Soils in the humid tropics and monsoon region of indonesia

Soils in theHumid Tropics and

Monsoon Regionof Indonesia

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BOOKS IN SOILS, PLANTS, AND THE ENVIRONMENT

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Selenium in the Environment, edited by W. T. Frankenberger, Jr.and Sally Benson

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Handbook of Plant and Crop Physiology, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli

Handbook of Phytoalexin Metabolism and Action, edited by M. Danieland R. P. Purkayastha

Soil–Water Interactions: Mechanisms and Applications, Second Edition,Revised and Expanded, Shingo Iwata, Toshio Tabuchi, and Benno P. Warkentin

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Nitrogen Fertilization in the Environment, edited by Peter Edward Bacon

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Chemical and Isotopic Groundwater Hydrology: The Applied Approach,Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Emanuel Mazor

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Soil and Plant Analysis in Sustainable Agriculture and Environment,edited by Teresa Hood and J. Benton Jones, Jr.

Seeds Handbook: Biology, Production, Processing, and Storage, B. B. Desai, P. M. Kotecha, and D. K. Salunkhe

Modern Soil Microbiology, edited by J. D. van Elsas, J. T. Trevors, and E. M. H. Wellington

Growth and Mineral Nutrition of Field Crops: Second Edition, N. K. Fageria, V. C. Baligar, and Charles Allan Jones

Fungal Pathogenesis in Plants and Crops: Molecular Biology and HostDefense Mechanisms, P. Vidhyasekaran

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Plant–Microbe Interactions and Biological Control, edited by Greg J. Boland and L. David Kuykendall

Handbook of Soil Conditioners: Substances That Enhance the PhysicalProperties of Soil, edited by Arthur Wallace and Richard E. Terry

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Mycotoxins in Agriculture and Food Safety, edited by Kaushal K. Sinha and Deepak Bhatnagar

Plant Amino Acids: Biochemistry and Biotechnology, edited by Bijay K. Singh

Handbook of Functional Plant Ecology, edited by Francisco I. Pugnaire and Fernando Valladares

Handbook of Plant and Crop Stress: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli

Plant Responses to Environmental Stresses: From Phytohormones to Genome Reorganization, edited by H. R. Lerner

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Plant Roots: The Hidden Half,Third Edition, Revised and Expanded,edited by Yoav Waisel, Amram Eshel, and Uzi Kafkafi

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Handbook of Soil Acidity, edited by Zdenko Rengel

Humic Matter in Soil and the Environment: Principles and Controversies,edited by Kim H. Tan

Molecular Host Plant Resistance to Pests, edited by S. Sadasivam and B. Thayumanayan

Soil and Environmental Analysis: Modern Instrumental Techniques,Third Edition, edited by Keith A. Smith and Malcolm S. Cresser

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Physiology and Biotechnology Integration for Plant Breeding, edited by Henry T. Nguyen and Abraham Blum

Global Water Dynamics: Shallow and Deep Groundwater: PetroleumHydrology: Hydrothermal Fluids, and Landscaping, , edited byEmanuel Mazor

Principles of Soil Physics, edited by Rattan Lal

Seeds Handbook: Biology, Production, Processing, and Storage,Second Edition, Babasaheb B. Desai

Field Sampling: Principles and Practices in Environmental Analysis,edited by Alfred R. Conklin

Sustainable Agriculture and the International Rice-Wheat System, edited by Rattan Lal, Peter R. Hobbs, Norman Uphoff, and David O. Hansen

Plant Toxicology, Fourth Edition, edited by Bertold Hock and Erich F. Elstner

Drought and Water Crises: Science,Technology, and ManagementIssues, edited by Donald A. Wilhite

Soil Sampling, Preparation, and Analysis, Second Edition, Kim H. Tan

Climate Change and Global Food Security, edited by Rattan Lal,Norman Uphoff, B. A. Stewart, and David O. Hansen

Handbook of Photosynthesis, Second Edition, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli

Environmental Soil-Landscape Modeling: Geographic InformationTechnologies and Pedometrics, edited by Sabine Grunwald

Water Flow In Soils, Second Edition, Tsuyoshi Miyazaki

Biological Approaches to Sustainable Soil Systems, edited by Norman Uphoff, Andrew S. Ball, Erick Fernandes, Hans Herren,Olivier Husson, Mark Laing, Cheryl Palm, Jules Pretty, Pedro Sanchez, Nteranya Sanginga, and Janice Thies

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Plant–Environment Interactions,Third Edition, edited by Bingru HuangBiodiversity In Agricultural Production Systems, edited by

Gero Benckiser and Sylvia SchnellOrganic Production and Use of Alternative Crops, Franc Bavec

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and David J. PilbeamModern Soil Microbiology, Second Edition, edited by Jan Dirk van Elsas,

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Defense Mechanisms Second Edition, P. VidhyasekaranHandbook of Turfgrass Management and Physiology, edited by

Mohammad PessarakliSoils in the Humid Tropics and Monsoon Region of Indonesia,

Kim H. Tan

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Soils in theHumid Tropics and

Monsoon Regionof Indonesia

Kim H. TanUniversity of Georgia

Athens, Georgia

CRC Press is an imprint of theTaylor & Francis Group, an informa business

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Tan, Kim H. (Kim Howard), 1926‑Soils in the humid tropics and monsoon region of Indonesia / Kim H. Tan.

p. cm. ‑‑ (Books in soils, plants, and the environment ; 123)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978‑1‑4200‑6907‑5 (alk. paper)1. Soils‑‑Indonesia. 2. Soils‑‑Tropics. I. Title. II. Series.

S599.6.I5T36 2008631.4’9598‑‑dc22 2007050715

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site athttp://www.taylorandfrancis.com

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Contents

Preface.............................................................................. xv

Acknowledgments....................................................... xxv

Chapter.1. The.development.of.soil.science.in.Indonesia.....................................................1

1.1 Thepre-WorldWarIIperiod.............................21.2 Thepost-WorldWarIIperiod............................6

1.2.1 Theestablishmentofhighereducation.................................................8

1.2.2 TheKentuckyContractTeam(KCT)andMidwesternUniversitiesConsortiumforInternationalActivities(MUCIA)projects................11

1.2.3 Pedology................................................131.2.4 Soilsurvey.............................................141.2.5 Soilfertilityandplantnutrition.........151.2.6 Thedawnofnewexperiment

stations...................................................171.2.7 Nationalconferencesandscientific

societies..................................................191.2.8 Landuseandsoilconservation..........20

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xii Contents

Chapter.2. Geomorphology.of.Indonesia..................27

2.1 GeographicalsettingofIndonesia..................272.2 Geomorphologyofmajorislands....................30

2.2.1 GeomorphologicalfeaturesofJava....312.2.2 Geomorphologicalfeaturesof

Sumatra..................................................352.2.3 Geomorphologicalfeaturesof

Kalimantan............................................382.2.4 Geomorphologicalfeaturesof

Sulawesi.................................................412.2.5 Geomorphologicalfeaturesof

Maluku..................................................442.2.5.1 Ambon...................................452.2.5.2 Ceram.....................................46

2.2.6 GeomorphologicalfeaturesofNusaTenggara......................................46

2.2.7 GeomorphologicalfeaturesofPapua(WestIrian)................................47

Chapter.3. Climate.of.Indonesia.................................51

3.1 Climate...............................................................513.1.1 Theconceptsofequatorialand

tropicalclimates....................................523.1.1.1 Equatorialclimate.................523.1.1.2 Tropicalclimate.....................54

3.1.2 Theconceptofmonsoonclimates......553.1.2.1 Conceptofmonsoons...........553.1.2.2 Westandeastmonsoons

inIndonesia...........................593.2 Climaticdivisionsbasedonlengthofdry

andwetseasons.................................................61

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Contents xiii

3.2.1 TheclimaticsystemofMohr..............623.2.2 ClimaticsystemofSchmidtand

Ferguson................................................653.3 Altitudinalvariationsinclimate.....................67

3.3.1 Variationsinrainfallpatternswithaltitude...................................................68

3.3.2 Variationsintemperatureswithaltitude...................................................68

3.3.3 Zonaldivisionsintolowland,upland,mountain,andhigh-mountainlands.....................................67

3.4 Significanceoftropicalandmonsoonclimatesinpedogenesis....................................723.4.1 Balanceeffectsbetween

precipitationandevaporationindifferentclimatictypes........................73

3.4.2 Altitudinalvariationsinsoilgenesisandsoilfertility......................74

Chapter.4. Vegetation.of.Indonesia........................... 77

4.1 Climaxvegetation.............................................774.1.1 Thetropicalrainforest........................774.1.2 Thetropicalmonsoonforest...............784.1.3 ThetropicalSavannahforest..............79

4.2 Vegetationprovinces.........................................794.2.1 WestIndonesianvegetation

province.................................................804.2.2 EastIndonesianvegetation

province.................................................804.2.3 SouthIndonesianvegetation

province.................................................814.3 Altitudinalvegetationzones............................84

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xiv Contents

4.3.1 Thecoastalflora....................................844.3.2 Therainforestandthemountain

rainforest..............................................884.3.3 Thecloud-beltforest.............................894.3.4 Thesubalpinevegetation.....................90

Chapter.5. Soil.formation,.classification,.and.land.use.....................................................93

5.1 Soil-formationfactors........................................935.2 Soil-formingprocesses.....................................94

5.2.1 Previousconceptofsoil-formingprocesses................................................96

5.2.2 Today’sversionsofsoil-formingprocesses..............................................1025.2.2.1 Desilicification.....................1025.2.2.2 Silicification.........................1035.2.2.3 Translocationofclays.........1045.2.2.4 Translocationof

aluminumandiron............1065.2.2.5 Redoxreactions...................108

5.2.3 Influenceofclimaticvariationsonsoil-formingprocesses....................... 1105.2.3.1 Mineralizationversus

humification........................ 1105.2.4 Influenceofparentmaterialson

soilformation......................................1155.2.5 Precipitation/evaporationratioand

weatheringintensity.......................... 1175.3 Thesystemofsoilclassificationin

Indonesia..........................................................1215.4 LanduseinIndonesia....................................125

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Contents xv

Chapter.6. Soils.in.the.lowlands.of.Indonesia...... 129

6.1 Introduction.....................................................1296.2 Oxisols..............................................................130

6.2.1 Parentmaterials..................................1326.2.2 Climate.................................................1386.2.3 Soilmorphology.................................1426.2.4 Soilclassification................................1486.2.5 Physicochemicalcharacteristics........153

6.2.5.1 Particlesizedistribution....1536.2.5.2 Chemicalcharacteristics....1546.2.5.3 Chargecharacteristics........1576.2.5.4 Claymineralogy.................159

6.2.6 Landuseandevaluation................... 1616.2.6.1 Evaluationofanalytical

properties............................. 1616.2.6.2 Significanceofbasicsoil

properties.............................1646.2.6.3 Agriculturaloperations.....165

6.3 Ultisols..............................................................1776.3.1 Parentmaterials..................................1796.3.2 Climate.................................................1816.3.3 Soilmorphology.................................1826.3.4 Soilclassification................................1866.3.5 Physicochemicalcharacteristics........190

6.3.5.1 Particlesizedistribution....1906.3.5.2 Chemicalcharacteristics....1926.3.5.3 Chargecharacteristics........1936.3.5.4 Claymineralogy.................194

6.3.6 Landuseandevaluation...................1976.3.6.1 Evaluationofanalytical

properties.............................197

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xvi Contents

6.3.6.2 Significanceofbasicsoilproperties.............................199

6.3.6.3 Agriculturaloperations.....2006.4 Lowlandalfisols..............................................209


6.4.5.1 Particlesizedistribution....2186.4.5.2 Chemicalcharacteristics....2186.4.5.3 Claymineralogy.................220


properties.............................2216.4.6.2 Significanceofbasicsoil


6.5 Vertisols............................................................2276.5.1 Parentmaterials..................................2286.5.2 Climate.................................................2306.5.3 Soilmorphology.................................2326.5.4 Soilclassification................................2356.5.5 Physicochemicalcharacteristics........237




properties.............................242

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Contents xvii

6.5.6.3 Agriculturaloperations.....2446.6 Histosols...........................................................253

6.6.1 Parentmaterials..................................2586.6.1.1 Decompositionoflitter

andgenesisofpeat.............2616.6.2 Climate.................................................2626.6.3 Soilmorphology.................................2646.6.4 Soilclassification................................2676.6.5 Physicochemicalcharacteristics........270

6.6.5.1 Acidityofpeat.....................2706.6.5.2 Nutrientstatusofpeat.......2736.6.5.3 Aluminumcontentsin

peat.......................................2756.6.5.4 CarboncontentsandCorg

sequestrationbypeat..........2756.6.5.5 Physicalproperties.............277


properties.............................2826.6.6.2 Significanceofbasic


Chapter.7. Soils.in.the.uplands.of.Indonesia.........293

7.1 Introduction.....................................................2937.2 Podzoliclatosols..............................................2947.3. Inceptisols........................................................296


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xviii Contents

7.3.5.1 Particlesizedistribution....3097.3.5.2 Chemicalcharacteristics.... 3117.3.5.3 Claymineralogy.................312



properties.............................3157.3.6.3 Agriculturaloperations..... 316

Chapter.8. Soils.in.the.mountains.of.Indonesia... 333

8.1 Introduction.....................................................3338.2 Highlandalfisols.............................................337

8.2.1 Parentmaterials..................................3388.2.2 Climate.................................................3408.2.3 Soilmorphology.................................3418.2.4 Soilclassification............................... 3448.2.5 Physicochemicalcharacteristics........347





8.3 Brownpodzolicsoils......................................3678.3.1 Parentmaterials..................................3698.3.2 Climate.................................................3708.3.3 Soilmorphology.................................3728.3.4 Soilclassification................................ 374

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Contents xix

8.3.5 Physicochemicalcharacteristics........3758.3.5.1 Particlesizedistribution....3758.3.5.2 Chemicalcharacteristics....3768.3.5.3 Claymineralogy.................377

8.3.6 Landuseandevaluation...................3798.4 Spodosols.........................................................380



