Swimming

Buoyancy

What is buoyancy?

Buoyancy refers to the tendency of objects immersed in water to float or sink. Objects that are positively buoyant float on top of water; objects that are negatively buoyant sink; and objects that are neutrally buoyant neither float nor sink, but stay where you place them. Archimedes observed that an object immersed in water sinks or floats depending on the weight of water it displaces. If the weight of water displaced is less than the object's weight, it sinks; if the displaced water weighs more, the object floats; and if the displaced water is the same the object is neutrally buoyant.

As you float, your weight presses down into the water; the water presses back, pushing you up. When you get into the pool, your body displaces a volume of water (the "hole" in the water that your body fits into). As long as the water your body displaces weighs more than you do, you float. This is basically Archimedes' Law.

You weigh less than the water you're in, because your lungs are full of air, like a balloon, and like a balloon, the air in your lungs lifts you to the surface naturally.

Why don't we float alike?

Everyone floats in the water at their own natural level.

Different factors contribute to how high — or low — in the water you float.

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First, your body type has a lot to do with your buoyancy. Fat floats, while your bones and muscles, denser than fat, are not as willing to float. Also, the relative size of your lungs to the rest of your body determines how high in the water your body will float.

Second, the density of the water is a factor. Saltier water weighs more per unit of volume, so you will float higher in saltier water (the Red Sea, for instance) than you would in fresh water.

Finally, there is a curious phenomenon of apparently greater buoyancy — for some people — in deep water. Buoyancy and feeling buoyancy are two different things. You can be buoyant but not feel buoyant. Your buoyancy does not change between the shallow and the deep. Your feeling of buoyancy may change.

“Feeling buoyancy in water is all about 'presence' in one's body. Presence — feeling while swimming — is most available when a swimmer is not distracted by the pool bottom, or anything else.

“The pool bottom is closer in the shallow end and farther away at the deep end. Because it's so close in the shallow end and you know you can use it any time, it may also be a distraction: some of your awareness, that is, some of your attention or presence is on the bottom.

“When this distraction is not there in the deep end due to the fact that we can't use the bottom there, people often feel more buoyant in the deep: their awareness is all at the surface rather than part of their awareness being at the bottom, as in the shallow.”

A factor you CAN control is how relaxed you are. Tense muscles often keep your body a bit lower in the water, since many people breathe more shallowly and rapidly when tense (hence less air in the lungs for floating). You'd be harder to pick up if you imagined yourself to be as heavy as a piano, easier to pick up if you pretended to be a balloon.

Again, we each have our natural level of buoyancy. But no matter how low in the water you float or glide or swim, it has nothing to do with ultimately learning to swim. You'll adjust your stroke, roll your face out a bit more to get your air, and swim.

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Test your buoyancy

You'll need a pool, treading water skills for the deep end, a buddy and as always, a lifeguard.

Your buddy can sit on the pool ledge next to you, at the deep end. The lifeguard will also be close by.

Have your goggles on.

Climb down the pool ladder's steps, facing the wall. As your face submerges you'll constantly bubble a thin stream of bubbles out through your nose to keep the water out. Keep your hands on the ladder's rail.

Notice how you get pushed up as you go down? The deep you try to climb the harder it is to do. That's buoyancy at work.

Optional: If you chose to, you could let go the ladder and pop up to the surface.

WHAT IS BUOYANCY CONTROL?

Innate buoyancy differs among individuals, and depends on the amount and distribution of body fat, bone and muscle; as a result, some people naturally float and some sink. Fat tissue has a lower density than bone or muscle, so people with a lot of fat are more likely to float (i.e., displace an amount of water weighing more than their body), whereas lean, muscular folks are more likely to sink (i.e., displace an amount of water weighing less than their body).The amount of air in the

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lungs affects buoyancy. If you establish neutral buoyancy during quiet breathing, a full inhalation will make you rise (become positively buoyant), whereas a full exhalation will make you sink (negatively buoyant).

If water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen, why can't we breathe underwater?

One thing about chemicals is that, once they react in certain ways, they form compounds that are nothing like the original elements. For example, if you react carbon, hydrogen and oxygen together one way you get glucose (C6H12O6).

In the case of hydrogen and oxygen gas, if you react them together one way you get liquid water (H2O). The reason we cannot breathe liquid water is because the oxygen used to make the water is bound to two hydrogen atoms, and we cannot breathe the resulting liquid. The oxygen is useless to our lungs in this form. The oxygen that fish breathe is not the oxygen in H2O. Instead, the fish are breathing O2 (oxygen gas) that is dissolved in the water. Many different gases dissolve in liquids, and we see an example all the time in carbonated beverages. In these beverages, there is so much carbon dioxide gas dissolved in water that it rushes out in the form of bubbles.

Fish "breathe" the dissolved oxygen out of the water using their gills. It turns out that extracting the oxygen is not very easy -- according to Encyclopedia Britannica air has something like 20 times more oxygen in it than the same volume of water. Plus water is a lot heavier and thicker than air, so it takes a lot more work to move it around. The main reason why gills work for fish is the fact that fish are cold-blooded, which reduces their oxygen demands. Warm-blooded animals like whales breathe air like people do because it would be hard to extract enough oxygen using gills.

Humans cannot breathe underwater because our lungs do not have enough surface area to absorb enough oxygen from water, and the lining in our lungs is adapted to handle air rather than water.

The air we breathe is a mixture of mostly nitrogen (78 percent) and some oxygen (21 percent). When you inhale air, your body consumes the oxygen, replaces some of it with carbon dioxide and does nothing with the nitrogen. At normal atmospheric pressure, some nitrogen and oxygen is dissolved in the fluid portions of your blood and tissues. As you descend under the water, the pressure on your body increases, so more nitrogen and oxygen dissolve in your blood. Most of the oxygen gets consumed by your tissues, but the nitrogen remains dissolved. The air that is exhaled is about 15-percent oxygen, so about 5-percent of the volume of air is consumed in each breath and converted to carbon dioxide.Thus, the purpose of breathing is to keep the oxygen concentration high and the carbon dioxide concentration low!

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Why Do Humans Float?

Birds and animals like ducks, geese, otters, and beavers swim and float naturally in the water. People have to learn to swim, but we can float in the water. To “float” means to stay up at the top of the water without sinking to the bottom. The water holds up or buoys our bodies. People are buoyant because they have air in their lungs. We also have a layer of fat on our bodies. Because the air in our lungs and the fat on our bodies are lighter than the same amount of water, we float. When you are in the water and get tired of swimming, you can float. When you take a swimming course, you are taught survival floating. People can float on their backs, but our natural floating position is almost vertical, with the face down. To breathe, you have to lift your face out of the water. Objects that are heavier than water will sink to the bottom. Things like Styrofoam coolers and kickboards, inner tubes, and life jackets float because they have a lot of air in them. Air is lighter than water so things filled with air float on the water. Things that float can be used to help save people who are drowning.

Beginning swimmers need to know that ones resting heart rate decreases 10 beats per minute in water, and maximum heart rate decreases by 10 to 30 beats. The heart puts out just as much blood as in other exercises because it pumps more volume with each stroke, but more slowly. No one is certain why heart rate decreases in water, but the lower temperature and lesser pull of gravity in water may be the cause. In any case, if you know what your exercise heart rate should be, that number should be lower by at least 10 beats when you swim. Swimming is a good sport to take up if you would like to increase your muscle and strength endurance. It is also good for increasing your stamina and improving your cardiovascular system by improving the bodies' use of oxygen and allowing the heart to work less strenuously.

Drowning

Drowning is the fourth leading cause of accidental death among the general population. The majority of drownings occur in fresh water: swimming pools, bath tubs, lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, etc.

Drowning is defined as death from suffocation due to submersion. Drowning is caused by an inhalation of water. Even though a victim may hold his breath, carbon dioxide build- up in the brain will eventually force an inhalation of water. Inhaled water is drawn from the lungs into the bloodstream causing the heart to arrest due to the excessive amount of water in the blood. Thus a drowning victim actually dies of a heart attack.

There are several stages which occur in a drowning:

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1. Initially, the victim is surprised. He will attempt to keep his head above water, inhale deeply, and make downward movements with his arms.

2. The victim will eventually panic and may become hysterical. He will hyperventilate and struggle violently resulting in negative buoyancy.

3. Submergence occurs accompanied by reflex breath holding. As available oxygen is consumed from the air remaining in the lungs the urge to breathe becomes stronger.

