com-bining forces and resources. The key to the model would bethe expressed needs of inservice and preservice teachers.

Wiles lamented in 1979 that educators are accustomed toviewing preservice and inservice training as two unrelatedprocesses, even though the competencies the two groupsneed appear to be the same. Nothing has changed. In addi,tion, inservice training has remained under the auspices oflocal school districts, while preservice has been consideredthe university'S domain. Many educational theoreticiansconsider separate programs with separate coordinating sys-tems an unhealthy split in teacher education. They recom-mend a marriage of the two programs for the benefit of

teacher trainees, teachers, andstudents (Winter, 1965).Collaboration is the foundation for our model's success.

Preservice training and §ervice to the school are tailor-made in this programdesigned by the inService teacher,principal, teacher educator, and preservice teacher, with i:heneeds of ,he students in full view, to use the resources ofthis particular setting for the benefit of all concerned.

Our ProgramThe program is built around the science center located in

the elementary school. The center is a workplace and learn-ing lab providing Space for science equipment, resources,experimentation, and storage. Staffed by trained parentvolunteers and preservice teachers, it operates much like anopen-concept library.

It is also a place for preservice teachers to hang theirhats. Equipped with test tubes, hot plates, bulbs, wires,aquariums, plants, skulls, fossil collections, insects, and

dentS, the science center is an ever-expanding base ofopera tions.

By the time they reach their junior year our elementaryeducation majors have already taken one course in biologyand two courSeS chosen from physics, chemistry, and geol-ogy. These are the same courSeS §cience majors take atAustin Peay. The elementary education program also re=quires General Science 302-303, which incorporates con-tent in the Earth, physical, and life sciences with methodsand materials of instruction for the elementary SchoolS.

For the first half of the term the preservice teachersstudy curriculum design; instructional strategies; methodsof assessing individual Student needs, abilities, interests,and skills; techniques of evaluation, grading, and reportingstudent progress; and student and teacher interaction invaried learning situations. During this theory and contentwork at the university they alSo learn tO develop and imple-ment instructional materials, including learning centerS,units, instructional games, learning labs, and individualizedstudent programs.

Each student teacher is then aSSigned to one of the par-ticipating inservice teachers, working with that teacher andthe university instructor to design and implement a uniquefield-based experience which meets the needs of the pre-service teacher, the supervising teacher, and the students.

The preservice teachers develop skills in classroom or-ganization, management, discipline, and record keeping.They work individually with §tudent§ or With small groups.They develop materials to individualite inStructicin, deviSelabs for groups of 20_ to 30 students, and establish learningcenter§ for group§ of four and five students. In addition totheir experience with their aSSigned inService teacher, stu-dents spend half of their class time at the elementary §choolin group lab situations that the university instructor facili-tates. The university instructor teaches six demonstrationlabs during the quarter, one each in grade§ K=5, "borroW-ing" one entire classroom and group of students at eachgrade level. These demonstrations generally last for 50-60minute. A Second hour of debriefing follows the lab toallow university instructOrs and preservice teachers toevaluate procedures, materials, and reactions of elementaryStudentS. Inservice teachers from these classrooms alsoparticipate in the labS.

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Field Experience for Preservice TeachersField work consists of four parts: demonstration labs

practice labs, materials development, and tutorials.During demonstration labs, each preservice teacher will

observe the university professor teaching an elementaryscience lab at every level, K-5.

During practice labs, each of the labs demonstrated bythe univerSity professor will be disseminated to the othergrade levels within the school by the preservice teachers.Each preservice teacher will be assigned a partner and thenthe tWo preservice teachers will be assigned to a teacher.They will teach one of the labs demonstrated by the uni-versity instructor to their assigned class.

During materials development; each preservice teacherwill develop one lab for the class assigned in cooperationwith that class's inservice teacher. The lab will be imple-mented by the preservice teacher and evaluated by theinservice teacher.

For the tutorial Section, the preservice teacher will spendtwo full afternoons each week in the science center atBarksdale. This time is to be used for tutoring children,working on learning centers, and doing research for theingervice teacher.

The Inservice ConiPonentInservice teachers derive many benefits from our needs-

oriented model. The university instructors become theirprivate science education consultants. These instructors areavailable to facilitate or monitor special inservices and cur-riculum revisions. Working with the young teachers pro=vides professional stimulation and challenge to the Barksdalefaculty. Aside from human resources, the program pro-vides materials and equipment to make the job of teachingscience easier. Preservice teachers contribute 50-60 instruc-tional games, units, and labs during each academic year.

When Several dozen inservice teachers pool resourceswith the university, and include parents and their resour-ces, the possibilities for creative science instruction becomeall but limitless. Many of the needs inservice teachersexpressed in our Survey are met by Barksdale'S collabora-tion with Austin Peay: But collaboration within the schoolhas also been improved as a result of our program:

Most elementary teachers can testify to the general lackof coordination in grade level planning and scope andsequence planning. Fourth grade teachers might meet andplan together, and even meet with third grade teachers; butcoordinated planning and decision making among K-5science teachers is mUth rarer than it should be. The sciencecenter at Barksdale publishes a newsletter as one avenue ofcommunication among the teachers. Planning for inservicetraining alSo bring§ the faculty together.

The faculty of the elementary school elects one represen-tative from each grade level to serve on a curriculum com-mittee for inservice training within the school. The com-mittee Works with the professor to identify needs andstructure appropriate activities.

Our model makes efficient useof professionals and theiryear§ of teaching experience. There is no extra cost toeither the university or the school.

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Plans for the Future: A Regional Training CenterBy the fall of 1988 We hope to have e5tabliShed a regional

training center at Austin Peay. Featuring a lab area com-plete with equipment and supplies to teach all areas of thenew state science curriculum, the center will be housed inthe Claxton Building with a compleX of offices and class:rooms for professional education, and will be used by pre-service and inservice teachers during training. The regionalcenter will F,erve eight counties and school districts in Ken-tucky and Tennessee. A consortium of professors repre-senting the disciplines of biology, chemistry,geology, phys-ics, mathematics, and science education will serve as con-sultants for training.