8.4.6 Landuseandevaluation...................3968.4.6.1 Soilpropertiesand

agriculturaloperations.......3968.4.6.2 Treefarming........................397

Chapter.9. Andosols.of.Indonesia............................399

9.1 Introduction.....................................................3999.2 Parentmaterials...............................................4029.3 Climate.............................................................4059.4 Soilmorphology..............................................4079.5 Soilclassification.............................................4119.6 Physicochemicalcharacteristics....................417

9.6.1 Physicalproperties.............................4179.6.1.1 Particlesizedistribution....4179.6.1.2 Soilreaction.........................4209.6.1.3 Bulkdensityand

porosity................................420

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xx Contents

9.6.2 Chemicalcharacteristics....................4219.6.2.1 Humuscontentand

composition.........................4219.6.2.2 Nitrogencontent.................424

9.6.3 Claymineralogy.................................4249.6.4 Chargecharacteristics........................428

9.7 Landuseandevaluation................................4329.7.1 Evaluationofanalytical

properties............................................4329.7.2 Significanceofbasicsoil

properties............................................4329.7.3 Agriculturaloperations.....................433

9.7.3.1 Estatecrops..........................434

References.and.Additional.Readings.......................447

Index...............................................................................475

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PrefaceInthisbook,soilsformedunderatropicalclimate,andinparticularinIndonesia,areillustratedanddescribed.SomeU.S. scientistsbelieved that therewereno suchtropicalsoils,andthatthetermtropicalsoilwas justamyth. These soils were allegedly not different fromtheir taxonomic counterparts, if any, in the UnitedStates,whichinthisauthor’sopinionisfarfromtrue.For example, oxisols are soils confined only to tropi-calareas. Inthetropical,humidregionsof Indonesia,thesesoilsmaylooksimilartosomeofthesoilsinthesouthern region of the United States. They may havesomefeaturesincommon(forexample,highclaycon-tent, high water-holding capacity, and not too muchdifferenceintheredcolors).However,theyare,infact,verydifferentinmanyotheraspects,andtheybehavedifferently—biologically, physically, and chemically.For example, Indonesian oxisols originate from inter-mediatetobasicvolcanicashofquaternaryeruptions.Thesoilsexhibitpropertiesreflectingmoretheeffectofshort-rangeorder,semicrystallineoramorphousmin-erals than those of crystalline clays. The time periodfor soil genesis (from ash to soils), compounded by ahumid,tropicalcondition,wasapparentlytooshortfor

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xxii Preface

the proper formation of crystalline clays. Though theclaycontentmayamountto80to90%,thesoilspossessaverystableandstrongstructure,allowingthemtobecultivatedduringheavyrains.Thesefeaturesarecom-pletelydifferentfromU.S.soilsinthesouthernregion.TheclosestcomparisonisperhapswiththeDavidsonsoil.However,thissoilexhibitspropertiesshowingthedominantroleofcrystallineclays,thoughshort-range-ordermineralsmayhaveaffectedthemsomewhat.Thesoilsarealsooftenstickyandplasticwhenwetandveryhardwhendry.According to theU.S.SoilTaxonomy,these soils are ultisol, formed in material weatheredfromdiorite,micaschists,orbasalticrocks.Noneoftheoxisols(EutrorthoxorHaplorthox)inPuertoRicoortheVirginIslandsappeartobesimilartothetropicalsoilsinIndonesia.Theoxisols inPuertoRicoareallegedlymarginal lands, suffering from drought even duringshortdryperiods,whereasthoseinIndonesiaareexcel-lentagricultural lands,aswillbediscussed inChap-ter6.TheparentmaterialsoftheoxisolsinPuertoRicohavealsobeenreportedastertiarylimestone,whichinIndonesiawouldhaveformedterrarossaorredMedi-terraneansoilsandalfisols.PerhapsoxisolsinHawaiimaycomparemorefavorablyinsomeaspects,buttheU.S. Soil Taxonomy states that they are not extensiveandcanbesimilaronlytooxisolsfrombasicrocksthatarefoundinSouthAmericaandAfrica.

Theauthoralsowishestoshowthatatropicalclimateisnotnecessarilyhotandhumid,butmayvaryfromhotandhumidtocoolandarcticcoldwithelevation,whengoing up from the lowlands to the top of the moun-tains.Thesedifferencesinclimate,whichbringabout

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Preface xxiii

altitudinalvariationsinvegetation,haveapronouncedeffect on soil formation. The changes in geomorphol-ogy, and especially those in climate and vegetation,withelevationsabovesealevelareparticularlynoticedtohaveproducedaltitudinalvariations insoil forma-tion,yieldingzonesofdifferentsoils.

Inaddition,thisbookaddressesthefollowingissue.DuringDutchcolonialtime,Dutchscientistscollectedan abundant amount of research materials, most ofwhich were written in Dutch and published in localpapers.Theyarenowburiedinamazeoflibraryrefer-encesinIndonesiaandareverydifficulttofind.Thoughmostofthematerialsmaybeconsideredold,theyareveryvaluableandstillrelevantintoday’sscientificstan-dards.Thisinformationwillbelostforevertomost,ifnotall,ofthenewgenerationofIndonesianandinter-nationalscientistswhodonotreadtheDutchlanguage.Becauseofthis,theauthorhasretrievedmostoftheoldinformationandismakingitaccessibleinthisbookinasomewhatrevisedversion,withamoremodernflavoraddedtotheoldconcepts.

The genesis, properties, classification, and land useofthesoilsaremajortopicsofdiscussioninthisbook.Thebasicmaterialsoriginatedfromtheauthor’sexperi-enceasanativeofIndonesiaandfromhisresearchasprofessorandheadoftheDepartmentofSoilScience,BogorUniversityofAgriculture(betterknowntodayasIPBforInstitutPertanianBogor),Indonesia,from1957to1967.Afteracceptingapositionin1968asprofessorofSoilScienceandAgronomyattheUniversityofGeor-gia,Athens,theauthor’sactivitiesinsoilresearchandastheAgronomyClubsoiljudgingcoachformorethan

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xxiv Preface

10yearsprovidedhimwithexcellentopportunitiesforstudying and making valuable comparisons betweenU.S.andIndonesiansoils.Additionalinformationwascollected during teaching and research assignments(1995topresent)asvisitingprofessoratseveralresearchinstitutesanduniversitiesinIndonesia,includingBogorResearchInstituteforEstateCrops;SoilResearchInsti-tute, Bogor; University of Andalas, Padang; and theUniversityofNorthSumatra,Medan.

The nine chapters in this book can perhaps bedividedintotwoparts.ThefirstpartincludesChapters1 through5,covering thedevelopmentofsoil scienceinIndonesia,thegeographyandgeomorphologyofthearchipelago, climate, vegetation, mineralization, andhumification processes as factors of soil formation inIndonesia.ThesecondpartincludesChapters6through9,andexaminesthemajorsoilsinIndonesiaandtheirgenesis, properties, taxonomy, land use, and evalua-tion. The latter also addresses the cultivation of localfarm,estate,andindustrialcrops,whichdifferintypesandvarietiesfromthelowlandtohighlandregions.Forexample,rubberandoilpalm,restrictedtogrowinginthelowlands,arereplacedbyteaandcoffeeinthehigh-lands.Thevegetablecropsofthemountainsaremoretemperateregioncrops,whereasbananasofthetypesofferedinU.S.supermarkets,growingbestinthelow-lands,tendtoalsobereplacedbyamountainvarietyinthehighlandsofIndonesia.Alltheseandmorewillbediscussedintherespectivesectionsofthebook.

The soils are discussed according to the followingarrangement: (1) soils of the lowlands (for example,oxisols,ultisols,lowlandalfisols,orredMediterranean

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Preface xxv

soilsandvertisols)andhistosols(tropicalpeatsoils);(2)soilsoftheupland(forexample,podzoliclatosolsandinceptisolsorbrownforestsoils);(3)soilsofthemoun-tains (such as highland or mountain alfisols, brownpodzolicsoils,andspodosols);and(4)andosols(soilsinthemountainsaswellasinthelowlands).

ThoughthenamesofsoilordersinthepresentU.S.Soil Taxonomy are used in the titles, many do notadequatelyrepresenttheIndonesiansoilsinquestion.Hence, the names of soils from the World ReferenceBase forSoilResources (WRB),FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO-UN),Austra-lianandCanadiansoilclassificationsystems,andtheolder(1948)U.S.SoilTaxonomyarealsostated,whichintheauthor’sopinionoftenrepresentmorecloselytheparticularsoilsinIndonesia.

TheChaptersChapter1coversthedevelopmentofsoilscienceinIndo-nesia,fromthepre-WorldWarIIperiodwithadomi-natingDutchinfluence,tothepost-WorldWarIIperiod,where theAmericansystemwasgaining importance,especiallythroughcooperativeeducationalprojectswiththe University of Kentucky, Lexington, and the Mid-western Universities Consortium, respectively, underthe sponsorship of the U.S. Agency for InternationalDevelopment(USAID).MostoftheolderbutimportantworkbyDutchscientistsinpedology,soilsurvey,soilfertility,plantnutrition,landuse,andconservationareincluded. The establishment of higher education and

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xxvi Preface

thedawnofnewexperimentstationsareexaminedinviewofadvancingsoilscienceinIndonesia.

Chapter2examinesgeography,geomorphology,andotherfactorsofimportanceasparentmaterialsforsoilformation in Indonesia. The significance of dividingthe archipelago into the Sunda and Sahul shelves inbetweentheWallaceaisexplained,andmajorgeomor-phologicalfeaturesareprovidedfortheislandsofJava,Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Moluccas, the lesserSundaislands,andPapua(formerlyWestIrian).

Chapter3discussestheclimateinIndonesia.Thecon-ceptsofequatorial,tropical,andmonsoonclimatesaredefined,andlocaluseisexaminedforconsideringthewestmonsoonandeastmonsoonastherainyanddryseasons, respectively. The relevance between Mohr’sclimaticsystemandthatofSchmidtandFergusonarecompared.Thesignificanceofamonsoonandtropicalclimateisaddressed,andtheiraltitudinaldivisionsintolowland,upland,andmountain-landzonesaredeter-minedandevaluatedasfactorsinsoilformation.

Chapter4describesthevegetationinIndonesia.Theconceptofclimaxvegetationisdefined,andthetypespresentinIndonesiaarediscussed(forexample,tropi-cal rain forests, monsoon, and savannah forests). Thedivision of the archipelago by Van Steenis into threevegetationprovinces isaddressed.Altitudinalvegeta-tionzonesareidentifiedduetochangingclimatewithelevationabovesealevel(forexample,coastalflora,rainforests, mountain rain forests, cloud-belt forests, andsubalpine vegetation). Limits for cloud belts and tim-berlinearegiven.

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Preface xxvii

Chapter 5 explains soil formation and classificationinIndonesia.Thesoilformationfactorsandprocessesarediscussedandthe influenceofclimaticvariationsanddifferentparentmaterialsareaddressed.Theroleof precipitation/evapotranspiration ratios in weather-ingintensityispresented.Thesystemofsoilclassifica-tioninIndonesiaisdescribed.

Chapter6examinessoilsinthelowlands,theparentmaterials,climate,morphology,analyticalfeatures,clas-sification,landuse,andevaluation.Thesesoilsincludeoxisols,ultisols,lowlandalfisols,vertisols,andhistosols:

Oxisolsaretheformerlatosolswithexcellentphysi-cal properties regardless of their extremely highclaycontent.Theyhavebeenformedmainlyinthehumidtropicsfromandesiticvolcanictuff.Ultisols,formerlycalledred-yellowpodzolicsoils,are soils with lower-based status and are moreacidicinreactionsthantheoxisols.Theyhavebeenformedfrommoreacidicparentmaterials(suchasdaciticandliparitictuffs)andarerichinquartz.Lowlandalfisolsarethesoilsformedbylaterizationinthelimestoneareas.ThenamealfisolwaschosenastheclosestplacementintheU.S.SoilTaxonomyonlyanddoesnotexactlydescribethesoilsprop-erly.Thesesoilsaremorerelatedtotheredoxisolsandultisolsandareknownasred-yellowMediter-raneanorterrarossasoils.Vertisolsareoftenfoundasa toposequenceor, incloseassociationwiththelowlandalfisols,atloca-tions with more impeded drainage conditions.

•

•

•

•

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xxviii Preface

SugarcaneisoneofthemajorcropsgrownonthevertisolsofIndonesia.Histosolsaremainlypeatsoils,calledtropicalpeatbyFAOsoilscientists.Theywerenotexpectedtoexistin thewarmhumidtropics,but in1895,Koordersreported the presence of extensive peat areas inSumatra.Thesesoilshavenowbeenfoundexten-sivelyinthecoastalregionsofSumatra,Kaliman-tan,andPapua.

Chapter7featuresthemajorsoilsintheuplandsofIndonesia (for example, podzolic latosols and brownforestsoils).ThelatterisidentifiedintheU.S.SoilTax-onomyasinceptisols.Thisnameisalsoselectedinthisbook,becauseitistheonlyorder’snameintheU.S.SoilTaxonomy that canbeused.The soils, in fact,donotreally represent young soils as the name implies. ThebrownforestsoilsorinceptisolsofIndonesiaarefertilesoils,andduetotheirformationinthecooleruplands,bothtropicalandtemperateregioncropscanbegrownonthesesoils.Theyarealsothesoilsonwhichclovesarecultivated,oneofthemajorspicesthat,initsearlyhis-tory,madeIndonesiarenownedastheSpiceIslands.

Chapter8discussesthemajorsoilsinthemountainsof Indonesia (forexample,highlandormountainalfi-sols, brown podzolic soils, and podzols [spodosols],respectively).Thenamehighlandalfisols isusedinthischaptertodifferentiatethemfromthelowlandalfisolsdiscussedinChapter6.Thesehighlandalfisolsoccurinzones,wherecoolandhumidconditionsprevail.Thesoils appear more like the gray wooded or the gray-brown podzolic soils of the Canadian and old U.S.