4. After 2-3 minutes a combination of brain depression due to anoxia (severe oxygen deficiency) and the overwhelming urge to breathe caused by carbon dioxide build-up results in the victim breathing underwater. Although unconscious, in order to prevent the entrance of water into the lungs, the victim will reflexively swallow water which triggers retching and vomiting. As a result, most drowning victims will have a stomach full of water.

5. As available oxygen is consumed, the urge to breathe becomes even stronger. Unless a spasm of the larynx shuts off the flow of water into the lungs resulting in a "dry drowning", the victim will unconsciously take a strong deep breath resulting a filling of the lungs with water and more negative buoyancy.

6. Due to a lack of oxygen, brain function becomes more depressed and deprivation of oxygen to the heart results in cardiac arrest.

A victim who has ingested alcohol prior to drowning will physiologically respond differently to the drowning as compared with the "sober" victim due to a depressed state of bodily functions brought on by the alcohol. This depression of vital body functions results in a poor chance of successful resuscitation.

Learn to swim and arrange for your family to learn to swim! Children should never be unsupervised while in or near water. Supervised swimming facilities with lifeguards should be preferred over swimming locations without supervision.

Swimming alone should be avoided. Swim accompanied by a responsible adult. Never enter deep water if you cannot swim. Never rely on swimming aids, since they may fail. Never swim while drunk or after a big meal. Wear a lifejacket while enjoying water sports

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Never dive into shallow or cloudy water. Always check depth and safety before diving. If you dive head first, stretch your arms to the front to reduce injuries to the head if there is a collision.

When boating, ensure your boat is operational and emergency equipment is onboard.

Starting off

As a beginning swimmer, the water can seem like a difficult substance to work with. However, with more time spent in the pool and a few easy, key techniques, you'll be zipping through it in no time.

A common tough spot for many people when first learning to swim is a feeling of discomfort with being immersed. This is possibly the biggest obstacle in swimming, as your natural feeling of being upright and dry is completely opposed. Still, you can work through this with relative ease just by getting under the water. One trick to try: While standing by the wall (in the shallow end of your lane), put your feet on the wall behind you, toes pointing downward. Starting in a crouched position with your torso parallel to the floor and underwater, use your legs to push off and propel yourself through the water straight down your lane. Coast as far as you can, arms squeezing your ears and hands joining straight above your head, body in a straight line (you can practice this posture on dry land first, to help you get the hang of it). You'll look like a human torpedo (and maybe feel like one, too!) This will help you acclimate to the sensation of water rushing over your skin after practicing this exercise a few times.

This next exercise is helpful not only for getting your head in the water, but for kicking, as well. Kicking is an essential component of swimming, as your legs are your propellers and the strongest part of your body involved in moving you through the water. While holding on to the wall (most pools have a "lip" at the edge that provides a nice handhold just even with the water), let the water's buoyancy lift your feet. This is initially an odd sensation, but remember that you have a grip on the wall and you're securely in place. As you test your buoyancy, begin kicking, and hold on to the wall while kicking behind yourself, parallel to the pool's floor. Try and really boil the water with your feet, and feel your own control. It's a good idea not to let your feet rise too far above the surface of the water, as any "airtime" is energy that could have been expended under the water, where the real action takes place. As you grow more comfortable with kicking, try placing your face in the water as you kick, and when you need to breathe, lift your head to the side (whichever side is easiest for you) just enough to take a breath and then re-immerse your face, exhaling underwater. Keep practicing - it gets easier! You can try this same exercise with a kickboard, which will buoy your arms as they hold it in front of you. How much of your upper body you want to have buoyant is up to you - for breathing exercises, hold it out just with your hands, keeping

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your arms relatively straight. For simple kicking, you can bring the kickboard in a bit, holding the sides or top and keeping your head out of the water.

Breathe as often as you need to, at first. As mentioned earlier, turn your head to the side just enough so that your mouth is out of the water. Take a breath, and immerse your face again. The breath will be taken while your arm is out of the water (on the side you've chosen for breathing), returning to the entry point of the stroke, and by the time you begin the next stroke, your face should be back in the water. After practicing for a while, your sense of needing to breathe every stroke cycle (pair of strokes) or every other will subside and you can begin extending your breathing pattern, exhaling for longer periods of time under water so that you can take a few strokes, and then breathe. Take your time. It will grow easier and easier with practice.

One thing to remember is that normal breathing promotes a calm state in most of us. "Full" breathing is used to help one relax in yoga etc. It helps if you get excited to mentally remember to breathe slower and deeper. Also make sure you exhale normally. Excitement, as well as improper buoyancy control can lead to one holding more air in their lungs. This does not allow for the needed air to cycle which can build up CO2 and actually cause you to use more air.

Inhale slowly for 6 seconds.Pause for 3 seconds.Exhale for 6 seconds

1. You don't get fit by swimming more and harder. That mainly makes your "struggling skills" more permanent - which makes it harder and less enjoyable to get fit. You get fit by swimming easier and doing whatever it takes to feel more comfortable and controlled in the water. That makes swimming something like martial arts with an aerobic dividend.

2. You'll feel better and swim better if you learn three skills: Balance, "Pierce" the Water, and Smooth Strokes. 3. As you practice these skills in a mindful, conscious way, you ALSO improve your fitness (because your heart and

lungs keep working the whole time you're practicing skilled movement) AND you steadily become a more efficient swimmer. Best of all, this motivates you to continue your fitness program, because it's more enjoyable than a boring lap regimen.

Breathing must fit seamlessly into your whole-stroke rhythm. Be sure to inhale/exhale in a continuous rhythm; don’t hold your breath while your face is in the water. Get your air by rolling right to where the air is; roll farther if it doesn’t come with perfect ease. And try to fit the breath in without interrupting your stroke rhythm; make it as seamless as possible.

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Fatigue and breathlessness are often a symptom of trying to hold too low a stroke count – before your balance and skill are truly ready to hold that count effortlessly. Try allowing yourself one more stroke per length – at your average speed – and see how that makes you feel. Then try allowing yourself two more strokes per length. See if you feel even more relaxed and rhythmic. The goal is not to MINIMIZE your stroke count, but to OPTIMIZE it. Experimentation will help you find the optimal count. As you increase your stroke count, just keep one principle in mind. Don’t let it become rough or rushed.

Water entry into the nose during breathing in freestyle is problematic, and easily solved. Some have very sensitive nasal tissue and sinuses so that limiting water ingress is advisable. 'Nose bubbles' are the answer. Learn to discharge a small quantity of air out the nose independent of what your mouth is doing. That way, especially when the head rotates laterally for air intake, and the nostrils are thus more or less parallel to the surface allowing water to flow in, an appropriate exhale of air from the nostrils prevents water entry for the most part. Repeat this exhalation through the nostrils after breath inhalation and when the nostrils are again more or less parallel to the surface. Independent nostril breath control quickly ensues and the problem is solved.

Breathing and Relaxing in the Water ( An article from the net)

Recently, I was asked to give some swim technique pointers regarding breathing and being relaxed in the water -- I got on a roll and wrote this extended answer, so I'm just posting it. From years of watching people swim at all levels, it seems like this is a fairly common problem among novice swimmers. I see them start their races with quite a few great strokes. Then they have to breathe. Their whole body stiffens causing their hips sink. The body area opened up to drag during the breath brings them to nearly a complete stop. Often by the time they get their body back into proper position, they need to breathe again. As the swimmer becomes more and more tired, breaths become more frequent and they cease returning to proper position even between breaths. While this is a slight exaggeration for most back of the pack swimmers, it helps illustrates what improper breathing technique can do to your swimming.

Most breathing and body position problems are caused by improper head position. During non-breathing strokes, it is easy. The head looks about halfway between down and forward (erring on the down side) depending on your body’s center of mass. It is simply a matter of finding that point where your hips just float up and committing it to muscle memory: if you look up a little more your hips sink, if you look down any more you are burying your head causing unnecessary drag. But that is not the issue at hand.

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It is necessary to find a system of breathing that does not change your body position and therefore interfere with the flow of your stroke. To maintain a constant body position, one must keep the head as still as possible. Therefore, on breathing strokes, it helps to tip your head sideways and back so your chin points toward your shoulder. This brings your mouth upward toward the depression of the water’s surface caused by your body’s rotation, which many swim coaches refer to as the ‘hole’. It also lowers the top of your head so that there is a minimal net change of head position.

A more common, even among better swimmers, but slightly less serious problem is hanging out on your side with your mouth up in the air for too long throwing off your rhythm that way. This mistake also forces the opposite hand to cross over to maintain balance causing the hips to slip to the side. To maintain the most effective form, you head should start turning when your hand leaves the water and your face should be back in the water by the time your hand passes your ear. That is a much shorter time that most of us are used to. Therefore it is necessary to blow out all of your air underwater, as you will only have time to breathe in.