The inservice training model, a joint project of the localschool system, Austin Peay, and the state department ofeducation, is designed to strengthen science education forstudents at the elementary and middle/junior high Schoollevels: We will do this by preparing, motivating, and recog-nizing teachers, who are central to the motivation andlearning of students, and exchanging and replicating effec-tive teaching materials and techniques for their uSe. In=service will provide an opportunity for peer teaching,leadership development, and dissemination of ideas. TheprcOct will become self sustaining after three years.

A cadre of well trained and highly skilled elementaryscience teachers will be identified and recruited as teamleaders. These leaders will share hands-on activities, up-to-date content, teaching methodS, and reSearch in teachingand learning. Team leaders will guide and structure thetraining sessions for participating teachers.

Team leaders must have five years of eXperience Withscience teaching, career ladder StatuS (granted by the StateofTennessee to two highly qualified teachers in each of theschools cooperating with this project), their principal's recom-mendation, and a strong interest in science. Summer train-ing for team leaders will be financed through the careerladder program.

Inservice training for -)articipating teachers will be con-ducted locally, will involve intensive handS:on activities,and will introduce teachers to the science content require=ments for each gradeand to recent developments in science.Teachers will have the opportunity to work with the bestinstructional materials, educational technology, and teach:ing methods related to the content of the knowledge-intensive sessions, and will have time to_ adapt these mate-rials and methdds for use in their own classrooms.

The inservice training will be Conducted in Small group§to facilitate peer support, peer tutoring, and leadershipdevelopment among teachers. Initial training will be fol-lowed by 12 three-hour sessionS for inservice teachers dur-ing the school year. Substitute teachers will cover clasSeSwhile teachers attend these sessions.

Benefits to the Student"Back to basics" and the record keeping it entails have

temporarily robbed many science programs of their dyna-mism. But many of the basic skills We want tb build inlanguage arts and mathematics can be fostered through anactivity-oriented, hands-on approach to curriculum devel-opment in science. We Start with an emphasis on the Stu=

4 0

dent as a learner; one with unique needs and interests and aunique style of learning. Hands-on involvement is thefoundation for understanding facts and concepts and forbuilding scientific generalizations. Students learn best whenthey are interested, active, and involved. At all times, in ourprogram, the elementary student is the focus of concern:

The student at Barksdale has the opportunity to examinea science concept or become involved in a science activityeither individually or as a part of a group. Since trainedparent/community volunteers, preservice teacilers, or highschool science students are always in the center, a teacherhas the option of sending one or more students to thecenter at any time during the day. An inservice teacher canreserve the center and its staffer for a particular date ortime period.

The interest the science center general. ?s is not amazing.It is natural that this would be a favorite place for students,a place where they can learn things they want to learn.Science should be exciting, for students and teachers. AtBarksdale and Austin Peay, it is.

The following are examples of science center activities.Seven students from a fourth grade class_ have had areading lesson and discussed marine life. They elect tospend 40 minutes of their independent time in the sciencecenter under the supervision of a parent volunteer. Dur-ing that 40-minute period tl-ey observe the lower andhigher invertebrates living in the salt water aquarium.Two fifth-grade boys_ have an interest in agriculture andplan to join the local 4-H club in the fall._ One of thepreservice teachers is willing to teach them the process ofgrafting. Their regular teacher allows them to spend anI- on _two separate occasions with the preserviceteacher, during which time they graft a winesap sciononto the crab apple tree in front of the school building.A student arrives at school at 8 o'clock with an insect inan aspirin box. Her teacher has covered the topic ofinsects earlier in the school year, but she wants to learnmore about this particular imect. She requests the use ofthe science center and the assistance of the communityvolunteer working there on this day, in order to examineand identify the inSect. The teacher gives her permission.

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She reports to the center during her scheduled libraryfree time. She uses a microscope with a deep well slide soshe can observe the insect while it is alive. She is helpedto key the insect by the use of an elementary insect guidethat She findS in the center.

EvaluationMembers of each of the role groups involved in the

model-inservice teachers, preservice teachers, and elemen-tary studentshave been asked to respond to the model'sability to meet their individual needS. All have found aSpectSof the program valuable for their learning, and preferableto more traditional models. We are continually learningwhat works and enhancing it, and eliminating or modifyingwhat does not.

References

Barnes, H., & Putnam, J. (1981). Professtonal devekpment throughreciprocity and reflection. Paper presented at the annnual meet-ing of the American Association of Colleges for TeacherEducation. Detroit: AACTE.

Burke, F. G., & Ruh, G. (1980). Coordination oftraining and staffdevelopment activities for educational personnel. Trenton, StateDepartment of Education. (ERIC # ED 194 508)

Stedman, C. (1980). Collaboration in inservice and preservice edura,tion: A perspective for Austin Peay University. ClarkSville, TN:Austin Peay.

Wiles, M. M., & Branch, J. (1979). University/public schoolcollaboration models in teacher education. Educational Forum,44:35-43.

Winter, S. S. (1965). Model programs for the education ofteachers in science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,3:102-104.

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Chapter 8ElementaryPreserviceEducation inScience and MathIva D. BrownDepartment of Science EducationUniversity of Southern MississippiHattiesburg, MS 39406

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The University of Southern Mississippi EUS1v1) wasestablished by an act of the Mississippi Legislaturein 1910 as the Mississippi Normal College. Today

USM is a comprehensive university with more than 500full-time faculty members and an academic year enrollmentof about 13,500. Our primary service area is the southernhalf of Mississippi. The main campus consists of 135 build-ings on 254 acres of land within the city limits of Hatties-burg, population 65,000.

The primarily female student population for the preser-vice elementary program ranges in age from early twentiesto mid-forties. A gradual upward shift in the mean age inrecent years reflects a significant number of women re-turning to the campus to complete programs that wereinterrupted by marriage and the care of young children.The typical student entering the program met minimalscience course requirements for graduation from high schooland expresses considerable anxiety about the study andteaching of science.