•

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Preface xxix

systems,ortheluvisolsoftheFAO-UNsystem.Thesesoilssupportavarietyoftemperateregioncrops,includ-ingwheatandgrapes.Lowlandtypesofbananastendtobereplacedbymountainbananas.Thecoolclimatealso encourages development of dairy farming. Thebrownpodzolicsoilsarelocatedinbetweenthehigh-landalfisolsandthespodosols.Theyareconsideredbysomeaspodzolsintheinitialstages.ThespodosolsaresoilsgenerallypresentonlyinthemountainsofIndo-nesia, where the climate and vegetation are favorablefor podzolization processes. They are called podzolsintheoldU.S.classificationandtheFAO-UNsystems,and this name is still used today in Europe. PodzolshavealsobeendiscoveredbytheDutchinthelowlandsofBangka,buttheseareconsideredasexceptionsandtheir occurrence is apparently limited to very smallareas.

Chapter9offersanoverviewoftheandosols,whichcanbe foundboth in themountainsaswellas in theuplandsandlowlandsofIndonesia.Thesearetheandi-solsinthenewU.S.SoilTaxonomy.InIndonesia,theyare frequently confused for brown forest soils. Ando-solsareperhapsthemostfertilesoilsoftheIndonesianarchipelago.Avarietyofcropsaregrownonandosols,and the best tea and coffee plantations are found onandosols.

Kim.Howard.TanThe.University.of.Georgia

Athens,.Georgia

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69071.indb 30 4/25/08 10:40:23 AM

AcknowledgmentsTheauthorwouldliketoacknowledgeandthankmanypeople and institutions for their assistance, reviews,comments,andcontributions.ThanksaredueintheserespectstoH.F.Massey,formerAssociateDeanforInter-nationalPrograms,UniversityofKentucky,Lexington.He was a visiting professor at IPB, Bogor, Indonesia,servinginthe1960salsoasactingchiefoftheUniver-sityofKentuckyContractTeamatIPB.ThanksarealsoextendedtoRoySigafusoftheUniversityofKentuckyContractTeamandvisitingprofessoratIPB,Bogor,inthe 1960s, for reading the early drafts of this manu-script. Grateful appreciation is extended to Irsal Las,DirectoroftheIndonesianCenterforAgriculturalLandResourcesResearchandDevelopment,andFahmuddinAgus, former Director of the Soil Research Institute,Bogor,Indonesia,fortheircooperationandcourtesyinprovidingthelatestversionoftheSoilMapofIndone-sia.ThanksarealsoduetoDidiekH.Goenadi,Direc-tor of the Institute of Biotechnology for Estate Crops,Bogor,Indonesia;DianFiantis,Pedologist,Ir.DatukR.Imbang,SoilTaxonomist Ir.Burhanuddin,SU, formerAssociate Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, University ofAndalas,Padang;andtoAbuDardak,formerDirector,

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xxxii Acknowledgments

GraduateSchool,UniversityofNorthSumatra,Medan,Indonesia,fortheirvaluablecontributionsandforcol-lectingseveralofthedata.TheassistanceofO.Iskan-dar,formerchairmanoftheDepartmentofSoilScience,InstitutPertanianBogor,andthatoftheForestrySer-vice,BadanPlanologiKehutananIndonesia,areherebyalsogratefullyacknowledged for cropyielddataandthe use of a vegetation map, respectively. Finally, mygrateful thanksare extended to JanuarDarmawanofP.T.CengkehZanzibar forprovidingsomeof thepic-tures, toH.Hartawan,servingasaprofessionalpho-tographer,andlastbutnotleasttomywifeYelliandmysonBudi,fortheirunderstanding,encouragement,andassistanceinwritingthisbook.

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�

chapterone

ThedevelopmentofsoilscienceinIndonesiaFor hundreds of years people have looked upon theearthasthesourceoftheirfoodandfibersupplyandasthebearerofmineralsandmetalsusefulfortheirwell-being.Butnotuntil thenineteenthcenturyhavesoilsbeenstudiedonascientificbasis.ThisisalsotrueforIndonesia,wheresoilsciencecanbeconsideredmuchyoungerthaninmanyothercountries.Initsdevelop-ment, two periods can be distinguished in Indone-sia—thepre-WorldWarIIperiodwiththedominatingDutchinfluenceandthepost-WorldWarIIperiod,dur-ing which the Food and Agriculture Organization oftheUnitedNations(FAO-UN)andU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)systemsweregainingimportance,formingthebasisforthedevelopmentofthepresentsoilsciencewithastrongimprintofahomegrownIndone-sianidentity.

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� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia

�.� Thepre-WorldWarIIperiodSoilscienceduringthisperiodstartedtodevelopdur-ingthegloryoftheDutchcolonialtimefromapproxi-matelythenineteenththroughthetwentiethcenturies.The establishment of the Dutch empire dated backtoearly in1602,whenafteradecisivebattlewith thePortuguese, the VOC, Vereenigde Oost Indische Com-pagnie (for United East India Company), was createdby the Dutch in Bantam, Java. The VOC, in fact, wasa trading post with its main interest only in gainingthemonopolyof the lucrativespicebusiness—pepperfromSumatra,andcloves,nutmeg,andmacefromtheMoluccas.Itwassupposedtobeatradeandcollectioncenterforspices,anditslocationnearamajorsearoute,theSundaStrait,hasproventobeofextremeadvantageforextendingDutchdominationoverthearchipelago.In1918theDutchappointedJanPieterszoonCoengov-ernor general, who, after defeating the British, set upheadquartersinthesmallportthenknownasJacatra,butrenamedBataviabyCoenin1918.Sincethenuntilthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,theDutchgainedpowerintheIndonesianarchipelago,whichwasnamedtheNetherlandsEastIndies.Regardlessofwhatmanypeoplethoughtaboutcolonialism,theefficiencyoftheDutchrule,ascomparedtoanyotherEuropeancolo-nialpowers,wasunsurpassed.

ThepresenceandavailabilityofspicesintheMoluc-cas, and the great potential of Java and Sumatra fordevelopmentoftea,rubber,andcoffeeplantationshavebeen part of the reasons for the relatively long dura-tionofaDutchempireinSoutheastAsia.Perhapsonly

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Chapterone: SoilScienceinIndonesia �

theBritishcolony,theformerBritishIndia,boresomeresemblance. Hence, the Netherlands East Indies canberegardedas thebest-managedterritoryamongthemanyWesterncoloniesinAsia,Africa,andotherpartsoftheworld.

ItwaslateinthenineteenthcenturywhentheDutchcolonial timestartedtopeak,culminatingduringtheyears1920to1942,thatinterestinagriculturalsciencesandespeciallysoilsciencegotastart.ThesoilsinIndo-nesiawerestudiedprimarilybyDutchscientists,famil-iar with agricultural conditions in temperate regionzones.Soon,itbecameapparentthattheseexperiences,andinparticularthoseimportedfromtheNetherlands,werenotappropriateforapplicationsinsituationssuchasthatinIndonesia,ifandwhennotmodifiedappro-priately.Theneedforbetterscientificsoilinvestigationswasstimulatedbythenecessitytofurnishmoredata,primarily for the thriving Dutch agricultural enter-prisesorplantations.Severalexperimentstationswereestablishedfortheinvestigationofmajorestatecrops,whereoverseasexperiencescouldbethoroughlytestedand modified, and local systems could be developed.Theseexperimentstationswereusuallylocatedincloseproximitytotheplantationswheretheparticularestatecropsweregrown.Forinstance,aResearchInstituteforEstateCropswasestablishedinMedan,Sumatra,withaDeliTobaccoExperimentStation,servingthelucrativetobacco plantations located in Deli on the foot of theSibayakMountain.In1916aRubberExperimentStationwascreated,formerlyknownunderthenameAVROS,forAlgemeneVereenigingvoorRubberOnderzoekterOost-kust van Sumatra, serving the vast rubber plantations

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on the east coast of Sumatra. Other experiment sta-tionswerecreatedontheislandofJava.Forexample,aCenterforResearchofEstateCrops,calledCPV(forCentrale Proefstations Vereeniging), was established in1890 in Bogor, close to the best tea plantations in themountainrangeofWestJava.ASugarCaneResearchStationinPasuruan,andaCoffeeResearchStationinJemberwereestablishedinEastJava,wheremostofthesugarcaneandcoffeeplantationswerelocated,becauseoffavorableclimaticconditionsforgrowingsugarcaneandcoffeecrops.

The attention was focused first on soil fertility andcrop production (Ackermann, 1899/1900; Van Bijlert,1903;Fromberg,1858/1859;TrompdeHaas,1897),butgradually more attention was given to the study ofmorphology and classification of soils of the variousplantations(Arrhenius,1928;BokmadeBoer,1907;Boo-berg,1928;Brink,1932;KobusandSchult,1903).Withtheestablishmentin1905oftheSoilResearchInstitute(nowcalledPusatPenelitiandanPengembanganTanahdanAgroklimatorCenterofResearchandDevelopmentofSoils and Agroclimate) at Bogor, Java, Indonesia, soilresearch went in a new direction under E.C.J. Mohras the institute’s first director, placing less empha-sison thecultivationaspectsofestatecrops.TheSoilResearch Institute was influential for the increasedattentioninpedogeneticresearch.Mohr’sagrogeologi-calconceptinsoilsciencewaspublishedinaseriesofarticles from 1909 to 1916, which were modified dur-ing the years 1922 to 1945 (Mohr, 1922, 1944; see alsoMohrandVanBaren,1960).MohreventuallybecameregardedbytheDutchsoilscientistsasthefounderof

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pre-WorldWarIIsoilscienceinIndonesia,inthesenseofJustusVonLiebigforpromotingMineralNutritionofPlantsandDokuchaievinthedevelopmentofPedology.Sincethen,manynewideaswerepresented,andbegin-ningin1930,ledbyWhite(1930),anumberofnewandyoungersoilscientistsfocusedtheirattentiononstudy-ingpedologyandpracticingsoilsurveyascarriedoutin the United States. As expected, Mohr and cowork-ers afforded strong opposition and voiced criticismsagainst the American System (Shaw, 1933/1934; White,1930).Nevertheless,soilresearchinpedologyandsoilsurvey continued with greater activity than before,and even the Soil Research Institute at Bogor startedin1930asoilsurveyofJava(White,1931).Thiswasfol-lowedbytheGeologicalInstitutecarryingoutsurveyworkinSouthSumatra(Idenburg,1937;Szemian,1953).In North Sumatra, soil survey was conducted by theDeliExperimentStationoftheDeliTobaccoCompany,withitsheadquarterslocatedinMedan,Sumatra,Indo-nesia. All of these efforts have produced a variety ofdetailedsoilmaps(Druif,1939a,b;Oostingh,1927,1928),whichwererelatedsomewhattoagronomic,pedologi-cal,andgeologicalprinciples.Forthispre-WorldWarIIperiod,theresultsaboveweredeemedasrevolutionaryachievementsinsoilworkinIndonesia,aspointedoutbyEdelman(1947)inhisexcellentreviewofsoilscienceinIndonesia.

Asindicatedearlier,alloftheaboveeffortsinpromot-ingsoilscienceinIndonesiawereperformedprimarilytosatisfytheneedforgrowingestatecropsatthelargeDutchplantations.Theneed forresearch in theculti-vationoffoodcrops(forexample,rice)wassatisfiedat

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that time by the establishment of a General Agricul-turalResearchStationatCimanggu,Bogor.Andmorerecently, a Rice Research Station was established inSukamandi,WestJava.Thefocuswasoncropproduc-tionandricebreedingexperiments.Nomajoreffortsinsoilresearchwereconductedbythisresearchinstitute.

Theneedforhighereducationinthisprewarperiodwasmetbytheestablishmentin1928ofaschoolofVet-erinarySciencesattheuniversitylevel,whichtheDutchcalled Faculteit der Diergeneeskunde (Faculty of Veteri-naryMedicine),followed2yearslaterbythecreationofaFacultyofAgriculturalSciences,modeledsomewhatfrom the Agricultural University at Wageningen, theNetherlands.Intheearlydays,bothfacultieswerenotdoing well in Batavia (now called Jakarta), until theyweremovedtothepresentlocationatBogor,whichwillbediscussedinSection1.2.1.

�.� Thepost-WorldWarIIperiodWorldWarIIdisruptedthedevelopmentofsoilscienceinIndonesia.TheJapanesearmyoccupiedthecountryuntilAugust15,1945,whenJapansurrendered,whichbecameofficialSeptember2,1945.DuringtheJapaneseoccupation, no scientific and research activities wereallowed,buttheseactivitiesresumedslowlyagainafter1945.Theperiodthatfollowedwasaperiodwithmanychanges,somedrasticandabrupt,butmanyalsooccur-ringverygradually.TwodaysaftertheJapanesesurren-der,Sukarno,thenpresidentofIndonesia,proclaimedthecountry’sindependence,startingapostwarstruggleagainstthereturningDutchregime,untilonDecember

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27,1949,internationalpressureforcedtheDutchtosignanagreementfortransferofsovereigntyofthearchipel-ago,exceptWestNewGuinea,nowcalledWestPapua.Indonesia was to become part of a political Dutch–Indonesiansystem,modeledsomewhataftertheBritishCommonwealthtokeepIndiaandPakistanundertheBritishCrown.However,itcreatedaverytumultuousperiod with lots of disputes (for example, Indonesia’sfinancial indebtednessandDutchreluctancetotrans-ferpoweroverWestNewGuinea). In1956, IndonesiadissolvedunilaterallytheunionwiththeNetherlandsanddrasticmeasureswereintroducedforconfiscating,nationalizing,orliquidatingallDutchassets.ThiswaspartlydueperhapstoSukarno’sconceptofultranation-alism,borderingonradicalism.BeforeWorldWarII,theDutchsentencedhimintoexiletoBengkulu,Sumatra,forhisactivityinatoo-earlyindependencemovement.The latterwaspresumablya reason forhisdislikeorhatredoftheDutchregime,asoftenshowninhisrhet-oric,andafactorinthedecisiontotakethedrasticstepsabove,forcingalltheDutchpeopleoutofIndonesia.Itisagainstthisbackdropofeventsthatthedevelopmentof soil science in Indonesia unfolded in the first halfof thepost-WorldWarIIperiod,aswillbeaddressedbelow.