How often should you breathe? To perform aerobically for endurance events, you need to breathe one out of three strokes (a coach once gave me some scientific data supporting that based on ideal turnover rates and typical aerobic oxygen consumption, but I have since lost it and only remember the advice). That means you should have a pattern of one two breath, one two breath, etc. or one two three breath, one breath, one two three breath, one breath, etc. I use the alternate breathing pattern for training, as is helps keep my stroke even and balanced and more importantly helps prevent shoulder injuries. However, I do favor a particular side, so I mostly use the second pattern for racing. Some people that should take fewer strokes per breath are raw beginners who find themselves going anaerobic every three and people with particularly slow turnover rates.

__________________"When the going gets tough, get going!"

Another misconception beginners have is thinking that by swimming with your head out of the water it will be easier to swim. In fact this could be further from the truth. When you raise your head your body will follow, meaning your legs sink. Unless you have magical powers, swimming with your head up is like swimming uphill.

The rotation comes from your shoulders or upper body, as your arms enter the water you want to extend foward causing the rotation as well as finishing your stroke by having your other arm extend towards your thigh. I would never teach any

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of my swimmers to turn your body side to side, swinging back and fourth because then they tend to over-emphasize it. Concentrate on your pull, full extension both forward and back. Carefull not to cross your stroke as you extend your stroke, meaning your hand entry should be in front of your shoulders, not in front of your head.

Balance is everything.Balance is about keeping the head still.Lift the head, the hips drop.

Breathing every three strokes gives you the right amount of oxygen to sustain aerobic pace.Breathing every four strokes would put you into oxygen debt.Breathing every two strokes (always breathing on the same side) is inefficient because you will likely have unused oxygen from the last breath and.you must use other muscles to balance your asymmetrical progress.

It takes energy to breathe, plus, every breath you take slows you down because it breaks your streamlined position. So you should try to minimize the number of breaths you take.Let's suppose you take 18 strokes per 25m. For 1500m that's 1080 strokes. If you breath every two strokes that's 540 breaths. Fewer nods of the head = more efficient stroke.

Better Kicking

by Coach Emmett Hines

This item revised from a response to a 1999 Swim Magazine coaches poll asking how to improve kicking speed.

First, get rid of the kickboard! Moving faster through the water is primarily an exercise in decreasing resistance. Get on your side with the bottom arm extended toward the far end of the pool and the top arm lying on your side. Your nose should be pointed straight up and less than one quarter of your head — just your face — should be exposed to the air. “Lean” on your armpit, pressing your upper body toward the bottom of the pool. Your lungs are the only part of your body that really floats well and the harder you press them down the harder the water will press back up on you. Press hard enough to raise your hips to the surface, exposing a dry strip of flesh along that top arm. The result is a position where

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your arm, head, shoulders, hips and legs are all in a horizontal line at the surface — called a “balanced,” side-lying position. This is the most streamlined, least resistive surface penetrating position you can be in. Once you get a good feel for balance on your side you’ll be a faster kicker who spends less energy!

Second, the best kickers have great plantar flexion (as in “pointing your toes”). While the ankle is the hardest joint to stretch, a consistent and persistent ankle stretching routine can really pay off! Great ankle flexibility puts your foot in a better position to deliver propulsive forces to the water and allows you to kick from your hips rather than just from your knees.

As with nearly all sports that derive their primary power from rotation of the core body, the body roll in swimming starts in the legs. At the fundamental skill development level we use some vertical kicking (VK) activities to provide a visceral knowledge base about body rotation that can later be applied to horizontal swimming.

Future on the horizon

Your swimming machine’s engine is your leg and core lower torso muscles. Used properly, they initiate the rotations of your crankshaft (your spine and the muscles attached to it) along the length of your torso. That’s it. It is this core body rotation that must be somehow directed and transmogrified such that it ultimately becomes linear motion.

The Transmition

In your driving machine the transmission is responsible for transmitting the rotational motion of the crankshaft to the tires.

In your swimming machine, the shoulders and arms act as the transmission. By using the muscles of the shoulders and upper arms predominantly to support and stabilize the forearm and hand and direct core rotation forces through them - rather than trying to “pull” lots of water or trying to “pull” the hand backwards through the water - the swimming machine smoothly transmits your core body rotation into forward progress.

The Tires

Your driving machine’s tires are where the output of its engine is finally applied to produce linear motion. Where the rubber meets the road we look for a high degree of traction - to “hold onto” a spot on the road - so that as much of the applied force as possible becomes propulsion.

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Your hands and forearms are your swimming machine’s “rubber” and the water is the “road”. By avoiding the Dreaded Dropped Elbow and using your entire forearm and hand to “hold onto” a spot in the water you can deliver the highest percentage of transmitted forces to the water as propulsion.

Synergy

It is nice to understand what the parts do. But, just as it takes more than understanding to make your driving machine go, we need to add something to this mix to turn a bunch of body parts into a cruising vehicle.

Back to your swimming machine. So that we’re all on the same page, I’ll briefly describe the swimming machine drive train: 1) You start your engine by initiating core body rotation from your legs. 2) As your rotation begins you engage your transmission (the arm and shoulder you’re about to “stroke” with) by rotating your upper arm to raise your elbow into the “over the barrel” position. The idea is to get your forearm and hand (not just your hand) as close to vertical as possible, as far out in front of you as possible, as early in the body rotation as possible. Once your transmission is engaged you want to keep it engaged as your engine continues to purr (e.g. your core body rotation continues). To do this, you’ll apply only enough shoulder/arm force to finish the stroke at the same instant that core body rotation finishes. 3) Once you got to that “over the barrel” position your tires are on the road as well - that’s the vertical hand and forearm established a spot to hold onto. To maintain rubber on the road you must maintain that vertical forearm/hand glued to that spot as your body rotates past it. If not, you’ll “slip” water by moving your hand backwards. That’s the same as spinning your wheels.

What separates L. D. Swimmer and D. D. Sprinter?

It is common knowledge that people with predominantly slow twitch muscle fibers are generally distance swimmers and those with predominantly fast twitch muscle fibers are generally sprinters. The most often proffered theory ties this difference primarily to energy consumption patterns of the different fiber types and how that impacts lactate accumulation and clearing. Additionally, much is made of the ability or inability to move the arms fast enough to sprint.

By Coach Emmett Hines

What's the hardest thing you can do in a workout? Learn a new skill. What saves you the most time and effort over the long haul? Learning new skills. Why do so many people fight the learning process? Why do some people seem to assume that just working their body harder or just swimming more laps is the answer to swimming faster? From a coach's viewpoint it boils down to one of two things — ignorance and/or apathy on the part of the swimmer. If the coach fails to get

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the message across that stroke improvements are necessary and desirable then ignorance on the swimmer's part is the fault of the coach. However, once the message has been properly placed and reinforced it is up to the swimmer to make consistent efforts to learn and apply new skills. Assuming the workout environment offers opportunities to acquire and fine tune skills the swimmer then assumes responsibility for taking advantage of the environment.

Let me make sure I've done my part in letting you know that stroke improvement is necessary and desirable. In general, swimming skill is reflected by your efficiency as measured in strokes per length.

If you take more than 20 freestyle strokes per length of a 25 yard pool you are woefully in need of wholesale stroke repair.

If you take more than 15 strokes when swimming at a moderate pace you still have some ground to make up in efficiency.

If you take fewer than 15 strokes you need to get with your coach to determine how many more strokes you need to trim from your stroke count, if any.

“But Coach, I wanna keep up with the big boys!”

While it's true that you can improve short term speed a bit by just increasing turnover rate — swimming harder — in the long run your potential speed depends more on your efficiency than on your effort level. In general the fastest, most aesthetically pleasing swimmers take the fewest strokes per length and the slowest, ugliest swimmers take the most.

Efficient, long swimming strokes use more and larger muscle masses in the back, torso, hips and upper legs to do a large portion of the work. Short, inefficient strokes utilize mainly smaller arm and shoulder muscles to do the work. When you swim with long strokes you are training all of the muscle mass needed for fast efficient swimming.

When you swim with those wimpy, short, choppy strokes you are over training small muscle masses and neglecting the larger, stronger muscles to the detriment of your long term potential speed.

Putting your crew in the water

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Swimming is a complicated set of actions that relies on the coordinated effort of a lot of muscles. It also requires a certain level of physical conditioning. There is a lot of trial and error.