Background of the ProgramThe incentive to restructure our science education pro-

gram for preservice elementary teachers came from ourinvolvement in the 1970s with National Science Founda-tion projects to ssisdiboLiteiits in implemtnting the"alphaber curricula, BSCS, ESS, SAPA, and SCIS. Amongthe Mississippi teachers who participated in these projects,confident, knowledgeable, skilled teachers of science at theelementary level were found to be in short supply. Perhapseven more distressing, we found that teachers and adminis-trators gave science teaching a low priority among the pro-fessional responsibilities of elementary school teachers. Sincemany of the teachers in the inservice education projectswere graduates of the University of Southern Mississippi,questions arose about the quality of the existing sciencepreparation program. We unclei took a critical examinationof our science content and science methods course offer-ings for elementary education majors.

In the early 1970s a sequence of four science contentcoursestwo physical science and two biological sciencewas among the core curriculum requirements for non-science majors at USM. As non-science majors, the preser-vice el-imentary teachers met this requirement. The sciencecourses were taught in large lecture sections and supple-mented with visual aids, demonstrations, films, readingassignments, and study sheets. There were no laboratories.The tests were usually short-answer in format and tendedto emphasize recall of scientific information. The coursespresented science as a body of knowledge found in booksand heard about in lecture halls.

In sharp contrast, the science teaching methods courserequired in the elementary education program was taughtin small sections with hands-on invOlvement, using ma)e-rials representative of nationally recognized curricula inelementary school science. In the sdence methods coursepreservice teachers discovered strategies for teaching sciencetotally foreign to their previous experiences in college sciencecourses. We questioned whether a single methods coursecould significantly alter our students' image of science andscience teaching, after years of experiencing science as abody of facts to be committed to memory. Teaching be-

42

havior is strongly influenced by the teacher role models astudent encounters. If our elementary school teachers wereto exhibit the style of open inquiry reflected in the newcurricula, the science courses at USM had to reflect thatpattern of teaching.

The faculty in the department ofscience educationdecidedto change the science curriculum for elementary educationmajors. As a first step, we identified elementary educationmajors enrolled in the large sections of the science contentsequence for nonscience majors and offered them separatesmall sections. This made it possible to develop curriculummaterials and explore teaching approaches to meet the spe-cial needs of preservice !ementary teachers. A separatescience course sequence for elementary education majorswas approved through the various university committeesand councils in the 1974-75 academic year. Thc need forthis program had to be convincingly articulated many timesto obtain approval, in view of the additional cost of theprogram, the resistance of scientists who felt this coursesequence might be a less rigorous treatment of content inthe various disciplines, and the fairness issue involved inoffering special courses in the core requirements to a limitedsegment of the student population.

The ProjedThe faculty in the department of science education

committed themselves to an all-out effort to develop thebest possible science program for the preparation of ele-mentary school teachers. A preliminary proposal was devel-oped and submitted to the National Science Foundation.NSF staff members persuaded us that the mathematicsprogram for preservice elementary teachers must be up-graded at the same time, if we were to achieve significantimprovements in scientific knowledge and process skills.Competency in mathematics appears to be inexorably linkedto advancement in knowledge and understanding of science.

After a full year of planning, the department of scienceeducation, in association with the department of mathe-matics and the department of curriculum and instruction,submitted to the National Science Foundation a proposal torestructure the science and mathematics components ofour program for preservice elementary teachers. Our pro-iect, The Implementation of a Sequential Science and MathematicsProgram for Preservice Elementary School Teachers, (NSF Grant #EPP5719223) was funded for a three-year period beginningin July 1975, under the NSF Division of Experimental Pro-jects and Developing Programs.

At the time we received our funding, a number of otherprojects were already underway to develop curriculummaterials for preservice education of teachers in scienceand mathematics. To prevent costly duplication of effort incurriculum development, the project at USM was designedto use curriculum materials that were successful at otherinstitutions and test their transferability. Prior ta the USMproject, there had been little, if any, coordinated effort torestructure both the science and mathematics componentsof a teacher education program throughout an institution.Most previous programs had been for small pilot groups ofpreservice elementary teachers, rather than an institution'sentire population of teachers in training.

The science and mathematics preparatory program thatemerged from the three years of intense NSF project ac-

tivity remains basically intact, with the same general philo-sophy, goals, and teaching approach. Some modificationshave been made in the curriculum materials, and changeshave occurred in teaching personnel To adhere to thecriteria of the Search for Excellence in Science Education,this description of the current program has been limited tothe science component of USM's preservice elementaryeducation program.

Our Current ProgramThe philosophy of our preservice program for elemen-

tary teachers is grounded in our concept of the nature ofscience, the way childrenlearn, and the goals of an elemen-tary science curriculum. We view science itself as a searchfor patterns that requires the active involvement of thelearner. Children are natural inquirers, who continually tryto make sense of the world around them by gatheringinformation and processing it into patterns or regularities.Therefore, exemplary science programs for the elementarygrades should emphasize the investigative nature of science.

The goals for elementary school science should be todevelop

An understanding of the major concepts which are thefoundation of modern scientific thoughtThe science process skills necessary for continued self-learningAn understanding of science and its societal implicationsFor our teacher education program this philosophy

dictates inquiry-based, activity-centered instruction whichinvolves preservice teachers in the various processes ofscience as a means of discovering significant scientific con-cepts for themselves.

We further believe that preservice teachers will model intheir own science teaching the behaviors of their formerscience teachers. Preservice teachers who experience in-quiry-based, activity-centered instru, ;ion under the tute-lage of exemplary role models are likely to exhibit teachingbehaviors which reflect the nature of science, relate to thegoals of elementary school science, and show sensitivity tochildren as learners.

Goals of the ProgramThe program's goal is to produce knowledgeable, skilled,

confident teachers committed to improving the teaching ofelementary school science. In behavioral terms, the teacherswho complete the program should be able to

Show levels of achievement in science content and pro-cess skills adequate for teaching elementary school scienceDemonstrate, in classroom teachng situations, inquiry-based, activity-centered instructional skillsMatch teaching objeciives and approaches to the needs ofchildren as :earnersExhibit conficknce and enthusiasm about teaching science

Nature of the ProgramThe preservice science program is comprised of four con-

tent science coursestwo physical science and two bio-logicalfollowed by a science methods course. The 12semester-hour content and three-hour methods require-ments add up to a 15 semester-hour science program.