Inthebeginning,soilsurveywascontinuedbysev-eralDutchscientistsusing theprinciplesofagrogeol-ogy, whereas others moved to investigate soils moreon pedogenetic principles with a certain bias on theUSDA system. For a while, all activities on soil map-ping, survey, and other routine soils work seemed tobecenteredattheSoilResearchInstitute,whereDames

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(1955)publishedabookonthesoilsineastandcentralJava,consideredacompilationoftheinstitute’sactivi-tiesduringtheperiod1942to1954.Attemptswerelatermade by Dudal and Supraptohardjo (1957) to changethe old soil classification by adopting the Food andAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO-UN)system.SuchachangewasconsideredtoprovidetheSoilResearchInstitutewithabetterandmoreuni-formsoilclassificationsystem(DudalandJahja,1957).Ontheotherhand,scientificinvestigationsonsoilgen-esis, soil chemistry, theagronomic importanceof soilproperties,andcropproductionwereapparentlylefttothe discretion of two major universities—the Univer-sityofIndonesialocatedatJakartaandtheGajahMadaUniversityatYogyakarta.

�.�.� Theestablishmentofhighereducation

Tomeettheneedofhighereducationinagriculture,theFaculty of Agriculture and Faculty of Veterinary Sci-ence,establishedduringthepre-WorldWarIIperiod,were reopened and moved to Bogor in 1946, as partsoftheUniversityofIndonesia.ThenameFacultieswasused, conforming to Dutch and other European sys-temsforuniversities’divisionsofhighereducation,andaredifferentfromtheU.S.termoffaculty,referringtoprofessorsandmembersoftheUniversity.Thetwofac-ultieswereconsolidatedunderthenameofInstituteofHigherEducationinAgriculturalSciences(BalaiPergu-ruanTinggiPertanian).ItwasattheFacultyofAgricultureatBogorwheremostofthesoilresearchwascontinuedatthestartofthispost-WorldWarIIperiodunderthe

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leadership of Dutch professors. However, due to thegrowing unfavorable political conditions during thereignofSukarno,thefirstpresidentofIndonesia,manyweregraduallyforcedtoreturntotheNetherlands.

In1963, theFacultiesofAgricultureandVeterinaryScienceatBogorsecededfromtheUniversityofIndo-nesiatobecometheBogorInstituteofAgriculturalSci-ences, known today in Indonesia as Institut PertanianBogor(IPB).ThiswasfollowedbytheestablishmentofanumberofotheruniversitiesinthevariousregionsofIndonesia that included a Faculty of Agriculture andSoilScienceas importantdivisions in theirstructuralmakeup. Itwas in linewith thenewIndonesiangov-ernmentpolicytohaveauniversity,teachingalsoagri-culture,ineachoftheprovinces.Listedbelowaresomeof themajoruniversities in thisrespectwithastrongFaculty of Agriculture and soil science department,representing the major islands in Indonesia (for loca-tionsseeFigure1.1):

Sumatra:. University of North Sumatra, Medan;AndalasUniversity,Padang,WestSumatra

Java:. IPB, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, WestJava;GajahMadaUniversity,Yogyakarta,CentralJava

Kalimantan:. Lambungmangkurat University,Banjarbaru

Sulawesi:. UniversityofHassanudin,MakassarMoluccas:. UniversityofPattimura,Ambon

For some time, the IPB served as a flagship univer-sityfortheeducationandtrainingofpersonneloftheotheruniversities.

69071.indb 9 4/25/08 10:40:26 AM

�0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia

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69071.indb 10 4/25/08 10:41:17 AM

Chapterone: SoilScienceinIndonesia ��

�.�.� TheKentuckyContractTeam(KCT)andMidwesternUniversitiesConsortiumforInternationalActivities(MUCIA)projects

In theefforts to replace theDutchexperts,whowereforcedtorepatriatetotheNetherlands,andtodevelopanewsystemforadvancingresearchandteachinginhighereducation, theFacultyofAgricultureatBogorwas chosen as the site for a cooperative educationalproject with the University of Kentucky, Lexington,sponsoredbytheU.S.AgencyforInternationalDevel-opment (USAID)underanAID/W-699contract (Rice,1968).Thefaculty’saffiliation,aspartoftheUniversityof Indonesia, with its close proximity to the CentralGovernmentatJakarta,wasconsideredperhapsoneofthereasonsfortheselection.AteamofU.S.scientists,withOlafS.Asomodtasthefirstgroupleader,wassentin1958by theUniversityofKentucky,whichbecameactively involved in research and higher education atthefacultyinBogor,lastinguntil1966.

Thegroup,knownastheKentuckyContractTeam(KCT),was influential forsendingmanyyoungscientists forfurthereducation inresearchandteachingatvariousuniversitiesintheUnitedStates.ThishasproducedagreatnumberofIndonesianexperts,enoughtorapidlyfillthevacuumcreatedbythelossofDutchprofessors,enabling science and research to go forward. Duringthisperiod,a fundamental change tookplace in1963whenthetwoFacultiesofAgricultureandVeterinaryScienceweretransformedintotheIPB.Thismovewasinstigated by the Dean of the Faculty of Agriculture,TojibHadiwidjaja,assistedbyfouryoungmembersof

69071.indb 11 4/25/08 10:41:17 AM

�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia

hisstaff,BachtiarRifai,Hutasoit,KamptoUtomo,andtheauthorofthisbook.Hence,allfivecanbeconsideredasthefoundingmembersofIPB.Atthattime,fournewfacultieswerecreatedandaddedtothenewlyformedIPB:FacultiesofAnimalHusbandry,Fisheries,andFor-estry,andayearlater(1964),aFacultyofAgriculturalTechnologyandMechanization.

ThecooperativeworkwithU.S.universitieswascon-tinuedwiththeMidwesternUniversitiesConsortiumfor InternationalActivities (MUCIA) in1970 to1975,whichwasextendedforanother5-yearperiodduring1975 to1980.Thiswas followed in1980 to1985byasimilar educational and research project sponsoredbytheUniversityofWisconsinatMadison.BoththeMUCIA and University of Wisconsin projects wereUSAID-sponsoredprojects.TheIPBhadtheseUSAID-sponsoredprojectsfrom1958untilabout1990,exceptforthe4-yearperiodfrom1966to1970.Thislong-termsupportand thegreat sizeof the initialprojectwiththeUniversityofKentuckyhadmuchtodowithIPB’sgreatdevelopmenttoitspresentsizeandstatus.Manyof the American-trained people were appointed tonational positions, committees, and task forces, inaddition to teaching positions at the universities inIndonesia.

TofurtherdiscussthedevelopmentofsoilscienceinIndonesia,itisperhapsbettertoaddresstheissuesinamoresystematicandchronologicalway,accordingtothedifferentfields—pedology,soilsurvey,soilfertility,andplantnutrition.

69071.indb 12 4/25/08 10:41:17 AM


�.�.� Pedology

At the Faculty of Agriculture, Bogor, the concept ofagrogeologyinsoilsciencewasrevisedatfirstaccord-ingtopedologicalprinciples,andthesoilclassificationsystemadaptedtotheonemorewidelyusedovertheworld,suchasthezonalsystemasproposedbyThorpand Smith (1949). The first major contribution in thisperiodwasa textbookonsoilswrittenbyWisaksono(1953),whichwassoonfollowedbyapublicationbyVanSchuylenborgh and Van Rummelen (1955), who pre-sentedresultsofaninvestigationshowingthepresenceof brown podzolic, gray-brown podzolic, and brownforestsoilsintheformerlyill-defined“mountainsoils.”Thiswas followedbyVanSchuylenborgh (1958),whodiscoveredthedistributionofsoilstochangewithele-vationsabovesealevel.Theauthorsuggestedthepres-ence of the following zones from the tropical humidlowlandstothecoolmountainregions:

0 to300mabove sea level, azoneof laterization,forminglatosols.300to600mabovesealevel,azoneoflaterization+podzolizationwithred-yellowpodzolicsoilsdomi-natingtheregion.600 to 1000 m above sea level, a zone of podzol-ization forming acid brown forest soils and gray-brownpodzolicsoils.

ThisconceptwasimprovedbyTan(1958)andTanandVanSchuylenborgh(1959),whoclaimedthatundertheinfluenceofamonsoonclimate,thezonaldistributionof

•

•

•

69071.indb 13 4/25/08 10:41:17 AM


soilswithaltitudewouldshifttolowerorhighereleva-tionsdependingonchangingclimatesanddifferencesinparentmaterials.Duringthefollowingyears,seriesofarticlesandbookswerepublishedonthegenesisandclassificationofsoilsinIndonesia(DudalandSuprapto-hardjo,1961;Suhadi,1961;Supraptohardjo,1961a,1961b;Tan,1960,1963,1965,1966;TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1961a,1961b;WisaksonoandTan,1964,1966).

�.�.� Soilsurvey

Asstated in theaforementionedsections,mostof thesoil survey work was centered at the Soil ResearchInstituteatBogor,wheretheoldDutchsystemwasatfirstreplacedbytheFAO-UNsoilclassificationconcept(DudalandJahja,1957;DudalandSupraptohardjo,1957),with a strong bias to that of Thorp and Smith (1949).Foradditionalinformation,referenceismadetoDames(1955)andtothereportoftheIndonesianStandingCom-mitteeonSoilandLandClassification(1963),presentedattheTenthPacificScienceConferenceinHawaii.Sev-eralotherimportanteffortstomentionwereattemptsinproducingseveralregionalsoilmapsaslistedbelowandthesoilmapoftheIndonesianArchipelago(Cen-terforResearchofSoilsandAgroclimate,2000;Dames,1955;SoilResearchInstituteReport,July1964):

1. AreconnaissancesoilmapofEast-CentralJavaatascaleof1:250,000.

2. AnexploratorysoilmapofJavaandMaduraatascaleof1:1,000,000.

69071.indb 14 4/25/08 10:41:18 AM


3. An exploratory soil map of South Sumatra at ascaleof1:1,000,000.

4. AgeneralizedsoilmapofIndonesiaatascaleof1:2,500,000.

5. AnexploratorysoilmapofIndonesiaatascaleof1:1,000,000.

An example of the 2000 version of the exploratorysoil map of Indonesia is shown in Figure1.2. It wasprovided courtesy of the Indonesian Center for Agri-culturalLandResourcesResearchandDevelopmentatBogor.Themappingunitshavebeenselectedtoaccom-modatethenewsystemoftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy.

�.�.� Soilfertilityandplantnutrition

Thoughnotallwereproperlydocumented,thegreaterroleoftheFacultyofAgriculturewasalsoobviousinadvancing the science in this field. The faculty pro-duced its first dissertation in 1956, reporting resultsof investigations on the “Dieback Disease” of clovetrees(TojibHadiwidjaja,1956),whichwasfollowedinthenextyearbyanotherdissertationonthe“MineralNutritionofLowlandRiceinIndonesia”(Go,1957).VanSchuylenborghandSarjadi(1958)thenpublishedtheirresultsonfieldexperimentswithsugarcane,inwhichnitrogen–phosphorus–potassium (NPK) ratios wereusedforabalancedfertilizerschemeingrowingsugarcane.TheuseofNPKratioswasalsoappliedinfertil-izerapplicationsonlowlandrice,whichwerereportedtohaveresultedinsignificantyieldincreases(GoandVanSchuylenborgh,1959),whereasproductivitylevels

69071.indb 15 4/25/08 10:41:18 AM


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69071.indb 16 4/25/08 10:41:21 AM


of paddy soils were reported earlier by Hauser andSadikin(1957a,1957b).WiththehelpofNPKratios,TanandHutagalung (1960)alsoattempted to increase theyield of Irish potatoes to twofold. These crops weregrownonlyinthemountainsofIndonesia.Thesugar-caneexperimentstationinEastJavareportedtheeffectof urea in the cultivation of sugarcane (Han, 1961),whereasMassey,Kang,andSurjatna(1963)presentedashortreviewonwhathasbeenachievedinimprovingtheproduction of cornasa staple foodcrop. In1964,TanandMassey triedwithsuccessusingpedologicalprinciplestosolvesiteeffectsonthegrowthandpro-ductivecapacityofPinusmerkusii,anindigenouspinespeciesofthepineforestinSumatra.

�.�.� Thedawnofnewexperimentstations

In the meantime, most Dutch plantations were pur-chased (nationalized) by the Indonesian government.Forthemanagementofthenewlyformedgovernmentestates,anewinstitutewasestablished,calledPPNforPusatPerkebunanNegara(orCenterofGovernmentPlan-tations).TheliquidationoftheDutchestateswasalsosignalingtheclosingofmostoftheestatecropresearchstations.Ofthefewremainingexperimentstations,themostimportantwastheCPV,whichafterseveralnamechanges from Pusat Penelitian Perkebunan Bogor (1990to 1993), meaning Bogor Research Station Center forEstateCrops,toPusatPenelitianBioteknologiBogorfrom1993to2002,becamewhatwenowknowastheBalaiPenelitianBioteknologiPerkebunan(ResearchInstituteofBiotechnology for Estate Crops). The main emphasis

69071.indb 17 4/25/08 10:41:21 AM


is now on research in biotechnology of estate crops,advancing, among other things, the use of microor-ganismsinrecyclingwastefromestatecropsandfind-ingnewmethodsforusingthesewastesasalternativeenergy sources. Results of the institute’s research ondevelopmentofbiodieselfromoilpalmwasteandbio-ethanolfromsugarcaneresidueandtrashhaverecentlyattractednationalattention.

The conventional and routine experiments on soilfertilityandcultivationofestatecropswereapparentlyleft as the responsibility of a newly established insti-tute,calledPusatPenelitiandanPengembanganPerkebunan(CenterofResearchandDevelopmentofEstateCrops).