If you are trying to perfect a long, efficient stroke remember that this technique uses more muscles and muscle fibers to get the job done than a shorter stroke does. If you stop worrying about how fast you are going and worry more about how well you are swimming you will be able to get the whole crew skilled, coordinated, conditioned and on the job. This is the only way to maximize your potential for swimming speed down the road.

In Search of the Dreaded Dropped Elbow

by Coach Emmett Hines

Revised from an article which first appeared in the GMSC Newsletter in 1990.

If you have read much printed material about swimming technique, you probably have been inundated with endless information about what the hands and arms do during the propulsive stroke portion of the arm cycle. Most books about freestyle technique spend chapters breaking the underwater motion into several parts, talking about angles and vectors and S-shaped motions and on and on. Then they spend a paragraph or two on body position and maybe nothing on what your hips are doing all the while. And, in general, it is hard or impossible to put what they tell you into practice.

The fact of the matter is that how you take a stroke is not nearly as important as the positions you are in and what you do while you are not stroking. Read that last sentence again because it summarizes my whole take on technique.

However, some people just won’t be happy if I don’t address the topic of what the hand and arm does during the underwater part of the stroke. Here it is: Get the stroking forearm vertical as far out in front of you as possible and keep it vertical for as long as possible as the arm moves down the length of the body. This is referred to as swimming with a “high elbow.”

Stalking the critter

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One of the most common problems swimmers have is The Dreaded Dropped Elbow. This insidious beast rears its ugly head during virtually every workout in every pool in every country in the world. The coaching fraternity, in an attempt to exorcise this demon, can be heard chanting the following litany in unison (sometimes with four-part harmony): “Frmum pskuhium hstrmvkus HIGH ELBOW mskbulum jqzlfgmn.” Every now and again, if the coach gets every word pronounced properly, at the correct cadence and while holding his tongue just so.... the exorcism “takes” and the bane retreats.

Lets see if we can shed some sunlight upon this vampire that sucks the lifeblood from the strokes of so many innocent swimmers.

Let me describe the beast. Stand up and bend over at the waist. Extend your right hand out in front of your face as if reaching to full extension on a freestyle stroke (Fig. A).

Now bend the elbow slightly while lifting and rotating the upper arm at the shoulder. Imagine a straight line drawn through space from the shoulder to the wrist. For lack of a better term let's call this the “horizon” line (dotted line in Fig. B).

Note that the elbow is above the horizon line. Gaze upon the arm and note the relationship of elbow to horizon and also note what muscles you are using to get into and stay in this position (i.e. what does it look like & feel like). Now, still keeping the hand in the same position, lower the elbow below the horizon. Doesn't this feel wimpy and pathetic compared to the previous position? Again, gaze upon the arm and note the relationship of elbow to horizon line.

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EEEEEEK! - That’s the Dreaded Dropped Elbow! Quick! Kill it before it multiplies! Pick that elbow back up nice and high and see how the loathsome critter disappears into the nearest hole. Good work! That was a close call.

Killing the critter

OK. Now that we have seen the pesky varmint and have him cornered, lets think this through.

With your elbow held higher than the horizon, slowly move the arm through a simulated freestyle stroke. Concentrate on achieving the position shown below as you begin the stroke, keeping the elbow higher than the horizon (in the water this may feel somewhat like rolling your hand and arm over a barrel). As you move the arm through the stroke concentrate on keeping the elbow above the horizon as long as possible (Fig. D-1-3), then on keeping the forearm and hand as vertical as possible throughout the rest of the stroke (Fig. D-4-6).

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Canines and incantations

Once you have mastered this with a “high” elbow try it again with a “low” or “dropped” elbow - just keep it below the horizon and make the same stroking motion. Hmmm - do the words “wimpy” and “pathetic” sound familiar? Can you say “dog paddle”? Seriously. Watch a dog swim. You will note that the greatest advantage we have over our furry friend is the fact that our shoulders allow our arms to move in more than one direction (but dogs get more benefit out of a full taper and

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shave - win a few, lose a few). With a “dropped” elbow, the stroke creates lots of turbulence and very little propulsion. Keeping the elbow “high” allows for accelerating hand speed without “slipping water”, thus allowing continuous acceleration of the body as well.

In conclusion, it should be noted that neither the concept of avoiding the Dreaded Dropped Elbow, nor the propulsion potential of having the forearm and hand in the right orientation to the core body, is limited to freestyle. In fact, this concept is applied in nearly the same fashion to each of the other three competitive strokes…this, perhaps, is fodder for some future article.

Of Air and Gravity

(or Is Your Head Attached?)

by Coach Emmett Hines

Revised from an article which first appeared in Schwimmvergnügen in 1994.

Sinking Hips and Legs

Lets go back to the experiment I asked you to try in Swimming in Circles. Push off the wall with your hands at your sides and see how far you can glide. You will most likely find that your hips and legs begin to sink fairly quickly (we’ll call this “hip drop”). The resulting body position is the product of two forces that are constantly at work on your body while you are swimming— buoyancy and gravity. Your lungs, full or partially full of air, act as a buoy, wanting to lift your upper torso toward the surface. In the arms-at-your-sides position, the center of your body’s mass is somewhat lower—somewhere in the vicinity of your abdomen. Gravity works on your body to pull the center of mass toward the bottom of the pool.

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The further away the center of gravity is from the “center of air” the greater the hip drop effect is. You know, or should know, that when the legs and hips ride low in the water you experience dramatically more resistance than when they stay right behind the shoulders in a fully streamlined position.

Obviously, the amount of air in the lungs, the density of bones, the percentage of body fat etc. all impact this picture with minor variations. But the largest controllable factor affecting your body position is the relative placement of your body parts.

Making the arms work for us

Push off the wall again with the same force but use a fully streamlined hand-over-hand, wrist-over-wrist, head-squeezed-firmly-between-your-arms position and glide as far as possible. You will note that, in addition to gliding farther, your hips/legs do not sink as far or as fast—perhaps not at all!

By moving the arms from their original position at your sides to a position on the other side of your center of air we have effectively moved the body’s center of mass up the torso, closer to or even with the center of air. This results in less hip drop allowing you to maintain a more streamlined position in the water, spending less kicking energy trying to keep hips and legs from dragging on the bottom.

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Where Front Quadrant Swimming comes in

When we swim, our hands are neither always at our sides nor always out front. We have a dynamic situation where our center of gravity is always changing as our arm positions change. We are, however, in complete control of where that center of gravity is at any given time, within a certain range. The sooner we get a recovering arm out in front of the body the less hip drop we experience. The longer we keep the gliding arm in front of the body the less hip drop we have. And, on average, the longer we can keep both arms out in front of the body the less hip drop we will see. At this point it should be obvious that Front Quadrant Swimming is just the ticket to help us maintain a high hip position. What more could you ask for?

Is Your Head Attached?

Let’s take this body position thing a bit further. The placement and timing of your arms dramatically affect the level of your hips as you swim. By the same token, your head position plays a vital role in your overall body position. We want your head oriented on your spine just as if you were standing at attention—imagine a skewer run through the crown of your head, through your thorax and out through your groin (no squirming now!). If you were to “hinge” the head at the neck, tipping it forward, backward or to either side, you would bend the skewer. As long as you do not make motions that would bend the skewer your head is said to be “attached” to your spine.

Experiment again. Push off on your stomach with your hands at your sides and your head “attached” to your spine. Before you go very far, hinge your head, lifting it well up out of the water as if to take a breath and see what happens to your hips. No joy. Now push off in side-glide position with your head attached to your spine and the bottom arm outstretched to full streamline—make sure your ear is on your arm. Once you have glided a short distance, hinge your head, lifting it out of the water to the side as if to get a breath of air—don’t turn it, just lift it. Where do your hips go? Again, no joy.

Regardless of your body orientation, any force you exert to lift your head away from the attached-to-your-spine position is going to show up as hip drop. This is because you are moving your head with muscles that are “anchored” either directly or indirectly to the lower back and hips. To demonstrate this, lay face down on the ground, hands at your sides, and lift your head straight up off of the ground. You will feel your hips press toward the ground. The same thing happens in the water.

Now, still lying on the ground, extend your hands out front, streamline fashion, and lift your head by pressing down on your hands or forearms. You will find that your head and shoulders do rise up but your hips press against the floor again.

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Guess what? The same thing happens when you are in the water and press down with your outstretched arm to try to raise your head a bit for easier breathing. The moral: Keep your head attached to your spine instead of hinged away from it.

A Question of Balance

(or Dire Consequences)

by Coach Emmett Hines

Revised from an article which first appeared in Schwimmvergnügen in 1997.