The content courses focus on developing the knowledge

41

4 3

and process skills to teach current exemplary science pro-grams for the elementary grades. Each course integratescontent and teaching methodology in the sense that thecourse instructors serve as role models for teaching_be-haviors. All courses are taught in a laboratory setting. Thatis, prospective teachers are taught with materials whichallow for direct experience in activity-centered investiga-tions aimed at developing basic concepts and skills. Facultymake a concerted effort to reduce anxiety toward studyingandteaching science by providing for successful experiences.

The tifth course in the science sequence is predominantlya course in methods and materials for teaching elementaryschool science. The course is organized in three majorparts. Part one_ provides conceptual background related tothe meaning of science, the goals of an elementary sciencecurriculum, the proceSS and content aspects of learningactivities, and the characteristics of the young learner. Parttwo focuses on the development of instructional skills byexamining different teaching strategies. Since experiment-ing as a teaching strategy seems to be the most difficult tomaster, we emphasize integrated process skills and the useof experiments in the classroom. A science fair day is acomponent of this part. Each preservice teacher completesan experiment and submits a written report, science fairdisplay, and log book for the competition.

r,.. t three involves the preservice teachers in the prepa-ration and Supervised teaching of six science lessons, eachapproximately 50 minutes long. The six lessons focus on asingle unit theme and are usually adaptations from nation-ally recognized science curricula. Thus, this course not onlyaddresses methods and materials of teaching but also pro-vides practical experience in applying science content inactual classroom settings.

Materials and CurriculumOur curriculum has been continuously examined and

niodified since the program restructuring during 1975-77.Curriculum materials developed by Arnold Arons at theUniversity of Washington and his textbook The Various Lan-guage: An Inquiry Approach fo The Physical Sciences were used inthe physical science sequence for several years. Many ofthe activities in Arons' program continue to be used, butnew ones have been adopted from other sources and devel-oped in OUT own program.

The biological science courses used materials developedas part of the Putdue University project, An Integrated ApproachTo The Science Preparation of Prospective Elementary Teachers. ThePurdue project was funded by NSF under the Undergrad-uate PreService Teacher Education Program. Purdue activi-ties were essentially adapted from the BSCS Green Ver-sion biology program and the Science Curriculum Improve-ment Study.

Science textbooks which reflect the philosophy and teach-ing approach we want for our preservice elementaryteachers are not available for the college level /irons' book,for eicample, emphasized the development of mathematicalreasoning and interpretive skills, but did not develop manyof the science concepts that the preservice teachers will beexpected to teach elementary students. At present we areusing Several textbooks, materials from the national cur-riculum projects; and other materials developed by the pro-fessors who teach our courses.

42

The courses are scheduled as three semester hours lec-ture and one semester hour laboratory; however, the teach-ing emphasizes direct involvement of the students in activi-ties which lead to discovery of ideas and relationships.There is seldom a full period of formal lecture; insteadthere are frequent discussion periods when students shareand interpret results under the skillful guidance of thecourse instructor.

We use well-written physical science and biological sciencetextbooks for reading assignments to reinforce and eictendthe classroom activities. Most college studentS have beenconditioned by past educational experiences to approachlearning through the printed word, so we try to capitalizeon this established learning style to help them build astrong foundation of scientific knowledge. We choose bookswhich give clear explanations and offer illustrations, data,charts, and graphs to be interpreted. In the courses, we tryto expose the preservice teachers to many teaching strate-gies and !Ap them to see reading as just one means ofapproaching the study of science. We try to make themaware that children need to experience science directly, notjust read and talk about it.

The basic textbook for the science methods course isExploring Science In The Elementary School by Donald Kauchakand Paul Eggen. The authors share our goals for elemen-tary school science, and our understanding of the nature ofscience, how chiidren learn, and the ideal strategies forteaching science.

In the field experience component of thiS courSe, lesSonsare usually adapted from various curriculum projects, withthe preservice teachers responsible for finalizing the plansand practicing the lessons before actually teaching smallgroups of children. We try to assure that the experience ofworking with children is successful and provides studentswith positive feedback about themselves as teachers ofscience.

A resource center housing instructional materials for theK-college levels was established with NSF project funding.The resource center is a support facility for bOth the under-graduate and graduate level programs administered by thedepartment of science education. The center includes awide range of current instructional materials:

complete sets of programs, such as Developing MathematicalProasses, Science Curriculum Improvement Study, and Science=7AProcess ApproachScience textbook seriesMetric teaching aidsFilms, filmstrips, and other audio-visual aidsManipulative laboratory materials for classroom useSourcebooks of teaching activities and gamesSample instruments for assessing content knowledge,attitude, and skill development in scienceMicrocomputers and computer softwareThe preservice teachers use this facility in completing

course assignments and as a source of materials for theirstudent teaching experience. The center plays a critical rolein introducing preservice teachers to the use of computersin teaching and learning.

The Role of the ProfessorThe professors for the courses in the science sequence

are expected to exemplify good practices in planning, teach-

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ing, and evaluating. They model strategies for teaching,assuming the roles of motivator, counselor, guide, initiator,discussion leader, resource person, lecturer, demonstrator,questioner, evaluator, and others appropriate to the var-ious strategies. We feel it is important to alternate among avariety of methods, matching teaching objectives to thestudents' needs, the materials that are available, and thecontent/process goals.

Since many preservice elementary teachers are anxiousabout studying and teaching science, building positive self -concepts about their ability to learn and teach science is amajor responsibility of the program. This means that eachstudent must be respected as an individual of dignity andworth, and never demeaned or belittled. The classroomenvironment has to be one of openness and acceptancewhere students feel comfortable asking questions andexpressing ideas.

The Role of the StudentOur preservice elementary teachers are active partici-

pants in the learning process; rather than passive receiversof information. They are investigators searching for pat-terns and regularities they can use to describe and explainphenomena in the natural world. They are encouraged toquestion: "How do we know...? What is the evidencefor...? How could we explain ...? How could we test? ..."As students, they are encouraged to show initiative, curios-ity, and the desire to find out for themselves.

EvaluaLionEvaluation of Students

For the four science content courses, student achieve-ment is evaluated on the basis of teacher-made tests, writ-ten reports of investigations, and other assignments. Intesting, emphasis is placed on higher-order cognitive levels,with students being asked to explain, compare, describe,interpret, and evaluate. Some test items are short answerand require recall of information or comprehension; how-even essay questions requiring analysis, synthesis, applica-tion, and evaluation tend to predominate.