Before its complete departure, the Dutch govern-mentstillhadtheopportunitytodevelopanewrubberresearchinstitutein1948underthenameINIRO(Insti-tutNederlandsIndieschRubberOnderzoek),whichin2002wasreorganizedbytheIndonesiangovernmentintoarubbertechnologyresearchstationatTanjungMorawa,NorthSumatra.TheoldrubberresearchstationAVROSwas renamed RISPA (for Research Institute of Suma-traPlantersAssociation)by theDutch in1957,and in1989itwastransformedbyIndonesiaintoanIndone-sian Oil Palm Research Center, called Pusat PenelitianKelapaSawit.Bothofthenewinstitutesarenowunderthe coordination of the Indonesian Research InstituteforEstateCrops.

To take care of research in farming systems, majorfood and horticultural crops, animal production, andfreshwater, coastal, and marine fisheries, an Agencyfor Agricultural Research and Development (AARD)wasestablishedin1974bytheIndonesianMinistryof

69071.indb 18 4/25/08 10:41:21 AM


Agriculture. Under its first director, Gunawan Satari,resultsofagricultural research in Indonesia, coveringtheperiodof1981to1986,werepublishedbytheagencyinbookform:FiveYearsofAgriculturalResearch.ItsCon-tributiontoAgriculturalDevelopmentinIndonesia.

In2006,anewcenterwascreated,calledtheCenterforAgricultural Land Resources and Development (BalaiBesarPenelitiandanPengembanganSumberdayaLahanPer-tanian).Itisresponsibleforcoordinatingandoverseeingtheactivitiesoffourresearchstations:theSoilResearchInstitute, the Peat Soil Research Institute, the Agrocli-mateResearchInstitute,andtheAgriculturalEnviron-mentResearchInstitute.

�.�.� Nationalconferencesandscientificsocieties

Inthispost-WorldWarIIera,severalsoilconferenceswere also held, summarizing progress obtained dur-ing the previous consecutive periods. Only some ofthe major conferences, which had an impact on thedevelopment of scientific societies and advancementofsoilscience,arementionedhere.Attheinitiativeofthe Association of Scientists in Agricultural and For-estrySciences(IkatanSarjanaPertaniandanKehutanan),aconferencewasheldatCiawi(nearBogor)inJune1959,where past soil conservation activities in Indonesiawereexamined,andstrategiesforfutureactivitieswereplanned.Thiswasfollowedattheendof1961byafirstNationalSoil ScienceConferenceatBogor, sponsoredby the Soil Research Institute. At this time, attemptsweremadebythegeneralassemblyoftheconference

69071.indb 19 4/25/08 10:41:22 AM


toestablishaSoilScienceSocietyofIndonesia.AttheAsianSoilConference,Jakarta,Indonesia,inJuly1972,anextensivebibliographywaspublishedbytheCentralLibrary for Biology and Agriculture at Bogor, locallyknownas theBibliothecaBogoriensis, inwhichmostofthe published reports and scientific publications onsoilsandagricultureinIndonesiawerelistedfrom1940to1972.TheSoilResearchInstituteatBogorcelebrateditscentennialinJune2005byorganizingseminarsonpastandfutureactivitiesonsoilsurvey,conservation,andlanduseandmanagementinIndonesia.

�.�.� Landuseandsoilconservation

Compared to theotherfieldsofsoil science, scientificactivitiesinsoilconservationhaveapparentlyattractedrelatively little attention. The importance of soil con-servationwasnotconsideredseriouslybymostofthepeople, perhaps because of the unfortunate notion ofthepresenceofinexhaustiblelandreserves.Thatsuchthinking may have disastrous consequences on thecountrygoeswithoutsaying.Theirregularwatersupplyofmostoftheriversandtheannualheavyfloodsareafewexamples.Lessseriousperhapsistheeffectofreck-lesslandcultivationbydeforestationandburning.Forinstance,theslash-and-burn(orladang)systemwithoutallowingtimefortheforesttoreturncreatedextensiveareasofwastelandinvadedbyCochongrassorknownby the common name alang-alang (Imperata cylindrica).Thevery irregularwatersupplyofmostof the riversandtheannualheavyfloodingofthecountrysidewerealwaystakenforgrantedorignored.Inthepast,onlya

69071.indb 20 4/25/08 10:41:22 AM


limitednumberofreportswerepublishedaddressingthesubject.Schophuis(1961a,1961b)introducedalandmanagementsystemandtriedtoapplyaerophotogram-metry in land use and water management. MasmanBekti (1959a,b) discussed conservation practices andmanagement of soil water, whereas Supangat (1961)examinedtheroleofvegetationonsoilerosion.SitepuDieken (1961)addressedanimalhusbandryor raisingcattle and soil erosion. Additional literature from theearlydaysincludeworksbyPramudibjo(1959)andTed-jojuwono(1959).Morerecently,aregreeningandrefores-tationprogramwasintroduced,fundedbytheNationalWatershedDevelopmentProgramofIndonesia(Agus,2001).Introducedin1976forthepurposeofconservingnaturalresources, itwas laterextendedaspartof thegovernment’s5-year(1992to1997)developmentplaninrehabilitationofcriticalforestlandsand2.6millionhaofprivatelyownedfarmlands.Regreening,asdefinedbyAgus (2001), issoilconservationappliedoncriticallandsownedbylocalfarmers,whereasreforestationisreplantingofstate-ownedlandswithtrees.Criticallandis considered land usually covered by Cochon grass(Imperatacylindrica)andisseriouslyaffectedbyerosion(Huszar,1998).Theareapronouncedtobeverycriticallandamountsallegedlyto12.3millionha(Agus,2001).

Toeaseannualflooding,someeffortsbythegovern-menthavebeennoticedin1965byprovidingtheJati-luhur multipurpose dam project at Purwakarta, Java,andthecreationofaLandUseBureau.The JatiluhurdamwasbuiltacrosstheTjitarumRiver,oneofthebig-gest rivers in Java, which created an artificial lake ofapproximately 83 km2. The purpose was not only to

69071.indb 21 4/25/08 10:41:22 AM


control annual flooding, but also to produce hydro-electricpowerandasteadysupplyofirrigationwatertothe240,000-hapaddyricefieldsofthecoastalplainandsurroundingareanorthofPurwakarta.TheLandUseBureauwas,inasense,areactivationoftheDutchSoilConservationService.ThisisfollowedtodaybytheSiakRiverprojectinWestSumatraforsimilarpurposes.It is, in fact, a cooperative project between the WestSumatraandRiauprovincestodamtheSiakRiverthatflowsintotheStraitofMalacca.Perhapsasimilarproj-ectcanbeinitiatedacrosstheCiliwungRivertocurbtheannualfloodingofmetropolitanJakarta,wherethefloodsseemtobecomeworseeachyear.

Initsefforttoproduceenoughfoodforthegrowingpopulation,theroutetoachievingthisgoalinIndonesiahasnotchangedfromthepasttothepresent.Itisstillbased on clearing the forest and bringing new landsintocultivation.True,therehavebeenmanychangesincultivationpracticesinmanyareas,asforexamplebet-teruseoffertilizers,efficientapplicationsofpesticidestocontrolpestsanddiseases,andtheuseofhigh-yield-ing varieties of crops (AARD, 1986). However, thesechanges, thoughsignificant,apparentlymaynothavebeensufficienttostoptheclearingoftheforestsandthecultivationofnewlands.Thisiscomplicatedbycontinu-ingthetransmigrationprogram,atfirstintroducedbytheDutchregimeprimarilytoreducethestresscreatedbytheheavypopulationdensityinJavaandtoprovidecheaplaborfortheDutchplantationsinSumatraandKalimantan.Undertherenewedgovernmenttransmi-grationeffortsin1976,manyofthepeopleinJavahavebeen moved to sparsely populated areas of Sumatra,

69071.indb 22 4/25/08 10:41:22 AM


Kalimantan, Papua, and the other islands to increasefoodproduction.Thesettlerswereprovidedwith2to5haofland,ontheaverageoften2.5ha,whichhastobedevelopedintwostages.Inthefirststage,thesettlersreceivedgovernmentsupportintheformofpackagesofmaterialforgrowingfoodcropsandfoodtosustainthem for at least a year. The second stage was inde-pendence. The settlers in Sumatra received a clearedspotforgrowingfoodcrops,oftenuplandrice,andanadditional1to1.5haplantedwithrubberorothertreecropsonagrantbasis.ThesettlersinKalimantanwerealsoprovidedwithaclearedpieceoflandforgrowingfoodcrops,andanotherhectareforhybridcoconuttobecultivatedonacost-recoverybasis.Thistransmigra-tionprogramhasbeenblamedforacceleratingdefor-estation in Indonesiaandforcausingviolentconflictsbetweensomeofthesettlersandtheindigenouspopu-lation.AftertheAsianfinancialcrisisinAugust2000,large-scale transmigration was ended. Many of thenewsettlementshavefailed,becausethesettlerswereoftencity folks, lackingany farmingskills,especiallythosenecessaryforcultivatingnewlands.Someofthenewsettlementswere,however,notedtobesuccessful,especiallywherefoodcropsarecombinedwithgrow-ingrubber,asystemcalledrubberagroforestry.Anotherexampleoftransmigrationsuccessisnotedbythecur-rentauthorinthesettlementsontheslopeoftheOphirMountain in West Sumatra on the fertile andosols,wherethetransmigrantshavebeensuccessfulingrow-ingfruittrees,especiallyorangesforthemarketsinthebigtownsofPadangandMedan.

69071.indb 23 4/25/08 10:41:22 AM


Withtherapidadvancementinscienceandtechniqueatthepresenttime,effortstoincreasefoodproductioninIndonesiacan,infact,alsobeachievedbyintensifyingtheproductionoflandalreadyundercultivation(Brady,1990;Tan,2000).ThisissupportedbyreportsofVandenEelaart(2004)andAndriesse(1988)whoindicatedthatintensification of paddy-rice cultivation, yielding twoharvestsannuallywouldproduceenoughricetomakeIndonesiaself-sufficientinthismajorfoodcrop,withoutdestroyingtheforest.Increasingnewlandareasforcul-tivationalways involvesdeforestation,andbecauseofincreasedpopulationpressure,deforestationisclearlynoticed today to be slowly moving up the mountainslopes.This increases thehazardsofsoildegradationanderosionandisalsoverydamagingtothehydrol-ogyoftheecosystemandIndonesia’spreciouswildlifeandbiodiversity.Theburningoftheforestduring1997to1998,especiallyinrelationtoclearingthecoastalpeatforest,createddisastrouswildfires,affectingalsoneigh-boringcountries.Ashandthicksmoke,allegedlycar-cinogenic,blanketedBrunei,Singapore,Malaysia,andaffected landsevenas farasThailand, causingmuchconcernanddistressamongthepeopleof therespec-tive countries. In Indonesia, the international airportPolonia,Medan,wasforcedtoclose.Anotherexamplewas theheavyfloods in2003, causingagain theclos-ingofPoloniaAirportatMedan,andparalyzingatthesametimepartofmetropolitanJakarta,theIndonesiancapital.Hardhitwas thearea surrounding thepresi-dentialpalaceatJakarta,andthedisastrousfloodswererepeated in 2007 with increasing ferocity. The heavydownpours,bringinghugeamountsofwater,couldnot

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besustainedbytheland,sufferingfromdeforestationontheslopesoftheGedeh-PangrangoandSalakvolca-noesinWestJava,andonthebareslopesoftheSibayakMountaininNorthSumatra.Unfortunately,thesprawl-ingurbanizationhasapparentlycomplicatedeffortsatreforestation and sound watershed management. InthemountainregionsofWestJavaandNorthSumatra,localmerchantshaveencouragedclear-cuttingtheveg-etative cover on roadsides and beyond for setting upproducestands,restaurants,andhotels.AffluentpeoplefromJakartaandMedanaremakingthesituationworsebydestroyingmoreoftheforestonmountainsidesforbuildingbungalows,villas,andothersummerretreats.Additionalevidenceforthedestructionofthehydrol-ogyof theecosystemincludesreportsofdangerouslyloweringthewaterlevelsinmanylakes.LakelevelsinLakeSingkarak,Lake(Danau)Atas,andLake(Danau)Bawah in theBukitBarisanMountainRangeofWestSumatranearthetownofBukitTinggiwerereportedlydecreasedbyapproximately50cmto10m,andareasformerlyinundatedarenowdrylandsattheshoresofLakeAtasandLakeBawah(Tan,2005).

69071.indb 25 4/25/08 10:41:23 AM

69071.indb 26 4/25/08 10:41:23 AM

��

chaptertwo

GeomorphologyofIndonesia

�.� GeographicalsettingofIndonesiaIndonesiaisanarchipelagoandconsistsofmorewaterthanlandarea.Only42%island,whichissharedbyagroupof3000islands,situatedinthehumidtropicsandmonsoonregionsbetween6°northand11°southlati-tudesandbetween95°and141°eastlongitudes.Thetotallandareaofapproximately1,904,343km2ismorethan90%locatedonthefivelargestmainislands(Table2.1).Theremainderisdistributedoverthesmallerislands,manyuninhabited,ranginginsizefromseveralsquarekilometerstomereisolatedrocksorcoralreefs.

The archipelago is affected by two continentalmasses:AsiainthenorthernhemisphereandAustra-lia in the southern hemisphere. Dutchgeologists andseveralotherscientistsbelievethatfrictionbetweenthetectonicplatesofthesetwocontinentshascreatedthesefoldedarcsofislandsinIndonesia,withactivemoun-tainbuilding,volcanism,andperiodicseismicupheav-als (Fisher, 1966; van Bemmelen, 1949). Another alsowidelyaccepted theoryconsiders the islandsasparts

69071.indb 27 4/25/08 10:41:23 AM


ofthearcofvolcanoesandfaultlines,belongingtothePacificRingofFire,circlingaroundthePacificbasin.