Watching each of my sons learning to walk, it was quite obvious that their first tentative steps required total focused concentration. Even then, they still fell down a lot. Now, at two and a half and five they both run everywhere and, I’m sure, give no thought to balance as they go about their important business. The issue of balance is now pretty much a no-brainer — they no longer spend much or any conscious brain cycles on the subject.

Dire Consequences

We all learn early in life that staying balanced on our feet allows us to avoid falling down and all that entails — getting bruised or bloody, and looking really foolish — things I refer to as “dire consequences.” The prospect of falling down provided the motivation to keep total focused concentration on that balance thing till it worked flawlessly nearly all the time. Later in life we went through roughly the same concentration/consequences feedback cycle in learning to ride a bike. The skills were a bit harder to acquire but, as luck would have it, the consequences were enough more dire to keep our attention fully focused till balance on the bike was a no-brainer as well.

Not Falling Down

Although we all know what it means to be balanced, bear with me as I get a wee bit more technical. Balance, on land, means that your body mass is properly distributed with respect to your support structure — in this case, your feet pressing on two small spots on the earth and those two spots pushing back on your feet with and equal amount of force (Remember those physics buzzwords “equal and opposite” from back in junior high school?). “Hey Coach,” you intone,

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“thanks for the visual image there, but what’s all this got to do with swimming? I’m freezing my butt off standin’ here on deck while you flap yer gums when I could be crankin’ out some yardage!”

Bear with me O Ye of Short Attention Span. Presently, these things shall be made clear.

But first, allow me to digress in a seemingly unrelated direction.

Buoyancy and Gravity

Let’s say I cut off your legs and toss them in the water. Do they float or do they sink? For the vast majority of people likely to read this, they sink. For triathletes with only two percent body fat, they sink fast. How about if I cut off your arms and toss them in? Your head? Your lower torso? They all sink. In fact, for most swimmers the only part of the body that floats all by itself is the upper torso. Why? Your lungs - two sacs full of air that act as a buoy. If I cut out your upper torso and toss it in the water it’ll float around like a cork.

Lemme digress even further. Visualize a water polo ball resting peacefully on the surface of a calm pool. The water pushes back on the bottom of the ball with exactly as much force as the ball exerts on the water — roughly one pound. Now, if you put your hand on top of the ball and press down with one additional pound of force two things happen:

1) the ball sinks down in the water a bit, and 2) the water increases its pressure pushing back up on the ball to match the sum of the ball’s mass and the extra force you are pressing down with — a total of two pounds. Putting even more pressure on the ball causes it to sink further at the same time the water continues to match all downward (gravity and your hand) forces with upward (buoyant) forces. The harder you press the ball toward the bottom the harder the water pushes the ball back up (that “equal and opposite” thing again).

Patience. I’m about to pull this thing together.

Not Falling Down In The Water

So, if balance on land is a matter of properly distributing your body mass with respect to your support structure then what is balance in swimming?

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Your upper torso—your buoy—is just like that water polo ball. The harder you press it toward the bottom of the pool the harder the water pushes back on it. This upward force acting on your buoy is your support structure. Pressing your buoy toward the bottom, or leaning on it, raises the hips in much the same way that pressing on one end of a floating kickboard raises the other end. By properly positioning your body and consistently pressing your buoy into the water you can support your entire body, including your hips and legs, right at the surface of the water without needing to use your kick to keep your legs up. You can spot a well-balanced freestyle swimmer because the centerlines of the head, shoulders, spine, hips and legs are all aligned parallel to and close to the water surface with little or no kick in evidence.

Swimmers who are not properly attuned to using buoy pressure to maintain balance typically use their kick to keep their hips and legs from sinking. And even with a strong kick the hips usually sit down in the water well below the shoulders and head. This is what I call “swimming uphill.” This creates loads of unnecessary frontal resistance. A 4-6 inch drop at the hips (very common) is enough to double frontal resistance from what a well balanced position encounters.

Conversely, learning how to maintain balance using buoy pressure (and proper in-line head position) can raise those hips effortlessly to the surface and cut frontal resistance by half or more. In comparison to an unbalanced, low-hips position, this will feel like “swimming downhill” in two ways. 1) You’ll feel as if you are tilting a bit down rather that a bit up (in fact you won’t be tilting at all longitudinally, it’ll just feel that way) and 2) Swimming will take less energy. Such a deal!

Don’t Try This At Home

Try this experiment to see the effects of buoy pressure for yourself. Push off from the wall on your stomach with both arms at your sides and begin kicking easily. Keep your head in line — the crown of your head should be in line with your spine, nose pointed toward the bottom of the pool. Lightly press your buoy toward the bottom, allowing your hips to rise to the surface. The more of an “uphill” swimmer you are the more pressure you will need on your buoy to bring your hips to the surface. When you need to take a breath, lift your head straight up in front to get a breath of air. Then put your head back down so that the crown is in line with your spine and press your buoy again. Note that when you lift your head, your hips and legs sink rapidly toward the bottom. And note that as soon as you get your head back in line with your spine and press your buoy, you can easily get re-balanced. The back quarter of your head, your shoulder blades and the cheeks of your butt will all be exposed to the air when you are in balance.

Now do the same thing again but after you are aware of being well balanced, start playing with the amount of buoy pressure. Try putting too much pressure on your buoy, enough to submerge your head and shoulders and poke your butt way out of the water, then go back to a balanced position. Next try letting some pressure off the buoy and feel your hips

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and legs sink. You should feel as though you have complete control of the position of your hips and legs based on what you do with your head and buoy rather than by using your kick for that purpose. Finally, try swimming a length or two using your new-found balancing skills, feeling for your butt and hips to stay right at the water surface.

Ponder the Consequences

Aquatic balance is fundamental to efficient swimming. Without it, all other swimming activities are meaningless. Yet, for most swimmers, a sense of balance is not well developed. On land, there were dire consequences to help you stay focused long enough to turn land-balance into a no-brainer. Are there similar motivators to keep you focused long enough to get your water-balance dialed in? Ponder these consequences of poor water-balance: 1) With poor balance you are likely spending twice as much or more energy than necessary to get from here to there, and 2) Right now, today, enlightened swimmers around you are looking at your unbalanced, low hips position and snickering to themselves about the way you swim and 3) Some of those same swimmers are talking behind your back.

How much more “dire” do you need?

Stay focused on the fundamentals and you will be a better swimmer!

Resistance and Submission

(or Swim Smarter and Faster)

by Coach Emmett Hines

Revised from an article that first appeared in Schwimmvergnügen in 1995.

Speaking strictly from an engineering standpoint, swimming is a very inefficient method of propulsion. Water is a poor medium for the movement of oddly shaped solid objects, to be avoided wherever possible (hence the invention of the bridge). Alas, in reading the swimming rulebook I find no loophole through which the swimmer or triathlete might crawl to avoid this type of motion. So, my aim here is to try to help you increase your efficiency in situations where you find yourself lacking a bridge.

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The vast majority of the energy you expend in swimming is used to overcome resistance of various types. By decreasing the total amount of resistance you work against you can channel more of the limited supply of precious energy toward swimming faster.

We are concerned with reducing resistance in a number of different areas in order to maximize the percentage of total expended energy that goes toward propulsion rather than overcoming resistance forces. There are various techniques we can use to combat (or, more accurately, avoid) these unrelenting forces of nature.

Don’t be a bulldozer

“Form drag” is the resistance that occurs as a result of the shape and orientation of an object that is moving through the water. This is the most commonly understood type of resistance. Just as a ship builder shapes curved and tapered hulls instead of flat, square hulls we want to taper the form and profile of the already naturally curved human body as it travels through the water. This process is referred to as “vessel shaping” or “streamlining.” In general, this means that, at all times, we are attempting to draw all parts of the body that are moving forward through the water into a tight, horizontal, tapered line, attempting to slide through as small a cross section of water as possible. Ideally, only the arm that is currently providing propulsion should break out of streamline (in actuality this isn't really breaking streamline because the stroking arm is no longer moving forward through the water). It helps to imagine you are flowing through a narrow tube without hitting the sides, stretching the arms out in front, keeping the head in line with the spine, keeping hips and legs near the surface, keeping the size of the kick “inside the tube” that the rest of the body is moving through and avoiding up and down and side to side motions of the core body line.