In evaluating student achievement for the methods coursewe consider teacher-made tests, ratings of teaching per-formance, science fair projects, written reports of inter-views based on Piaget's tasks, and lesson plans. Ratingcriteria vary with the assignments.

Evaluation of ProgramDuring the initial restructuring of the program, sup-

ported by NSF funding, an extensive formative and sum-mative evaluation was conducted. Data collection continuesto the present time. Students use rating scales to evaluatethe course instructors. We solicit feedback from students inwriting and through interviews regarding course contentand teaching approaches. Testing is keyed to course objec-tives. Test results are examined and courses are revisedwhen we find a better way to meet the course objectives.

Faculty members teaching courses in the sequence meetformally to discuss the curriculum and ways of improvingthe sequence. In addition, they informally share new activi-ties being tried, problem areas, and successes and failures inteaching. The faculty works as a supportive team constantlystriving to improve the course sequence.

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In 1985 the program was reviewed by_the curriculumcommittee in the College of Science and Technology, thecurriculum committee for the College of Education andPsychology, and the Academic Council of LJSM. The four-course science sequence was approved by these committeesto meet the core requirements for elementary educationmajors. We are proud that the program continues to beviable ten yews after the initial grant funding and is acceptedby the academic community on our own campus.

Our program, when examined against the criteria forexcellence, shows many strengths. The following is a par-tial list.

Evaluation data demonstrate that the program developspositive attitudes toward science and science teaching.The program requires twelve semester hours of sciencecontent, including broad treatment of physical scienceand biology, and limited Earth and space science topics.The content and methodology in the courses are applica-ble to sound elementary school science programs. Boththe science content and methods courses use the problemsolving processes of science, such as observing, classify-ing, measuring, interpreting data, and experimenting.Field and laboratory activities are integrated in sciencecontent study.Societal implications of science and technology areaddressed in the courses. For example, if a field trip to alocal electric power plant is a part of an electricity unit,students will examine the environmental technology usedin the plant to prevent air and water pollution. Thenuclear waste issue is studied in relation to the Missis-sippi salt domes, which are presently being considered assites for a depository. Genetic engineering, populationco- itrol, energy consumption, and other topics withsocietal implications are also explored.We require three semester hours of science teachingmethods with a field-based teaching component. Thefield experience involves hands-on problem solving andskill development activities.Microcomputers and other current technology used inthe science content and methods course provide expe-rience with the use of these tools in concept/skilldevelopment.The program meets all the criteria for excellence withregard to faculty characteristics. The faculty membersare well qualified, experienced, competent teachers. Eachhas experience in teaching science in the public schools.They are active in professional associations and workclosely with the Mississippi Department of Education andthe state public school systems. They encourage andmodel participation in professional organizations andresearch involvement.Science teaching rescarces include well-equipped labora-tory facilities, a resource center with an extensive collec-tion of curriculum materials, source books, manipulativeaids, visual aids, computer software, microcomputers,television monitor and cassette player, microfiche reader/printer, and more. Library holdings exceed 30,000 volumesrelated to the program, plus a considerable collection ofchildren's science tradebooks.Weaknesses of the program, examined against the crite-

ria for excellence, include the following.The present four-course content sequence needs to in-

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corporate more Earth science. Observational astronomy,the water cycle, the carbon dioxide/oxygen cycle, weather,and Other topics do receive some treatment in the coursesequence, but we plan to develop a separate Eat th andenvironmental course.In the science methods course some hard choice§ havebcen made because there is never time to treat' all areas.One such choice relates to developing skill in writinglesson plans, teacher-made te§t§, and other teachingmaterials. We are aware that preservice teacher§ needhelp in planning Science lessons and would like to incor-porate more of this activity in the methods course, butlesson planning :s heavily emphasized in other methodscourses. In an effort to assure that the field experience inscience involves hands-on, exemplary activities with whichthe preservice teachers will experience success, our courseprofessors have assumed the major re§ponSibility forplanning the lessons so fz.r.Lessons adapted from variouscurriculum project§ are offered as exemplary materials.From the exemplary lessons, §tudent§ can begin to seehow science should be taught and develop the confidenceto try constructing their own materials later.We need more extenSive ongoing evaluation of the pro-gram to provide continuous feedback for future modifi-cations. We recognize the need; buf with the presentfaculty workload we have been unable accomplish thisto our satisfaction.Mississippi has an extensive junior college System. Appro-ximately 60-70 percent of the students in teacher educa-tion are tranSfer§ from the junior colleges. Because weaccept transfer credits in laboratory science to meet ourcore requirements, many graduates in the elementaryeducation program have not completed the four-coursescience sequence offered at USM.

Program Maintenance Needg, Hurrian arid FinancialThe key ingredient in the success of our program is role

modeling by the teacher§ of each cour§e in the sequence.Since administration and teaching of the program are thereSponSibility of the department of science education, it hasbeen possible to be very selective in assigning faculty toteach the courses in the sequence. The coordinator for thepreservice elementary science program, Iva D. Brown, workswith the chair of the department of science education,Bobby N. Irby, in identifying faculty whose teaching philo-sophy agrees with that of the program. Faculty involved inthe program are professionally active in promoting scienceeducation and have records of proven performance in theclassroom.

The science resource center is an essential support fad:ity for the program. It costs money to staff the center andto keep its resource§ current.

Laboratory facilities with basic equipment are requiredfor teaching the physical science and biological science

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courses. The science teaching method§ courSe requires awide variety of materials suited to the teaching of elemen=tary school science, in quantities sufficient for teachingabout two hundred children, and funds for replacingexpendable items.

We struggle to keep the program as cost-efficient as pos-sible. Clearly this program is more expensive to operatethan a comparable sequence of lecture courses. But theuniversity continues to sustain it, which indicate§ that wemust be giving good value.