This chain of islands forms a discontinuous landbridgebetween the twocontinentsstatedabove,AsiainthenorthwestandAustraliainthesoutheast,criss-crossed by three major natural sea routes, the Sundaand Makassar Straits, for passage through the SouthChinaSeatoChina,andtheMalaccaStrait, themainthoroughfaretoIndiaandtheIndianOcean.Hence,theislandsofIndonesia,lyingonthefringesofoneofthesemajorsearoutesandlocatedclosesttotheAsianconti-nent,havebeenaffectedthemostbyforeigninfluenceandhavebenefitedimmenselyfromforeigntrade.ThiswasalsoonereasonwhytheDutchbuilttheVOC(Ver-eenigde Oost Indische Compagnie [for United East IndiaCompany]) in Banten, their first port of entry, conve-nientlylocatednexttotheSundaStrait,aftertheardu-ous journey through the Indian Ocean. On the otherhand,theislandsintheeasternpartofIndonesia(e.g.,

Table.2.1. LandDistributionofIndonesiaArea of Arable Land

Area (km2) ×1000 ha Per capita

Totalland 1,904,343JavaandMadura 132,174 8374 0.138Sumatra 473,606Kalimantan 593,460Sulawesi 189,035WestPapua 421,951

Sources:BiroPusatStatistikJakarta(1963)andFisher,C.A.(1966).(Withpermission.)

69071.indb 28 4/25/08 10:41:23 AM

Chaptertwo: GeomorphologyofIndonesia ��

Moluccas and Papua) were more isolated and lessaffectedbyforeigninfluenceorcommerce.

From geological, biological, and ethnological pointsofview,thearchipelagocanbedistinguishedintothreedivisions:theSundaShelfareainthewestandtheSahulShelfarea in theeast,withanarea inbetweencalledWallacea,afterthenameofafamousnaturalscientistAlfred Russell Wallace (Lighart, Hövig, and Rinkes,1926; van Bemmelen, 1949). The Sunda Shelf, cover-ingtheislandsofKalimantan,Java,andSumatra,andthe smaller islands Riau, Banka, Belitung, and Sing-kep,belongstotheinfluencesphereoftheAsiancon-tinent.On theotherhand, theSahulShelf, consistingofPapua,Aru,andsurroundingislandsoftheArafuraSea,isinfluencedbyAustralia.TheregionofWallaceaisconsideredatransitionalzone,wheretheSundaShelfand Sahul Shelf meet or intermingle (Fisher, 1966). ItincludestheislandsofSulawesi,Bali,Lombok,Flores,Sumbawa,andTimor.ThisareaisseparatedinthewestfromtheSundaShelfbytheWallaceline,whichrunsthroughtheBaliStraitandMacassarStraitnorthtotheSulu Sea, east of the Philippines. The line separatingtheWallaceafromtheSahulShelfintheeastiscalledtheWeberline.ThisimaginarydivisionlinerunsfromtheTimorSeanorthwardthroughtheBandaSea(westofBuru)andtheMoluccasSea(westofHalmahera).

TheSundaShelfissurroundedbytheCircumSundaMountainsystem,whichcutsacross the trend lineofthe Australian Mountain system. The Circum SundaMountainsystemconsistsoftwomainparts:Itsnorth-ern part, which also covers the Philippines, belongstotheislandchainalongthewesternPacific,whereas

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the southernportion formsapartof thegreatSundaMountain system. The latter extends from the south-ern Moluccas to the Brahmaputra valley in Pakistan(Fisher,1966;vanBemmelen,1949).Locatedinthebluetropicalseas,thedarkgreenforestedmountainsmakethe islandsof Indonesiaamong themostbeautiful intheworld.

�.� GeomorphologyofmajorislandsThegeomorphologyofIndonesiashowsthepresenceofareaswithstrikingcontrasts.TheSundaMountainvol-canismcreatesconsiderable relief.Witha total lengthofabout7000km,itstartsintheeastfromtheBandaislandsandstretcheswestwardalongNusaTenggara,Lombok,Bali,Java,andSumatraacrosstheAndamansand the Nicobars toward Burma. Here it meets theHimalayanrange.TheCircumAustraliansystemformsanotherreliefunitintheeast,whichextendsalongthecentralaxisofPapuatoNewZealand.

Inadditiontotheextensivemountainsystems,broadplainsalsooccuralongtheeastcoastofSumatra,onthenortherncoastlineofJava,andinKalimantan.Thelow-landofSumatra,locatedbetween0and100melevationabovesea level, isestimatedtocover60%of the totalareaofSumatra(Mohr,1944).

Geologically,thearchipelagoisrelativelyyoung(vanBemmelen,1949).Three-fourthsof the landsurface isestimated to be covered by sediments and volcanicdeposits.Tertiaryandquaternaryformationsaremoreabundantthanpretertiarymaterials.Inordertobeableto provide a better picture, it is perhaps necessary to

69071.indb 30 4/25/08 10:41:24 AM


treatthissubjectislandbyisland.However,becausealotofworkhasbeenpublished,itwouldbealmostimpos-sibletocoverall thematerials inthefollowingpages.Moreover,thepurposeistoprovidesomebackgroundinformationonthegeologicmaterialsofimportanceasparentmaterialswhenreadingthechaptersaboutsoilsandsoilformation.ForthoseinterestedinmoredetailsaboutthegeologyofIndonesia,referenceismadetothecomprehensiveworkbyvanBemmelen(1949),Brouwer(1922, 1925), Rutten (1927, 1946), and Umbgrove (1938,1949).Inadditiontothediscussionsbasedontheirorig-inalinvestigations,theauthorsstatedabovehavealsocompiledalmostalltheworkthathasbeenpublishedbyotherauthors.Acomplete list isprovided in theirbooksforretrievalortracingbackthenumerouspub-licationsbyothergeologists.AlsoworthyofreadingisthegeologicaloutlineofIndonesiabySigit(1962).

AmongtheislandsinIndonesia,Javaisprobablythebestknown.Forthisreason,themajorgeologicalfea-tures,characteristicfortheislandofJava,willbecon-sideredfirstinthesectionsbelow.Asecondwell-knownisland is Sumatra, followed by Kalimantan, Sulawesi,Maluku,NusaTenggara,andPapua.

�.�.� GeomorphologicalfeaturesofJava

Javaisapproximately1000kmlongand200kminwidthatthewidestspotsinthewesternandeasternpartsoftheisland,butitisonly120kmwideatthecentralpart.It isthesmallestofthethreemainwesternislandsoftheSundaShelf.Paralleltoitslongitudinalaxis,afer-tile alluvial plain stretches west to east, covering the

69071.indb 31 4/25/08 10:41:24 AM


northerncoasttoSemarang(Figure2.1).EastofSema-rangisfoundthehillylandsofRembang,composedofaseriesofwest–easttrendingridges,alternatingwithalluvial plains. The hills are separated to the northfromtheJavaSeabyanarrowsandybeachwithdunes.Theflat-toppedridgesnearTubanarelimestonereefs.FromhereinlandtowardthecenterofJava,thecountrychangesintoahillyregionoftertiarymarlsandlime-stone.Thisarea isborderedto thesouthbyaquater-nary volcanic chain of mountains with intermontaneplateausandbasins.Thismountainzone,lyingwithinthestructuraldepressionorfaultline,runslengthwisefromeasttowestthroughtheentireisland,continuinginto a series of mountains in Sumatra, known as theBukitBarisanMountainrange.Furthertothesouthofthevolcanicbelt,theislandofJavaiscovered,fromeasttowest,byahighrangeoffoldedtertiarylimestoneandsandstone mountains, averaging 400 m in height. Insomeareasatropicalkarstlandscapehasbeenformedin this folded limestone region, and the land surfacebecomes drier and more barren toward the easternpart.Borderingthisareatothesouth,anarrowcoastalregionexistsofupraisedcoralandriffsof the IndianOcean.

Insummary,thelandscapeofJavaisdominatedbyaseriesofvolcanicdomes,toweringintheskyoveragreentropicalrainforest.Mostofthevolcanoesarestillactive,andseveralaremorethan3000mhigh.Forexample,theMerapi,a2958-m-highvolcano,located30kmfromYog-yakarta,acityof1millionpeople,isreportedatthisverymomentrumblingagain,sendingoutsteadylavaflowsand clouds of black ash. Thousands of farmers were

69071.indb 32 4/25/08 10:41:24 AM


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69071.indb 33 4/25/08 10:41:25 AM


reluctantly forced to evacuate their farms and paddyfields,locatedonthefertilemountainslopes.Thesevol-canoesarethechiefsourcesofsoilmaterialinJava,andhave intermittently delivered ejecta, varying in typesfromdacitesandandesitestobasalts.InWestJava,thehighvolcanicpeaksarelocatedclosetogether,formingextensivehighlandsinthePrianganregion(forexample,PuncakhighlandnearBogor,Pengalenganintermontaneplateau,andLembanghighlandnearBandung).Inthepast,theseclustersofvolcanoescreatedanaturalbarrierforpassageandpublictransportation.However,inCen-tralandEastJava,thevolcanoesaremorewidelyspaced,separatedfromeachotherbybroadpassesandvalleys.TheintermittenteruptionshavecoveredtheareainWestJavawithash,lava,andlaharofmostlydacito-andesitic�origin,whereasthoseinCentralandEastJavaaremostlyof andesito-basaltic composition. Such an intermittentrejuvenationofthesoilbytherichvolcanicmaterialhascreatedveryfertilesoils.

Togetherwiththepresenceofabundanceofwaterforirrigationofthesawahs(paddyfields)atthefootslopeofthemountainsandthecoastalplains,thishighsoilfer-tilityhasproducedadequatericeandotherfoodcrops,resulting perhaps in the development of a very densepopulationinJava.Asindicatedearlier,toeasetheprob-lemofoverpopulation,theDutchcolonialgovernment

�Ingeologicalterms,liparites,rhyolites,anddacitesrefertoacidicmaterials thatarehigh insilica (65 to75%)andrelatively lowin alkalis. Basalts are basic materials that are low in silica (40to50%)andrelativelyhighinelements,suchasFe,Ca,Mg,K,andsoforth,whereasandesitesareintermediatematerialswithacompositionsomewhereinbetween.

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previously instituted a migration system, transfer-ringmanyofthemostunqualifiedpeopleforfarmingto the thensparsely inhabited islandsofSumatraandKalimantan. Today this migration policy, continuedbytheIndonesiangovernment,hasapparentlycreatedalotofstressandfriction.ThenewsettlersfromJava,mostly Muslims, have apparently forced their religionontheindigenousinhabitants,whichinmanyinstanceshas erupted in bloody battles and clashes, as recentlyreported in Kalimantan. Equally important is the factthat some of the lands provided to the settlers wereappropriated by the Indonesian government in termsof eminent domain. This was severely contested by theindigenous folks, who claimed ownership of the landby virtue of possession through their ancestors (tanahadat).

�.�.� GeomorphologicalfeaturesofSumatra

Sumatra is almost four times as large as Java and issituatedwestofJava,from6°Nto6°S,inanorthwestto southeast direction. It is 1700 km long, and in thenorthernpartitis100to200kmwide,whereasinthesoutheastthewidthoftheislandisabout350km.Theisland’sbackboneistheBukitBarisanMountainrange,stretchingfromAcehinthenorthtotheLampungsinthesouth,whichpracticallyformsabarrierforpassageor public transport from east to west. The mountainrangedividestheislandintoabroadeasternpartandarelativelynarrowwesternpart.Severalmainregionaldivisionscanperhapsbedistinguishedfromnorthtosouth.TheyaretheAcehregioninthenorth;theTapanuli

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(Batak)plateauinthenortheast;theMenangkabauhigh-landsinthemidwest;theeasterncoastalplainsofRiau,Jambi,andPalembang;theBengkulumountainsinthesouthwest;andtheLampunglowlandsatthesoutherntip(Figure2.2).

Beginningfromtheeastcoast,onecannoticeabroadhillyalluvialplain,crossedbymanybigandsmallriversthat have their origins in the Bukit Barisan hinterlands.Thiszone is separated fromtheStraitofMalaccabyan

Strait ofMalacca

Sabang

Banda Aceh

ACEHMedan

MntSibayak

Lake TobaTAPANULI

Siak River

Kampar RiverMnt Ophir

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Mnt KerinciMusi River

Palembang

Bangka

LAMPUNG

Bengkulu

Siberut

INDIAN OCEAN

W — E

Nias

Simeulue

Figure 2.2 GeomorphologyofSumatra.(Scale:1:12,500,000.)(FromvanBemmelen,R.W.[1949];Fisher,C.A.[1966];Sigit,S.I.[1962];andRandMcNally[1995].)

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extensivebeltofswampsandpeat,whichinsomeplacesisabout30kmwide.FromtheAsahanRiver,drainingtheTobaLakeintheBatakhighlands,totheBatangHariRiverinJambiandtheMusiRiverinthesouth,wherePalembangis located, these rivers have not only deposited alluvialmaterialfromthewesternhinterlands,buthavealsocon-tributedtotheformationofvastexpansesoftidalswampsandpeatonthecoastoftheStraitofMalacca.Thethick-nessofthepeatdepositswasestimatedtobemorethan50cmto1minsomeplaces.Thisregionoftidalswampsandpeathasinthepastalwaysbeentreatedaswasteland,use-less for agriculture, unhealthy, and noninhabitable withseemingly many unsurmountable obstacles for passageintotheinterior(Fisher,1966).Withtherapidadvancementofsoilandenvironmentalscience,tidalswampsandpeatarenowrecognizedasimportantpartsoftheecosystem.Theyprovide sanctuariesandare thenestingplaces formanybirdsandanimals.Theyareatthesametimethemajorbreedinggroundsforanassortmentofmarinelife(e.g.,shrimp,crab,andfish).Theareacontainingthepeatdepositsisnotedatpresenttoberichinoilandnaturalgas,andimportantoilfieldshavebeenlocatednearPekanbaruintheRiauprovinceandsouthinPalembangontheMusiRiver.TinisfoundinthealluvialsedimentsoftheislandsofBangka,Belitung,andSingkep,andbauxiteinBintanoftheRiauprovince.Inadditiontotheabove,Sumatraisknownforitscoaldeposits,suchasinUmbilinintheBukitTinggiarea,andinBukitAsamintheBenkulumountains.ThisisincontrastwithJavawhichhasnomineralwealthofsignificance.