Surf’s up

“Wave Drag” is the kinetic energy that any surface-penetrating moving object gives up to the water by creating waves — most notably, creating a wake. When you move through the water you are continually displacing water. When you displace water it goes up (you already know this - when you set yourself down into a half-full bathtub the water rises). Once it goes up it falls out to the side (you already know this too — think what happens if that bathtub was filled two inches from the top before you set yourself down into it). A wake is nothing more than water that has been lifted and then pushed away from the vessel moving through the water.

Of course, lifting water uses energy. The amount of water you lift, the higher you lift it and the further it has to travel to get out of your way all contribute to the total energy you spend to create that wake. You don’t have much control over how

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much water you displace — that’s determined by the mass of your body. You do have control over how high you lift that water as you displace it — that’s determined by your speed: the faster you move, the higher that water will be lifted. Finally, and this is the important one, you have great control over how far that water must move to get out of your way.

Make way! Comin’ through!

If you are moving forward at a given speed on your side, a drop of water (and all of its neighbors) directly in the middle of your intended path must travel a certain distance in a certain period of time to get out of your way as you pass. As such, that drop must be accelerated to a certain speed, which requires a certain amount of kinetic energy (which you supply). However, when you are on your stomach, that same drop must travel twice the distance to get out of your way (because people are, on average, twice as wide as they are thick). But there is no difference in the amount of time required for that drop (et al) to move over, regardless of the distance it has to travel. Twice the distance in the same amount of time means accelerating that drop (and you know who) to twice the speed. This means you transfer twice as much kinetic energy to the water — energy the water won’t give back, not to you, at least. So, at any given swimming speed, a stomach-lying position requires roughly twice the energy to displace water as a side-lying position does. So, in freestyle and backstroke we look for positions that maximize the amount of time spent on the side rather than flat on the back or stomach. This is one of the many reasons that your coach always wants you to roll more in these strokes.

Swimming in a blender

Surface drag

“Surface drag” is resistance caused by what can be best described as the frictional force of a moving body in water. Surface drag can be reduced not through technique but through preparation and equipment. Removing barnacles and repainting of a boat achieves the same result a swimmer achieves when putting on a close fitting swim suit rather than a pair of “beach baggies.” For even less resistance, new high-tech suits that are specially designed and treated to reduce water absorption and surface drag can be purchased for princely sums (this is one of the few ways you can actually “buy” extra speed - an absolute must for “test tube” athletes with serious cash - otherwise, only for elite athletes in major competitions). Properly fitting swimming caps (as opposed to “bathing” caps — those heavy rubber, flowered monstrosities that are sometimes worn by the Unenlightened) are a must for any person with hair more than a couple of inches long. For serious competition, shaving of body hair is a common practice that helps to reduce surface drag.

Surface tension

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Surface tension is a property of fluids that “holds” the fluid surface together (this is what allows a water bug to “walk” on water). Surface tension increases surface drag and thus impedes motion of objects at the water surface more so than below the surface. A swimmer’s body on its side cuts through a smaller cross section of surface tension than a body on its back or front and therefore encounters less drag due to surface tension.

Hold your breath a bit longer

Here is a great place to point out that both wave drag and surface tension cease to be issues from the moment your body leaves the wall till the moment it breaks through the surface again. So every extra foot you add to the initial underwater portion of each length avoids both these energy drains a bit longer.

Fighting yourself

Aside from the external resistance sources, there are a couple types of internal of resistance to deal with. First, wherever swimming motions cause a limb to be moved through a position that is at, or near, the extremity of the range of motion (ROM) of a particular joint, greater muscular force is required to continue the work against the resistance provided by connective tissues surrounding the joint structure. Flexibility and stroke mechanics are the cure here. Increasing ranges of motion, through stretching or micro-fiber reduction, so that normal swimming motions are not as close to the extremes of ROM will yield significant reduction of internal resistance. Also, paying particular attention to proper limb positions in recovery motions will reduce this internal resistance. Second, whenever opposing sets of muscles work against each other, greater muscular force is required to complete the motion. As in any sport we are always attempting to keep internal muscles from fighting each other. Keeping all muscles that are not immediately involved in the propulsive part of a stroke loose and relaxed while swimming is vitally important to minimizing internal resistance. If you are wound up like a tightly coiled spring you will spend a great deal of energy fighting this type of internal resistance.

Awareness

Perhaps the single biggest tip to minimizing resistance from all sources is to first be aware of it and then act on that awareness. Periodically use your senses to give you feedback about where you are fighting the water. Listen for splashing or “kerplunking” sounds and try to eliminate them. Feel for smooth flowing movements of all parts of your body instead of “bulldozing” movements. You are trying to slip through the water rather than plow through it. Look for large or numerous bubbles in the water around you — a sure sign of turbulence causing actions. Make adjustments to reduce or eliminate these resistance indicators.

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The implication for swimming is that drag and the power required to overcome it are significantly reduced when the body is made as long as possible and kept that way for as long as possible during each stroke cycle. Or, said another way, drag tends to increase as body length decreases.

Try this experiment. Push off the wall as hard as possible with your hands at your sides and see how far you can glide. Now push off the wall with the same force but use a fully streamlined hand-over-hand, wrist-over-wrist, head squeezed firmly between your arms position and glide as far as possible. If you do not glide a lot (25-50%) farther have your coach check your streamline position.

Swimming uses almost all the major muscle groups, and places a vigorous demand on your heart and lungs.

Swimming develops muscle strength and endurance, and improves posture and flexibility.

Swimming is especially useful for people who are overweight, pregnant, or with leg or lower back problems.

Swimming is a great sport for people of all ages and all proficiency levels.

Swimming provides most of the aerobic benefits that running does, with many of the benefits of resistance training thrown in.

Swimming does not put the strain on connective tissues that running, aerobics and some weight-training regimens do.

The buoyancy factor makes swimming the most injury-free sport there is. Water exercises benefit seniors, pregnant women, arthritis sufferers, or anyone with an injury. One of the biggest advantages is flexibility. In water, body weight is 1/10 of what it would be on land. For example, if you weigh 150 pounds on land, you weigh 15 pounds standing in chin-

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deep water, hence, range of motion in water is much easier. Also, fitness exercise in water can be done more often because of the low incidence of high-impact injuries and is more effective because movement in water has 12 times greater resistance than movement in air. For pregnant women, water exercise strengthens and tones the muscles used during childbirth. For the elderly, water fitness is safe, fills the need for exercise, increases a body's range of motion and is a low-impact exercise. For those with weight problems, water helps the body naturally rid itself of excess water and salt. As physical therapy, it gradually and gently rehabilitates and relaxes muscles and joints that have stiffened or atrophied.

Warming Up

If you are like most trainees and coaches, warming up conjures up images of five to ten minutes of tedious, boring, low-intensity cardio work on a treadmill or stationary bike. This narrow conception of warm-up exercise explains why it is often underemphasized or neglected entirely. In this article we will examine the function and importance of warm-ups and learn how they can be made more effective and interesting.

Physiological Effects of Warm-up Exercise

Increased core and deep muscle temperature – A warm muscle is much more flexible than a cold one. Increasing muscle temperature can increase range of motion by up to 20%. Warming the body increases the rate of reaction of ATP-producing biochemical processes.

Increased ventilation and respiration – Increasing breathing and gas exchange rate provides the body with a ready supply of oxygen to meet its upcoming oxidative metabolic demands.

Redirection of blood to working muscles – Warm-ups shunt blood from those areas of the body less-necessary for exercise (such as digestive organs) into the working muscles. Increased blood flow results in a higher temperature, more efficient delivery of fuel substrates, and removal of metabolic wastes.

Increased perspiration – The body’s primary cooling mechanism is engaged for the upcoming workout.

Psychological Benefits of Warm-up Exercise

Warm-up work has profound psychological benefits that are often ignored in exercise physiology texts. The warm-up session shifts the trainee mentally from a resting to a working state. It is during this time that the concerns of daily life should fade into the background as focus shifts to the upcoming training. Lack of focus and attention during intense exercise, especially with weights and plyometrics, can result in severe injury. Also, this shift places the trainee closer to the "optimal arousal state" for the coming performance. That warm-ups help prevent exercise injury also makes sense

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from a physiological standpoint. Increasing the blood flow and temperature in the working muscles causes a 20% increase in muscle flexibility. A flexible muscle is less likely to be strained or torn during the workout.

DOMS (delayed onset muscle soreness) is the stiffness, pain, and loss of muscle function that occurs 24 – 48 hours after the workout. It is most pronounced in those who are unaccustomed to training, after workouts that involve substantial eccentric work or novel exercises, or when following changes in training parameters such as intensity or repetition range. Whether or not warming up can actually reduce or prevent DOMS has yet to be substantiated using experimental studies. In spite of this, many coaches and trainees are convinced that a proper warm-up will decrease DOMS. Test out the hypothesis on yourself and see how your body responds.