Future Changes In The ProgramThe Mississippi Board of Trustees for Instittion§ of

Higher Learning maintains _an ongoing program reviewprocess. The board mandated last year that eight semesterhours of laboratory science be required in the core at allpublie colleges and universities: In a separate but relatedaction, they increased the number of high school c 2dits inscience and mathematics required for entrance to state col-leges and universities. The courses ih the four--courSe Sciencecon tent sequence, which each formerly carried threesemester how s of credit, must now be offered as four-credit courses (three hours lecture and one hour lab) tomeet core requirements: With this change, the cla§§e§ inthe four-course sequence total 16 semester hours. Sinceelemertary edutation majOrs are still only asked to take 12hours of science, teaching students may satisfy the require-ment with just three courses:

We are planning to restructure the sequence ihth threecoursesphy§ital Science, Earth and environmental science,and life science. The basic philoSOphy and approach will notchange, nor will the total number of hours required. Thecontent of all courses Will need to be reviewed and modi-fied.

Other impending changes are linked to the EducationReform Act passed by the Mississippi Legislature in 1982.Certification requirements for teachers and accreditationstandards for teather education institutions are being re-viewed and new guidelines established. Our Science methodscourse will evolve to align with the competencies identifiedin the Georgia Department of Education plan for perfor-mance-based certification, which ha§ been adopted by theMississippi Department of Education. Experience§ will haveto be bat into the elementary education program directedtoward_achieving the Specified competencies. For example,the Georgia plan emphasizes competency in planning and-organizing materials for instruction: To meet the perfor-mance levels in this area we will have to devote more timeand effort to writing _behavioral objectives, developingcompatible teaching procedures; :Ind dcsigititig evaluationinctrutncn

Our goal for the future i§ a tOtally field-based sciencemethods course, with professors and pre§ervice teachersmeeting classes in a public school setting and working withchildren a§ they Study various instructional approaches.

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Chapter 9Excellence inPreserviceElementaryTeacherEducation inScience:What WeHave LearnedBarbara S. SpectorUniversity of South FloridaTampa, Florida 33620

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The ultimate purpose of the Search for Excellence inScience Education (5ESE) is to provide inspirationand guidance to those who want to improve the

quality and quantity of science taught in America's precol-lege institutions. ChAracteristics of good science programsand appropriate amounts of science were spelled out inProject Synthesis' desired state. The goal of precollege sci-ence teaching is to produce citizens who are scientificallyand technologically literate: who know enough about thescientific enterprise to make reasoned decisions at the per-sonal and societal levels, take full advantage of their aca-demic opportunities, and function effectively in a widerange of careers in tomorrow's scientific and technologicalsociety.

Can preservice teacher education in science help to pro-duce such citizens? We believe it can. Both positive andnegative evidence supports our belief. As positive evidence,the teachers who developed the SESE exemplary elemen-tary school science programs reported that the inspirationto develop their excellent programs came fromcourses or workshops they had taken. As negative evi-dence, elementary teachers other than those in exemplaryprograms frequently ascribe a major part of their scienceanxiety to a lack of adequate preservice training in science.School administrators share that perception.

The characteristics 4 the desired state for preserviceelementary programs that will enable teachers to promotescientific and technological literacy, were enumerated inthe first chapter. But a review of the applications for thecurrent search suggests that many proFessionals in teachereducation are not familiar with the SESE criteria. C3nse-quently, it is necessary to underline the distinction betweenthe elementary science curricula which were developedwith federal funding during the 60s and 70s, the so-called"new" curricula, and the exemplary elementary science pro-grams envisioned by Project Synthesis and exemplified bythe honorees of the Search for Excellence in Science Educa-tion. Educating prospective teachers for the latter is thecurrent goal for today's preservice elementary teacher edu-cation programs.

The application forms used for this search for excellencewere the same as those for searches in the other fields ofprecollege science education. Data were limited to the de-scriptions of The programs supplied by the institutionsthemselves. Due to a lack of funds, there were no sitevisits. Although the only meaningful indicator of an excel-lent preservice program is the success the teachers havewith children in schools, the searrh application did notrequire information about the performance of preserviceteachers once they were employed by school districts. Sev-eral of the exemplary programs do monitor their owngraduates, but we did not accumulate data on the compara-tive effectiveness of these graduates and those from moretraditional programs.

Each program in the preceding chapters was selectedbecause of its uoteworthy progress toward the desiredstate: If the commendable attributes of all these exemplarswere combined, we would see a model approaching thedesired state for preservice elementary teacher education inscience. No one of the programs by itself is a model of thedesired state.

The following is a synthesis of what has been learned

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from this search. The names of institutions noted in paren-theses direct the reader to at least one example of eachobservation. The examples in the parentheses, however,are not intended to indicate an ideal state in any area.

Insights Gleaned From This SearthThe commonality among the exemplars suggests thai

one of the things most essential to the development of anexcellent program is vital links among the many people andgroups who share an interest in science teaching. Someuseful interface§ appear to be between

Science educators and natural scientistsScienco educators, natural scientists, technologists, andsocial scientistsScience educators and the community, e.g. business andindustry and civic groupsThe university program leader, faculty, and prospectiveteacher§, and elementary school administrators, teachers,and studentsScience educators and the state education agencyScience educators and foundations interestedin educationA program's problem-solving capacity will be enhanced

by the variety and fruitfulness of its interfaces, and so willits ability to meet the SESE criteria. Multiple interfacesprovide a rich and varied data base which can make currentinformation from a variety of perspectives available fordecision making. New strategies based on this data canoffer new solutions to program problems. A program can-not but benefit from the synergism that results fromnetworking.

Each of the preceding exemplars could continue its pro-gress toward the desired state by increasing the number ofinterfaces that support its program. Since the role of ascience educator is to be a link among scientists, and betweenscientists and the rest of a community, it is reasonable toekpect the §cience educators on a college faculty to designand maintain networking strategies. The first step will beto persuade the individuals involved of the benefits eachcan obtain from investing in the collaboration.

Before attempting to make §pecific changes in a pro-gram, the persons spearheading the development andmaintenance of these interfaces need to develop a commonvocabulary and context for communication, leading to acommon set of as§umptions upon which the group willbuild. This minimizes potential for miscommunication, andthus builds up the tru§t essential to any collaborative ven-ture. Then a group philosophy, goals, and the specific tasksto alter a program cat, be addressed.