Thezoneofalluvialplains,describedabove,changesinland into a gentle, hilly country with tertiary

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formations.Next to this lies theBukitBarisanMoun-tainrange,whichcontainsanumberofhighandstillactivevolcanoes.Someofthevolcanoesaremorethan3000mhigh.TheOphirMountain,nearPadang,is2911mhigh,butthehighestsummitisthepeakofMountKerinci which is 3800 m high. The slope toward theIndianOceanisgenerallysteep.Withtheexceptionsoftwolowlandembaymentsinthenorth,averynarrowcoastalplainoccursbetweenthefootoftheBukitBari-sanmountainsandtheIndianOcean.

TheBukitBarisanmountainsaretheinorganicsourceof all the soil materials in Sumatra (Mohr, 1944; vanBemmelen,1949).Theyarepretertiaryand tertiary informationwithsomequaternaryfromthemostrecenteruptions.Atthebeginningoftheneoceneperiod,vol-canic eruptions delivered acid to intermediate mate-rials.However,at the startof thequaternaryage, theejectaweremoredaciticandandesiticincomposition.Betweenthesetwoperiods,thematerialseruptedweremainly liparitic (rhyolitic) of origin. Near Lake Toba,at thefootof theSibayakMountain, intheregionsofBukitTinggiintheMenangkabauhighlands,andintheBengkuluhighlandstothesouth,themorerecentejectaweredacito-andesiticincomposition.Theyhavegivenrisetothedevelopmentofmorefertilesoilsthanthosederivedfromlipariticvolcanictuffs.

�.�.� GeomorphologicalfeaturesofKalimantan

Borneo,calledKalimantaninIndonesia,isthesecond-largest island in the archipelago. In general, Borneoas a whole is composed of extensive, predominantly

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low-lying alluvial plains, surrounding the interioruplands.Anarrownorthernstrip,madeupofMalay-sian Sarawak, Brunai, and Sabah, is bordered by theSouthChinaSea.

Indonesian Kalimantan is characterized by broadplains, extensive hills, and low mountains. It is stillcovered by a dense tropical rain forest, and the onlypassagetotheinterioristhroughtherivers.ThethreelargestriversarenotablytheKapuasinthewestnearPontianak,theBaritonearBanjarmasininthesoutheast,andtheMahakamnearSamarindaontheeastcoast.

Atfirstglance,itwouldappearthataratherdefinitesystemismissing in thephysiographicpattern.How-ever,aftermorecarefulstudyofthelandmass,acertaintrendbetweentheextentoftheplainsandthemoun-tains can be observed. The main division is formedby the mountain system, running from the KinibaluMountain,inSabah,southwardovertheIranandMül-lerrangetotheSchwanermountainsinthesouthwest(Figure2.3), with a highest summit of only 1800 m.ThisdivisionlineseparatesthebigislandBorneointotwosections:awesternsectionandaneasternsection.TheSunda landmasspenetrates into thewesternsec-tionfromthesouthwestcoastoftheislandlikeahugewedge.Itisborderedintheeastandnortheastbythemountainsystemdiscussedabove.Thistriangulararea,with pretertiary rocks, located between Cape Datuk,CapeSambar,andtheMüllermountains,isconsideredbyvanBemmelen(1949)asthepropercontinentalmassofKalimantan.Foralongperiodoftime,theareahasbeensubjectedtoprocessesformingapeneplain.

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Anorth–southrunningmountainsystemoftheMer-atusmountainsformsanotherdivisionline.However,thisisrestrictedtothesoutheasterncorneroftheisland.This mountain system consists of many geologic for-mations,withcrystallineschistsandperidotitesasthemostimportantminerals.

SOUTH CHINA SEA

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Pontianak

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nts

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iver

BalikpapanSamarinda

Mahakam River

Strait ofMakassar

Upper Kapuas Mnts

Muller MntsKapuasRiver

SchwanerMnts

IranMnts

Figure 2.3 GeomorphologyofKalimantan.(Scale:1:12,000,000.)(FromvanBemmelen,R.W. [1949];Fisher,C.A. [1966];Sigit,S.I.[1962];andRandMcNally[1995].)

69071.indb 40 4/25/08 10:41:28 AM


The lowland, locatedbetweentheSchwanerandtheMeratusmountains,asawhole,iscoveredlargelybyter-tiaryandquaternaryformationsoftheBaritoRiverbasin,andisborderedonitssoutheastcoastbybroadareasofswampy landsandpeat.Though thepeatdepositwasestimatedtobelessthickthanthatoftheSumatranpeat,thisareainKalimantanisthoughttoexceedthevastnessofthepeatareainSumatra.ItstretchesalongthesouthcoaststartingfromBanjarmasinintheeasttowardPon-tianakinthewestandextendsintothecoastalareaofSerawak.Again,itshouldbeemphasizedthatthisbeltoftidalswampsandpeatisaveryimportantpartoftheecosystem.ItistheonlyhomeoftheendangeredProbos-cismonkey.LikeinSumatra,thisareaalsoappearstoberichinoilandnaturalgas,withmajoroilfieldslocatednearTarakanonthewesternshoresoftheislandfacingthe seaofCelebes.CoalhasalsobeenminedatTeng-garong,nearSamarindainthesurroundingareaoftheMahakamRiver,whereassomediamondsandgoldwerediscoveredintheBaritobasin.

�.�.� GeomorphologicalfeaturesofSulawesi

Sulawesi,orknowninternationallybythenameofCele-bes,isthethird-largestislandoftheIndonesianarchipel-ago.Theislandisalmostentirelycoveredbymountainsandissurroundedbydeepseabasinsandtroughs.Itispeculiarinform,composedoffourpeninsulas,extend-ing in eastern and southern directions. It looks likethecentralpart isthehighestpart, tyingtogetherthefourpeninsulasinaspider-likeshape(Figure2.4).Suchmorphologyandstrikingreliefwerebelievedtobethe

69071.indb 41 4/25/08 10:41:28 AM


resultsofcollisionsandfrictionsbetweenseveralaxes,togetherwithextensivefaultingofthecontinentaltec-tonicplates(Fisher,1966;vanBemmelen,1949).Alarge

Donggala

W — E

Gulf (Teluk) of Tomini

Peleng

SulaTeluk Tolo

Danau Towuti

Teluk BoneButung

BANDASEA

Selayar

Bonthain

Makassar

Majene

FLORES SEA

Danau Poso

TORAJA

LatimojongMnts

MntRantekombolo

MntLompobatang

Gorontalo

ManadoTondanoCELEBES SEA

MINAHASAMoluccaSea

Figure 2.4 GeomorphologyofSulawesi.(Scale:1:6,000,000.)(FromvanBemmelen,R.W.[1949];Fisher,C.A.[1966];Sigit,S.I.[1962];andRandMcNally[1995].)

69071.indb 42 4/25/08 10:41:30 AM


numberoflakeshavebeenformedbetweenthemazeofvalleysandridgesinthecentralpartoftheislands(e.g.,LakePoso,LakeTowuti,andLakeMatana).

SulawesiformsalinkbetweentheEast-Asiaticislandchain and the Sunda Mountain system (van Bem-melen,1949).ThecontinuationwiththePhilippinesismaintained by its northern peninsula, the Minahasaregion, and proceeds through the Toraja lands intothe southwest arm, which in its southern part showsaffinitieswiththemountainsofJavaandSumatra.Theeasternarmisconsideredtobecontinuedinthesouth-easternpeninsula,whichconnectstotheBandaareas.

Themostimportantparentmaterialsforsoilforma-tionoftheislandarebasicformations(Mohr,1944).Thenorthernareaofthenortharmiscoveredbyquaternaryvolcanoes.SeveralactivevolcanoeslocatedintheMina-hasaregionhaveintermittentlydeliveredalotofbasicmaterials,givingrisetofertilesoils.Thesemountainsdisappeartowardthewestofthisnorthernpeninsula.Here,olderformationstaketheirplace.Forexample,intheregionofGorontalo,granitesandcrystallineschistsseemtobeofmoreimportance.Thecentralpartoftheisland and the northeastern and southeastern penin-sulas are nonvolcanic. The area is covered mostly byoldformations,suchasplutonicrocks,gneiss,allkindsof schists, graywacke, peridotites, and so forth. Thesouthwestern peninsula can be divided into a north-ernsectionandasouthernsection.Thenorthernsec-tion,includingtheLatimojongmountainsandthelakearea, showssomesimilaritieswith thecentralpartoftheisland.Thesouthernsectioniscomposedofthreeregions.Thewesternmountainsalong thewest coast

69071.indb 43 4/25/08 10:41:30 AM


consistofandesitesandbasalts.TheBonemountainsontheeastcoastconsistinthesouthofandesites,whereasto thenorth this formationdisappearsandgoesoverintoaneocenelimestonerange.Thesouthernpointofthepeninsula,whereMakassarislocated,attheshoresoftheStraitofMakassar,isundertheinfluencesphereoftheLompobatangvolcano(namedbyDutchexplor-ersasPiekvanBonthain).Thisvolcano,nowconsideredinactive, atone timedeliveredbasaltic tuffsandcon-glomerates,givingrisetofertilesoils.

Insummary,itcanbestatedthatthegeomorphologyof the island is in striking contrast with that of Java,Sumatra,andKalimantan.Thelargestpartoftheislandis rugged in terrain with strong relief, and extensiveareas of flat coastal plains are conspicuously absent.The most fertile regions with well-established agri-cultural settlements are present in the Minahasa andMakassarregions.Mostoftheagriculturaloperationsintheremainderoftheislandarereportedtobeslash-and-burnorshiftingcultivation.

�.�.� GeomorphologicalfeaturesofMaluku

Maluku,calledMoluccasinEnglish,isagroupofrel-atively small islands, located between Sulawesi andPapua(WestIrian).Intheearlyhistoryoftheseislands,spicesattractedtheattentionofSpanish,Portuguese,andDutchseafarersandmerchants,andhence,theislandsweregiven thenicknameof“Spice Islands.”Thebig-gestislandisHalmahera,withanareaofapproximately8000km2,andthenextbiggestareCeramandBuru.Thebest-knownislandisAmbon,measuringonly800km2

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inarea,whereastheotherislands,Banda,Tidore,andTernate,aresmallerinsize,withTernateestimatedtobeonly65km2.Manymoreislandsarepresentwithinthe territory of Maluku, ranging in area from a fewsquarekilometerstojustamerecoralreefintheBandaorCeramseas(seeFigure1.1andFigure2.4).

Malukuisanareawithactivevolcanismormountainbuilding, though volcanism on the island of Ambonisatpresentconsideredtobedormant.Geologically,itcanbedividedintoanorthernpartandasouthernpartbyaridgerunningfromtheeastarmofSulawesitotheBirdshead(Vogelkop)inPapua.

North Maluku, where Halmahera and Ternate arelocated, consists of two converging ridges, called theSangihe and the Ternate systems. The Sangihe systemformstheconnectionbetweentheEast-AsiaticislandsandSulawesi,whereas theTernate system loopseast-wardtoPapuaandMelanesia.

SouthMaluku,withtheislandsCeram,Ambon,Buru,andBandaneira, consistsof theBandaarcswith theirtwoparallelridgesborderingtheBandaSeaintheeast.Theinnerarcisactivevolcanicarea,whereastheouterarcisfreeofyoungvolcanism.Inthefollowingsection,onlytwoofthemostimportantislandsofMalukuwillbeconsideredmoreclosely,namelyAmbonandCeram.

�.�.�.� AmbonThe city of Ambon, located on the island of Ambon,was next to Batavia in Java, the oldest Dutch settle-mentinthisremotecornerofthearchipelago.Itisthecapital of the Maluku province and also the home oftheUniversityofPattimura.Theislandiscomposedof

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old formations, such as graywacke, sandstone, shale,limestone,schist,andperidotite,whicharecoveredforthegreaterpartbyyounger,probablytertiaryvolcanicmaterial. The older formations are found on the sur-facemostlyinthesouthernpeninsulaofLeitimer.Theyoungermaterialsarespreadmoreextensivelyovertheislandandconsistofmaterialsrangingfromandesitesanddacitestoliparites.Duetotheirpeculiarcharacter-istics,thiswholegroupofparentmaterialswascalledAmbonitesbyvanBemmelen(1949).

�.�.�.� CeramThe island of Ceram is according to Mohr (1949) notmuch different from Ambon. Igneous rocks are alsoconsideredtobenotimportantwithbasaltandgranitecommonlyscarceorabsent.Widespreadare,again,sed-imentaryandmetamorphicrocks,suchasmicaschists,graywackeslates,andsomeTriassicformations.AsisthecaseinAmbon,noactivevolcanismispresenttoday.

�.�.� GeomorphologicalfeaturesofNusaTenggara

Nusa Tenggara, also known as the Lesser SundaIslands,consistsfromeasttowestoftherelativelysmallislands of Timor, Alor, Flores, Sumba, and Sumbawa,withTimorandFloresformingperhapsthetwobiggestislands.TimorisincloseproximitytoAustralia,sepa-ratedonlybytheTimorSea.TheislandsLombokandBali canbeconsidered linking this islandchainwiththeislandJava.

69071.indb 46 4/25/08 10:41:31 AM


Geomorphologically, Nusa Tenggara can be distin-guished into two different areas. A volcanic area of1000kmlong,includingBaliandLombok,connectstheinnerBandaarc,runningeast–westthroughtheislandchain,withthemountainsystemsofJavaandSumatra.Asecondarc,locatedmoretothesoutheast,isnonvolca-nicandincludesTimorandsurroundingislands.Coralreefsarepresentmoreabundantly,whereastheclimatebecomestowardtheeastincreasinglydrier,quitediffer-entfromtheequatorialhumidclimateprevalentinJavaand Sumatra. The very long and intense dry seasonshaveresultedinscrub-likevegetationandasavannahorsteppelandscape.

The parent materials for soil formation may rangefromquaternaryintermediate-acidvolcanicmaterialstoneoceneformations.Alongthecoast,mostlyyoungqua-ternaryalluvialcoastalplainsarefound.BaliandLom-bokhavesomesimilaritieswithCentralandEastJava,characterized by fertile volcanic slopes and foothills,borderedbyrelativelybroadplains,thoughthelowlandareasaresomewhatsmallerinsizeinLombok.