How Much Warm-up

The correct duration of warm-up activity is that which accomplishes the physiological effects listed above without resulting in undue fatigue that will interfere with the upcoming workout.

In simpler terms, your warm-up should increase your heart rate, breathing rate, body temperature, and mental focus. You should break a good sweat, feel loose, and be ready to go. If you still feel stiff or tight, you haven’t done enough, and if you are exhausted, you’ve done too much. Typically, ten minutes is optimal. However, warm-ups should be tailored to fit the individual and the situation.

Use the following guidelines to determine the appropriate duration:

Older people typically require more warm-up than younger people. As people age, tissue loses elasticity, arthritis becomes more common, and previous injuries resurface.

The longer you have been awake before training, the less warm-up is required. Colder ambient temperatures necessitate longer warm-ups. If it is winter, or you train in a cold environment, spend

a bit more time getting ready. The more advanced the trainee, the longer the warm-up should be. This is true because more highly trained people

typically exercise at higher relative intensities and it takes longer to build up to more intense workloads. What type of activity?

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The traditional general warm-up routine consists of five to ten minutes of low intensity cardio. This is typically done on a treadmill, track, or stationary bicycle. Although such warm-ups are sometimes physiologically adequate, they do not meet the psychological demands of training, nor do they represent the most efficient use of the athlete’s time.

Optimal warm-up routines must

1. be specific to the target activity, 2. include useful training, and 3. thoroughly warm-up the trunk musculature or "core".

Specificity

Optimal warm-ups must closely resemble the target activity on several levels. They must match the workout in terms of intensity and with regard to the muscle groups and movement patterns. Obviously the warm-ups cannot be at the same intensity as the workout because this would result in too much fatigue. However, more intense workout sessions require a longer and more intense warm-up period. This brings the athlete to the proper mental and physical state of readiness. It prepares the body for the upcoming stresses and provides the appropriate amount of psyching up necessary for top effort during training. Also important is attention to rehab/prehab concerns. Warm-ups must be specific to the individual’s body and should take into account previous, current, or potential injuries. Past joint trauma might dictate specific exercises recommended by a physician, therapist, or common sense. An athlete with injury prone shoulders should do extra warm-up work on this area prior to any pressing or pulling. If hip inflexibility is limiting squat depth, corrective exercises should definitely be incorporated.

Useful Training

Useful training should be accomplished during the warm-up in order for maximum workout efficiency. In other words, the warm-up exercises should not be done merely for the sake of bringing up the heart rate and body temperature, but should result in positive adaptations. Balance and stability work, agility, and flexibility can all be improved during the warm-up session.

Summing it up

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A warm-up is almost universally used at the beginning of an exercise or activity session to improve performance and prevent injury. The theory behind warm-ups is that muscular contractions are dependant on temperature. Because increased muscle temperature improves work capacity and a warm-up increases muscle temperature, it is assumed that warming up is necessary.

Warming-up also increases the amount of knee fluid, improves oxygen intake, and reduces the amount of oxygen needed for exercise, thereby improving performance. Nerve messages also travel faster at high temperatures. Since your reflexes and muscular reactions will be faster, you will reduce the potential risk of injuries.

In the absence of a warm-up, cold muscles are much more prone to ruptures and the joints remain stiff and tight for a longer time. The reverse happens if you don't take the time to cool down. In the absence of a cool-down, the muscles will tighten up very quickly. This leads to stiffness, inflexibility, and soreness. When you cool down gradually, the muscles don't tense up and contract.

Here are a few things you should include in your warm-ups:

1- Warm up for 10-15 minutes prior to the actual workout or exercise session. Increase duration of warm-up when temperature is cold or when you are sore.

2- Warm up until you begin to sweat. The whole purpose of your warm up is to increase body temperature by one or two degrees.

3- Let only a few minutes elapse from completion of the warm up until the start of the activity.

A warm-up will not cause early fatigue or hinder performance. On the contrary, warm-ups will increase your performance. As with everything else in life, you need a starting point. Warm up effectively and soon enough the weights will slowly pile on, and you will reach your fitness goals.

Stretching

What is stretching?

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   Stretching is a simple and effective activity that involves placing particular part of your body in a position that will lengthen the muscles and tendons. This simple technique will help to enhance your athletic performance, decrease the likelihood of muscle and joint injury and minimize muscle soreness.

Stretching is a very important part of fitness and bodybuilding. Follows these rules for stretching properly: 1. Warm up before you stretch. 2. Hold each stretch for at least 15 to 30 seconds. As you become more flexible gradually increase the time to 1

minute. 3. Don't stretch to the point of pain. You should feel tension, but not pain. 4. Don't bounce when stretching. This can cause muscle pulls, or worse yet, muscle tears. 5. Make sure you breathe. Breathe in through your nose and exhale through your mouth. 6. Stretch all of your muscles for best results. The muscle groups to stretch are: lower back, upper back, chest,

shoulders, rear thighs, front thighs, hip flexors, calves, shins, neck, arms, and wrists.

Getting Flexible Out of the Swimming Pool

Most workout and fitness routines, including ones that I like to use, include regular stretching to increase or maintain flexibility. Remember, you want to stretch things that should have some stretch or elasticity (muscle), not things that shouldn't (joints and ligaments).

Why Stretch? What does flexibility do for a swimmer? It could:

Prevent injury Help a swimmer hold better technique Make a swimmer faster Make a swimmer more efficient

It would be hard to argue against stretching if it only accomplishes one of these; I think, depending on the swimmer, it could do all of them. Make sure you include stretches in your routines. Generally, stretching before a workout only restores your regular level of flexibility. Stretching after a workout tends to increase your flexibility.

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What's so Good About Stretching?

Improved Comfort 

     Upon undertaking a regular stretching program a number of changes occur within your body. As a result of increasing the length of your muscles and tendons, a reduction in general muscle tension is achieved and your normal range of movement is increased. By extending your normal range of movement you'll gain a greater ability to move freely and ultimately increase your comfort level while on your bike.

Reduced Injury Potential

     Increasing your range of movement will also mean a lessening of your susceptibility to muscle and tendon strain injuries. By increasing your range of movement you're increasing the distance your limbs can move before damage occurs to the muscles and tendons.

Increased Power Output 

     There is a dangerous stretching myth that says, "If you stretch too much you will lose both joint stability and muscle power." This is totally untrue. By increasing the length of your muscles and tendons, you are increasing the distance over which your muscles are able to contract. This results in a potential increase to your muscles' power and therefore increases your cycling ability, while also leading to an improvement in dynamic balance (the ability to control your muscles). 

Reduced Muscle Soreness 

     We have all experienced what happens when you go for a long ride or to the gym for the first time in a few months. The following day your muscles are tight, sore, stiff and it's usually hard to even walk down a flight of stairs. This soreness that accompanies strenuous physical activity is often referred to as post exercise muscle soreness, and is the result of micro tears, (minute tears within the muscle fibres), blood pooling and accumulated waste products, such as lactic acid. Stretching, as part of an effective cool-down, helps to alleviate this soreness by lengthening the individual muscle fibres; increasing blood circulation; and removing waste products.

Reduced Fatigue

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     Fatigue is a major problem for all and results in a decrease in both physical and mental performance. Increased flexibility through stretching can help prevent the effects of fatigue by taking pressure off the working muscles. For every muscle in the body has an opposite or opposing muscle and if the opposing muscles are more flexible, the working muscles do not have to exert as much force against the opposing muscles. Therefore each movement of the working muscles actually takes less effort.  Also, by reducing fatigue through improved flexibility, you're able to reduce the effects of overuse injuries.

And finally

 Any person who experiences the benefits of improved flexibility is certainly more likely to feel good about themselves, which leads to a confidence and assuredness that helps to enhance physical performance and motivate you to ride, ride, ride.  Routine is the key to a good stretching program. Like brushing your teeth before you go to bed, stretching should ideally become a habit that you don't even think about.

The two best times to stretch are before intense exercise (but after a brief warm-up) and soon after an exercise session. Stretching before a workout should be gentle, with the use of dynamic movements like drills for running or arm rotations for swimming.

After a training session use more static stretches to help reduce lactic acid in muscles and restore lost flexibility. It helps to take a hot shower to loosen muscles after intense exercise, with some mild self-massage to increase blood flow before stretching. Swimmers often use shower time to stretch out their shoulders after practices.