Excellent Program; Cross Department BoundariesThe_ interface between science educators and natural

scientists is critical to providing preservice teachers withcurrent content that is applicable to the elementary sciencecurriculum. Decisions about what part of the accrued bodyof science knowledge is appropriate for preservice teachersand how it should be taught are best made collaboratively.Faculty whose primary research and subsequent expertiseare in science edu:ation know the goals for elementaryscience teaching and the capacity of elementary learners.Faculty whose research and expertise are in one of thenatural Science§ know the directions and the cutting edge

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of work in that science. Together, they can develop creativeapproaches to educating preservice elementary teacherswhose students will be adults in the twenty-first century.

Two models of collaboration between science educationand natural science were illustrated by the exemplars. Inone, the science educators have academic appointments in anatural science department or college (Ball State UniverSityand Eastern Michigan University). In the second, scienceeducators have academic appointments in departments orcolleges of education and collaborate with faculty in thenatural sciences either individu.-Oly (Austin Peay State Uni-versity) or_through cross-unit committees or councils (Uni-versity of Southern Mississippi, University of Toledo, UtahState University). A third model, not de§cribed by Any ofthe exemplars, gives a faculty member dual appointment,half time in a natural science department and half time in acollege or department of education. Success appears torequire an ongoing formalized relation§hip between Scien=tists and science educators. Faculty provide periodic feedbackto a permanent group responsible for program improve-ment, while implementing decisions made by the group.Communication does not stop once the group agrees toprogram changes.

Even though the success of an educational endeavordepends on the individual teacher, individual excellencecannot insure that program innovations will become per-manently incorporated in an institution. Having a commit-tee or council may seem unnecessary when there is astrong individual relationship between A §cience educatorand one or more natural scientists, but there are vital rolessuch a formal structure can play to insure excellence in thelong run.

A cross-disciplinary group can expedite program changesthrough the multiple stages the curriculum process re-quires in a large university.Even if_personnel in the in§titution change, a coundl pro=vides continuity.If individuals have a personal falling out, the councilremains to continue tending to the program.If people beyond the first interactors wish to get involved,they can approach a council through known proceduresmore easily than they can intervene in a one-to-onerelationship.Within the College of Arts and Sciences at Eastern Mich-

igan University, four science departments have joined forongoing planning, review, and revision of their program.Ball State University has a science and mathematics re-source advisory team representing the College of Scienteand Humanities and the Teachers College. Utah State Uni-versity has an advisory committee coordinating College ofEducation and College of Science faculty who develop sci-ence courses for the preservice elementary program:

Councils should be structured to Catain input from out-side the group,_ and have _potential for inviting new peopleto participate as uses for other areas of expertise appear.

A uniqueness of the University of Toledo is that it has aspecific structure to enhance the interface betWeen scienceeducators arid faculty in educational psychology and otherfoundational fields. Teaching teams from Educational Psy-chology, Curriculum and Methodology, Educational Mediaand Technology, and Social Foundation§ of Education meetin weekly planning sessions. Team leaders meet with col-

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lege administrators to evaluate the effectiveness of teamplans.

Links to State Agencies are VitalThe interface between university science educators and

state education agencies is critical to the quality of preser-vice elementary teacher education programs. Many statesare currently examining their teacher certification criteria.Others will surely follow the example of those who havealready drastically altered their certification procedures.

Comm( nly, graduation requirements in college and uni-versity teacher education programs go beyond state certifi-cation requirements. This may change, as more states striveto make certified synonymous with qualified.

Universities commonly respond to changes in state certi-fication requirements by making the state's requirements aframework for their preservice programs. We recommenda more active strategy. First, design an optimum programbased on the SESE Criteria for Excellence in PreserviceElementary Teacher Education in Science, using researchon effective science teaching in elementary schools andwhat teachers say they wish they had learned as under-graduates. Then modify the optimum program by addingor altering as necessary to meet the state certification re-quirements.

Hopefully, interfaces between educators 3nd state educa-tion agencies will insure that forthcoming elementaryteacher certification requirements reflect the SESE criteria.If this is not the case, it will be up to science educators toadvocate that their states change the requirements, ratherthan adjusting university prograny to meet undesirablerequirements:

University programs are influenced not only by statecertification requirements, but also by the needs and wishesof cooperating school districts, faculty perspectives and or-ganizational needs within the university, and the perceivedneeds of prospective teachers in the target audience. MI ofthese need to be considered in designing a program.

Creative Course Design Promotes ExcellenceThe exemplars deliver science content either through

courses specifically designed for, and limited to, prospectiveelementary teachers (University of Southern Mississippi,Ball .State University, University of Georgia) or throughstandard university courses with sections reserved specifi-cally for preservice elementar teachers (Utah State Uni-versity). Three variations on the latter might be

Prospective teachers sit in E-ge group lectures with otherstudents and separate into small groups for discussionand lab workThe course is the same, but prospective teachers aretaught in small classes, while other studenh. learn inlarge lecture hallsThe course labels are the same for all students, but thecontent of preservice teacher sections is tailored toteachers' needsA composite of the characteristics of the science courses

in the exemplars includesExperience with materiak L.uitable for use in elementaryschools (University of Georgia)Focus on process skills (Eastern Michigan University)The teaching of science methods mixed with the teaching

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of science content (Eastern Michigan University)Instructors modeling good teaching (all of the programsselected)Team teaching by science educators (University of Geor-gia, University of Southern Mississippi) or science educa-tors and scientists teaching together (Utah State Uni-versity).In addition to being a most effective instructional strategy,

integrating the teaching of science methods with the teach-ing of science content, as :3 done at Eactern Michigan, eco-nomiz<!s program time, making room to study additionaltopics.

Two of the program strengths exhibited by all the exem-plars were their training in the processes of science (observ-ing, classifying, measuring, interpreting, predictinoa, andexperimenting) and their incorporation of the biological,physical, and Earth sciences. However, the Earth sciencesappear to need more attention before we will have attaineda balance among all the disciplines, even in these exemplaryprograms.

Excellent Programs Integrate Science, Technology, and SocietyOverall, there is still a need to develop procedures which

provide prospective teachers with a significant understand-ing of the societal implications of science and technology(S/T/5). All the programs reported that they attend toSITIS, but there was little to provide guidance to the readeron ways to do it.