DON'T FORGET TO BREATHE Remember to breathe and relax: Starting your stretches with a few slow, deep breaths will calm your mind and help focus on the moment. It is important to relax and try to let go of mental stress while you stretch, as tense thoughts result in tight muscles.

STRETCHING

A stretch should never be painful and posture is very important. Reasons for stretching include increasing flexibility, economy of effort in the water and injury prevention. Below are some examples of stretches relevant to the game and should be undertaken for 10 I5 minutes before playing. Each stretch should be held for 5 seconds and repeated 3 times. Do not bounce as your muscles will seize up but gradually push further each time. All stretches should be repeated for the opposite side, leg, arm etc

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SHOULDER SRETCH (1)

Reach down the middle of your back with your right hand. With your left arm reach over your head and pull your elbow gently to the left.

SHOULDER STRETCH (2)

Grasp your arms above your elbows. Pull to the left, turning your head to the right.

CALF

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Feet pointing forward, heel down, back straight. Lean in towards the wall.

WRIST & FINGER STRETCH

With the arms outsretched, pull the fingers back towards the forearm. Repeat by stretching the fingers in the opposite direction onto the back of the wrist. Vary the angle of your hand so you are stretching more effectively.

HAMSTRINGS

Standing, let the knees bend as you touch your toes. Now straighten one then the other. Do not bounce.

SIDE STRETCH

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Step behind with leg to be stretched, this knee straight. Bend away from side to be stretched.

FRONT OF GROIN

Keep back straight. push hip forward.

INNER GROIN

Keep back straight trunk facing forward front leg at a right angle to rear leg.

QUADRICEPS

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Opposite arm supported against wall. heel pulled back towards buttocks hip pushed forwards.

Cardiovascular Fitness Basics

What is Cardiovascular Fitness?

Cardiovascular fitness can be defined simply as your body's ability to get oxygen and blood to the muscles. The slang term "wind" sums it up nicely.

When you do physical activity and your pulse quickens and your breathing gets deeper, you are using your cardiovascular system.

You can improve your cardiovascular system's efficiency through regular training. The short term used when referring to cardiovascular exercise is Cardio.

How much Cardio do I need?

There are a few simple guidelines you can follow when determining how much cardio work you should do. Basically, it all comes down to your goals.

If you are trying to lose fat, you need to do more cardio than if you are trying to gain weight. For fat loss, three to

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five times per week at 20 to 40 minutes per session is plenty. Start conservatively if you are just starting training, e.g. three times per week, 20 minutes per session.

If you are trying to gain weight, you will find that goal easier to achieve if you don't do any cardio at all, though you will still maintain health benefits without much effect on your weight gain if you do light cardio work twice a week for 20 minutes.

For improving cardiovascular fitness in general, three or four times per week for 20 to 40 minutes per session (depending on your current level of fitness) will yield good results.

Which Type of Cardio Should I Do?

Cardiovascular training, no matter what the exercise, is categorized based on duration and intensity. When you are choosing which type of cardio to do, keep your goals in mind.

If your goal is to improve your general cardiovascular fitness, do moderate intensity work where you are starting to breathe deeply and you can feel that you are working..

If your goal is fat loss but you're in poor shape, do low intensity, long duration work such as walking. If you want fat loss and you're in reasonably good cardiovascular shape, do the type that burns the most calories,

i.e. high-intensity training (explained in detail below).

Maximum Heart Rate

Your maximum heart rate (HR max) is the theoretical number of beats per minute that your heart is capable of producing.

This is found by subtracting your age from 220, e.g. if you're 40 years old,220 - 40 = 180 HR max.

This is simply an estimation, not an absolute limit. To measure aerobic exercise intensity, percentage of HR max (%HR max) is often used. If you want to exercise at

60% of your HR max, your heart rate should be, using the example above, around 108 beats per minute.

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Your heart rate is your guide for cardiovascular exercise intensity.

Target Heart Rate

Your Target Heart Rate is the range of heart beats per minute at which you should work at in order to best achieve aerobic fitness. This range is typically between 60% to 80% of your HR max. The bottom end of the scale is best for low intensity training while the top end is for high intensity training.

Taking Your Heart Rate

The first is on the inside of the wrist below your thumb. Use your forefinger and middle finger to feel the pulse (this is known as palpation).

The second site is on the carotid artery on the neck (either side). Place your fingers on the side of your windpipe, just below the jaw.

Count the beats for 10 seconds then multiply by six to get beats per minute. This count can last for 10 seconds, 15 seconds, 20 seconds, 30 seconds or a full minute. Multiply by 6, 4, 3, and 2 respectively to get beats per minute.

Aerobic vs. Anaerobic

Aerobic literally means with oxygen while anaerobic means without oxygen.

The Aerobic training zone is the training intensity where you are burning fuel with oxygen.

The Anaerobic training zone is the training intensity where you are burning fuel without oxygen.

The Anaerobic Threshold is the point at which the aerobic, oxygen-burning system can no longer supply enough energy to meet the demands of the exercise and you begin to produce lactic acid. Once over 85% HR max, you will not last longer than a few minutes unless you decrease the intensity. High caliber endurance athletes can feel the point where they are about to cross their Anaerobic Threshold and can operate for long periods of time just below it.

Types of Cardiovascular Training

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There are a number of types of cardiovascular training which can help you meet your fitness goals. Each has it's own advantages and disadvantages. Some types of training are better for advanced trainers while some are more appropriate for beginning trainers.

1. Low Intensity, Long Duration This type of training involves intensities of around 40 to 60% of Maximum Heart Rate. It is basically something slow, easy, continuous and long (over 40 minutes). This can be walking, cycling, jogging, etc. You should be able to converse comfortably while doing it (called the talk test). This type of training is good for people just getting started with cardio work. It is reasonably good for fat loss, especially in very obese people.

It is also the least demanding form of aerobic training.

2. Medium Intensity, Medium Duration This involves aerobic work done at around 70% of max HR. It is harder, therefore it cannot be done for as long, usually between 20 to 40 minutes. This is the next step up from the low intensity work. This type of training can be used for fat loss and for increasing aerobic capacity. It is characterized by the beginning of heavy breathing but not so much that you are soon out of breath and must stop.

3. High Intensity, Short Duration This version of aerobic work is done at around 80 to 85% of HR max. That point, at 85% of your HR max, is generally

considered to be the Anaerobic Threshold, though this can vary depending on genetics and fitness level. This is a very demanding form of training.

It is done for between 5 to 20 minutes generally, depending on fitness level and intensity

4. Aerobic Interval Training The first way of doing aerobic interval training involves doing a period of moderate to high intensity aerobic work,

alternating with a period of rest of low intensity work, e.g. 3 minutes of fast running then 1 minute of slow walking, repeated 4 times.

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You can vary the intervals and intensities to your liking, e.g. 10 minutes of moderate work, 2 minutes easy, 1 minute hard, or perhaps 5 minutes hard, 5 minutes easy.

The key is variation during the work while not working so hard that you must stop completely.

5. Anaerobic Interval Training This type of training involves going hard for short periods of time then resting for equal or longer periods of time. It is done at intensities of 85 to 100% of your HR max.

1. Walking

Walking is probably the most common form of cardio. People all over the world do it everyday.

It is very low-impact and can be done for hours on end, making it perfect for low-intensity, long-duration aerobic training.

Fast walking can even get your heart-rate up into the aerobic training zone (70%) if you really push it or walk up hills.

This is the form of cardio most often recommended for beginning exercisers, as it is very easy and not stressful to the body at all.

Walking shoes can be a good idea if you plan on walking a lot.

If you use hand weights while you are walking, be aware that studies have shown no difference in calories burned, strength or body fat as compared to people who did not use hand weights.

2. Running/Jogging This is classic cardio and probably the first thing people think of when they think of getting in shape. Running can be done on the road, on a track, on a treadmill, through the woods, etc. All you need is a pair of shoes.

Running is a very natural activity, one that the body was built to do. Running is also very effective at reducing hip size. It is a very high-impact activity though, and very overweight people would be better off with something less jarring

such as fast walking, cycling or swimming.

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As with anything, start off slowly and gradually work up your speed and distance until you get where you want to be.

Running can also be a very social activity if you have a running partner or join a running club.

5. Swimming Swimming is usually done in a pool (it can also be done in a lake or ocean as well). Lessons are always available at most swimming pools if you don't know how to swim.

Swimming is a great total body workout that is completely non-impact. It is perfect for very overweight people, injured people and paraplegic people. Swimming can be done as long-duration, low-intensity exercise or as high-intensity, short-duration exercise.

It is also a very useful skill to have.

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