Developing two related interfaces would contribute tosignificant S/TIS education. They are the interfaces amongscience educators, natural scientists, technologists, and socialscientists, and those between the science educator and thecommunity. These links will allow inservice teachers to usethe contacts they made during their undergraduate yearsto obtain S/T/S resources, including human expertise,equipment, printed materials, media, and access to physicalsites away from school; Since teachers cannot becomeexperts in all the disciplines, and schools usually have limitedbudgets for science equipment, programs need to use thecommunity as a resource for teaching science in the class-room and outside the school.

Community volunteers can supervise children, guide chil-dren through learning center activities, and help teachersdevelop expertise on a topic (Austin Peay). Field sites, suchas an electric power plant (University of Southern Missis-sippi), or a dairy farm and a weather station (Ball State)highlight the relevance of teaching basic science andtechnology.

Excellent Programs Stress SafetyProvisions to teach an understanding of how to ensure

safety when teaching science were conspicuous by theirabsence from these programs. Ball State and Utah Statewere the only schools whose reports even mentioned theneed for classroom safety training.

Excellent Programs Build PoSitive AttitudesSuccess experiences built into undergraduate programs

appear to be the key to mitigating science anxiety andassuring that preservice science teachers will have positiveattitudes toward teaching science. The potential for successexperiences can be increased by developing a degree of

47

individualization in courses and programs, matching re-quirements to students' backgrounds and needs (Utah StateUniversity).

Prospective teachers can experience success when theyare given a relatively safe environment in which to takerisks, be creative, and try their own ideas in designing ascience investigation (Ball State University). Opportunitiesfor expenential learning increase potential for success, andhelp teachers understand the importance of hands-onteaching in elementary science. They overcome anxietywhen they use simple laboratory materials that are in theaverage school already, or can be purchased inexpensivelyor collected from home (Eastern Michigan University).

Another way to create successful experiences for preser-vice teachers is to teach science in a context that makes it§concepts relevant to_the learner. Emphasizing relationshipsamong the sciences, S/T/S, and human values makes sciencerelevant. When science is meaningful it is perceived aS eas-ier to understand. Prospective teachers learn more. Perceiv-ing themselves as successful learners of science builds theirself-confidence, which contributes to a positive attitudetoward teaching science.

Providing early field-based experiences with scienceteaching is still another way to build positive attitudes(University of Toledo). The experience of these eZemplarssuggests the value of teaching prospective teacher§ to teac!in incremental stepsbeginning with cognitive informa-tion about an instructional technique, sampling its use byteaching one's peers in the safety of the college classroom,and then using the technique to instruct children in schoolS.

Excellent Programs Provide Early and Continuous Experience withChildren

The interface between an institution of higher ec ucation(IHE) and the local school districts facilitates

Improvement in the §chool di§tricts' elementary scienceprogramsOpportunities throughout the college program to t.:achScience to children in schools

Student teaching which includes experience in ooth plan-ning and teaching science to elementary school studentsThe University of Toledo and Austin Peay State Univer=

sity both deliberately design their teacher education pro-grams to serve as change strategies for iinprovement intheir cooperating schools. Austin Peay's particular contri-bution is the school-site science center, a model for a formalstructure to enhance relationships between a universityand a school district. It provides opportunities for a varietyof interactions among the IHE _professor, preserviceteachers, inservice teachers, children in school; and com-munity volunteers. Prospective teachers learn to performeven in settings that are not equipped with ideal apparatus,as they and their peers generate materials for the centerThis model also addresses the preservice teacher's need fora transition to full time teaching by creating a continuumfrom preservice to inservice_education.

Utah State University has structured a permanent plan-ning committee to guide its portal school, composed of uni-versity faculty members, teachers, principals, and represen-tatives of the university laboratory school.

In traditional programs, preservice teachers have theirfirst contact with students in their third undergraduate

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year. Many univerSitieS alSo have a significant number ofstudents who began their college careers in two-year insti-tutions, with no opportunity for student teaching expe-rience. An out§tanding feature of _the exemplary programsat the University of Toledo, Utah State University, and BallState is that pro:pective teachers begin interacting withchildren in schools during their first year of college.

Excellent Programs Convert Research into PracticeFeatures unique to the University of Georgia are the

Significant number of highly productive science educationresearcherS and their capacity for translating 1- h intopractice to improve science teacher education.

Excellent Programs Have Excellent FacultiesSince teachers teach a§ they Were taught, it is essential

that the people who teach science to preservice teachersmodel desirable behaviors. Then, the analysis of thein§tructor'§ teaching can be an integral part of scienceinformation.

Faculty at each of the exemplary institutions have F-Jxpe-Hence in teaching precollege science and interest in provid-ing high quality in§truction. While some faculty have accessto well-equipped resource centers on carnpus (University ofGeorgia, Eastern Michigan University) and others use facili-ties in local school districts (Austin Peay State University),they all model e: --tplary teaching Ind professional be-haviors.

Looking To The Future; .

As science educators, we need to continue to developprograms which reflect the SESE criteria for teaching sciencein the elementary grades, and ensure that prospectiveteacher§

Gain the necessary pedagogical, scientific, and technologi-cal skills and knowledgeFunction effectively in settings ranging from those withfine current materials, equipment, and laboratory aidesto those that lack proper supportCan adjust creatively to the changes in sciencL teachingthat will be required of them throughout their careers inthe classroomAre, themselves, adults who function as reasoning,decision-making citizens in this scientific and technologi-cal So-cietyOne caution is in order. In our zeal to move forward in

response to the demands of rapid change, we must be judi-cious and not "throw the baby out with the bath water."That which ekperience has Shown to be of value should beretained. We will, for example, continue to teach processskills, while seeking bold new approaches.

AS these exemplar§ and those Who follow their exampleattain the desired state for preservice elementary teachereducation in science; we will be meeting the need to improvethe quality and quantity of science children learn in theelementary sthoolS Of our nation. Prospective teachers willbe willing and able to meet the challenge of preparing theirstudents for the dramatically different world those stu-dents will inhabit as adults in the twenty-first century.

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