�.�.� GeomorphologicalfeaturesofPapua(WestIrian)

The big island bordering the Moluccas to the east isknowninternationallyasNewGuinea.Thewholeislandisconsideredacontinentbyitselfandhasbeensharedhalfby IndonesiaandhalfbyAustralia.ThewesternpartoftheislandwashistoricallyDutchterritory,calledWestNewGuineaatthattime,whereastheeasternpartisnowPapua-NewGuinea,aself-governednationwithin

69071.indb 47 4/25/08 10:41:31 AM


the British Commonwealth with close ties with Aus-tralia.AfterthesurrenderofsovereigntyofWestNewGuinea, Indonesia renamed it Irian Jaya or West Irian.ThisnamehasbeenchangedagainintoPapuabyIndo-nesiafollowingthewillofthepeople.

In size, the area of mainland Papua almost equalsthesizeofBorneo.However,theprovinceofPapuaintheIndonesianArchipelagoincludesmanysurround-ing small islands—for example, the islands of Biak(formerlycalledSchoutenIsland),Numfoor,andYapenintheGulfofSareraorGeelvinkBay(todayalsocalledTelukCenderawasih)borderingthePacificOcean.TothesoutharetheKai(orKei),Tanimbar,andAruislandsin the Arafura Sea, separating them from Australia(Figure2.5).MostofmainlandPapuaisstillunknownterritory.

Papuacanbedistinguishedintoawesternpartandaneasternpart.Thewesternpartisapeninsula,calledtheVogelkoporBirdshead,becauseof itspeculiar land-form,reflectingtheheadofabird.Itisconnectedtothemainlandintheeastbyanarrowneck.TheBirdsheadareahasonthenorthcoastaneast–westrunningyoungvolcanicmountainrange,calledtheArfakMountains,which consist of andesitic and basaltic formations. Atertiaryfoldedmountainzonerunsthroughthe“neck”oftheBirdsheadsoutheastintotheOwen-StanleyRange,which connects with the Nassau or Oranje mountainranges. This is a very broad mountain zone with awidthestimatedatmorethan160km.

Themainlandshowsanumberofparallelzones.Start-ingfromthecoastofthePacificOcean(tothenorth),anarrowcoastalplainstretchesmoreor lesseast–west.

69071.indb 48 4/25/08 10:41:31 AM


This is bordered inland to the south by a mountainrange, known as the Northern Watershed mountains(Mohr, 1944) with granites, chlorites, and crystallineschistsasmajor formations.TheNorthernWatershedmountains include most probably the Cyclop and theBougainvillemountains (vanBemmelen,1949).Next tothismountainzone(tothesouth)isadepressionarea,knownastheMeervlakteorCentralLakePlain.Thenatu-raldrainagehereisprovidedbytheTaritatu(Idenburg)River,meetingtheTariku(Rouffaer)River,toformthe

Arfak MntsBiak

Yapen

Van ReesRange

Mam

beramo

River

PACIFICOCEAN

Tariku River

EilandenRiver

Idenburgtop

Teluk Cen-derawasih

Cartensztop Idenburg RiverNassau-Oranje Range

Kei Islands

CeramFakfak

Teluk Berau

Waigeo BIRDSHEADSorong

Digul-FlyDepression

ARAFURA SEA

W — E

Dig

ul R

iver

AruIslands

TanimbarIslands

Fly River

Figure 2.5 Geomorphology of Papua. (Scale: 1:12,500,000.)(From van Bemmelen, R.W. [1949]; Fisher, C.A. [1966]; Sigit,S.I.[1962];andRandMcNally[1995].)

69071.indb 49 4/25/08 10:41:32 AM


Mamberamo or Tarikaikea River, which runs to thenorthintothePacificOcean.

TothesouthoftheCentralLakePlainliesacomplexmountainsystem,calledearlier theNassauorOranjeMountainrange,runningeast–westthroughthemainaxis of the mainland. The highest parts, the Idenburgtop(PuncakTrikora)andtheCartensztop(PuncakJaya)with summits reaching 4900 m and 5040 m, respec-tively,areknownastheSnowMountainrangewithever-lastingsnowandglaciersontheirpeaks.Tothesouthof the Snow Mountain range, a broad lowland plainexists, running toward the Torres Strait, which sepa-ratesPapuafromAustralia.ThisareaofcoastalplainisknownastheDigul-Flydepression,namedaftertheDigulandFlyrivers,whichcontributedtotheforma-tionofthisextensivecoastalregion.Thislow-lyingflatarea,mostlycoveredbytidalswampsandpeat,extendswestward over another important river, the EilandenRiver,andbeyond.TheextentofswampandpeatlandsexceedsthesizeofthoseinKalimantanandSumatra.

69071.indb 50 4/25/08 10:41:32 AM

��

chapterthree

ClimateofIndonesia

�.� ClimateDuringtheyearsinthepre-andpost-WorldWarIIperi-ods,aconsiderableamountofworkwasdoneonquali-tativeandquantitativeinvestigationsoftheclimateofIndonesia.TheDutchgovernmentneededthisinforma-tionfortheirplantations,andmanyofthelargeresearchstations were adequately equipped with weather sta-tions. Reliable and well-arranged climatological datawerecompiledandarenowavailableaspublicationsoftheMeteorologicalandGeophysicalInstituteatJakarta.Formorebasicdetails, reference ismadetoTeiletal.(1931),Boerma(1931),Braak(1925–1929,1931,1939,1948),Mohr(1944),SchmidtandFerguson(1951),Schmidt-TenHopenandSchmidt (1951), andMohrandVanBaren(1960).The intention of this text is to review, discuss,andapplytheweatherinformationonlyasafactorintheformationofIndonesiansoils.

Manytypesofclimateshavebeenusedfordelineat-ingtheclimateofIndonesia.Thenamesequatorialandtropicalclimateshavebeenassignedtocharacterizetheprevailingclimateinthearchipelago,andthetwotermshave been applied synonymously by many scientistsfor reasonsexplainedbelow.Another typeof climate

69071.indb 51 4/25/08 10:41:33 AM


applied tooftencharacterize theclimate in Indonesiaisthemonsoonclimate,andtheIndonesianpeoplecom-monlyrelatethewestmonsoonwiththerainyseasonandtheeastmonsoonwiththedryseason.Thismaybe true forcertainpartsbut isnotnecessarilycorrectforotherpartsofthearchipelago.Toalleviatesomeoftheconfusion,itisperhapsofimportancetodefinethethree typesofclimatesanddiscuss towhichpartsofIndonesiatheycanbeapplied.

�.�.� Theconceptsofequatorialandtropicalclimates

�.�.�.� EquatorialclimateTheequatorialclimateisconsideredtoexistwithintheequatorialzone,whichisusuallybyconventionacceptedtoliebetween5°Nand5°S(latitudes).Thewindpat-ternassociatedwiththeequatorialclimateiscalledthetrade wind. In the northeastern hemisphere, the tradewindblowsfromthenortheasterndirectiontotheequa-tor,whereasinthesouthernhemispherethewindcomesfromthesoutheasterndirection.Usuallyheavilyloadedwithmoisture,evaporatedfromthePacificandIndianOceans, these winds bring a lot of rains, which is thereason for the presence of a dense tropical rain forest,growingincountriesneartheequator.Duetoitslocationbetween6°Nand11°S, Indonesiamayfallwithinthezoneofanequatorial climate. Itsnorthern regionmaybeaffectedbythenortheasttradewind,butthesouth-ernregionisinfluencedbythesoutheasttradewind.Theequatorgoesacross theBukitBarisanMountainsnear

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Chapterthree: ClimateofIndonesia ��

Bukit Tinggi and stretches eastward across Pontianak,separatingtheislandsofSumatraandKalimantanintonorthern and southern halves. The remainder of thearchipelagoismostlyinthesouthernhemisphere.

Theequatorialclimateisgenerallycharacterizedbyhighprecipitation,asindicatedabove,andbyhightem-peraturesthroughouttheyear.Generallyspeaking,thisisthehotandhumidclimatethatmanypeopleassoci-ate with the tropics. For example, the towns of BukitTinggi and Padang in West Sumatra show a 20-yearmonthlyaveragetemperatureof20°Cand26°C,respec-tively,whichisfairlyconstantthroughouttheyear.Theannualprecipitationwasrecordedtoaverage2400mmforBukitTinggiand4500mmforPadang.ThetownofPontianak,whichtheequatorpassesrightthrough,asindicatedearlier,ischaracterizedbyamonthlyaveragetemperatureof26°Candanannualprecipitationaver-ageof3200mm.Bothtemperatureandprecipitationdonotfluctuatethroughouttheyear.Nevertheless,townsa little above or below the equator, such as Manado(1°N)intheMinahasapeninsulaandManokwari(1°S)intheBirdsheadofPapua,exhibitrainfallpatternswithmonthlyaveragesofonly100mmto130mm,respec-tively, for the months of July through October. How-ever,therainfallintheremainingmonthsoftheyearistwicethatmuch,withanaverageof280mm/monthforManadoand250mm/monthforManokwari.Althoughthe months from July to October receive only abouthalftheamountsofrain,itisdifficulttosaythatthesemonthsrepresentatruedryseasonwith100mmto130mmofrainfallpermonth.

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�.�.�.� TropicalclimateAtropicalclimateisdefinedastheprevailingclimateinthetropicalzone,whichisthezonebetweenthetropicofCancer (23°N)and the tropicofCapricorn (23°S).Therefore,thetropicalzonealsocoverstheequatorialzone,whichisperhapsonereasonwhymanyscientistsconfuseanequatorialclimateforatropicalclimate.Theconfusionisalsoaggravatedbytheabsenceofgeneralagreementastowhatthedefinitionshouldbeofatrop-icalclimate.AssuggestedbyKöppen(Braak,1931;Teilet al., 1931), a tropical climate is a climate within thetropicalzonethatexhibitsamonthlytemperaturethatneverfallsbelow18°C.Anotherconcept,whichappearstoalsobewidelyaccepted,isthatatropicalclimateischaracterizedbyaseasonalrainfall,meaningthatitisalternatedbyadryseason.Itshouldnotoccur intheformofconstanthighprecipitationthroughouttheyear,asexhibitedbytheequatorialclimate.Thetemperatureshould also not be the high temperature characteriz-ingadesertclimate(Fisher,1966).ThetemperaturesofJakarta and Bandung, in West Java, show a longtimemonthlyaverageof26°Cand22°C, respectively.Theyareconstantat thesevalues throughout theyear.Thelower temperature forBandung isdue to the locationofthetownhighupontheslopeofMountTangkubanPrahu.Theannualprecipitationwasrecordedovertheyears to average 1800 mm for Jakarta and 1900 mmforBandung.Bogor,ontheotherhand,located50kmsouthofJakartaontheslopesoftheGede-PangrangoMountains,ischaracterizedbyanannualprecipitationof4000mm.Theamountofrainfallappearstonotbedistributedveryevenlythroughouttheyear,withthe

69071.indb 54 4/25/08 10:41:33 AM


monthsofJunethroughSeptemberreceivinglessrainthantheothermonths.Amonthlyaverageprecipitationof70mmwasreportedforJakartaand80mmforBand-ungforJunethroughSeptember,whereastherainfallwas180mm/monthand200mm/monthinJakartaandBandung,respectively,intheothermonths.

Theabovesuggeststhepresenceofaweakdrysea-son in West Java, which tends to become graduallymore sharp or pronounced toward Central and EastJava. Surabaya, the capital of East Java, receives fromJulythroughOctoberanaverageofonly13mm/monthincontrast to themonthsofNovember throughJune,whereanaveragerainfallisreportedof200mm/month.ThedryseasonbecomesevenlongerandmoredrasticintheLesserSundaIslandschainbecauseoftheinflu-encesphereofthesubaridanddesertclimateofneigh-boringAustralia.

�.�.� Theconceptofmonsoonclimates

�.�.�.� ConceptofmonsoonsAmonsoonclimateisassociatedwithashiftingwindpatterncausedbyachangeinseasons.Thenamemon-soon originated most probably from the Arabic termmausem (meaningseason),because incontrast to tradewinds,themonsoonwindcanshiftitspathinoppositedirection with changing winter and summer seasonsof thecontinents in thenorthernandsouthernhemi-spheres.Thesystemwasoriginallyusedtocharacterizethe climate in India. The winter season on the Asiancontinentcreatesahigh-pressurecondition,forcingthewindtoblowsouthtothelow-pressureregioncaused

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bythesummerinthesouthernhemisphere.Thisresultsin a dry season for countries in the northern hemi-sphere (for example, India). When the winter seasonchangesinthenorthernhemisphereintosummertime,itisthenwinterinthesouthernhemisphere,andthischangeforcesthewindtoshiftitscourseintoanorth-erndirection.ItisthentherainyseasoninIndia,whichgenerallyoccursfromJunetoSeptember.Beforeenter-ingtheIndiansubcontinent,thewindhaspickedupalotofmoisturefromtheIndianOceanandbringstothecountrynotonlywaterbutalsorelieffromtheintenseheat.

Attemptshavebeenmadetoapplythisconceptofamonsoon for explaining the variety of climatic typespresentinmanypartsoftheworld,becausefourmon-soon systems have recently been defined and rec-ognized. They are the North American Monsoon,Northeast(Asian)Monsoon,SouthwestSummerMon-soon,andSoutheastAsianorIndianOceanMonsoon.Theseattemptsinaglobalapplicationofthemonsoonconcept make the problem even more confusing. Forinstance,manypeoplehavenotexpectedNorthAmer-ica to be affected by a monsoon, as it is still hard tobelieve in the North American Monsoon being theweathermakeroftheUnitedStates.Itistruethatahigh-pressuresystemiscreatedduringwintertimeabovethearcticregionofCanada,butnoinformationisavailablethat thiswillcreateawindsystemblowing towardalow-pressure system developed in the summertimeover another landmass located in the opposite direc-tion.TheonlycontinentinthisrespectisArgentina,farawayinthesouthernhemisphere.Itissummertimein

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ArgentinawhenwinteroccursintheUnitedStates,andviceversa.

ThegeneralideaisthattheprimeweathermakerintheUnitedStatesisacomplexsystemoflowandhighpressures, developed in the air because of changesin temperatures of the land surface, atmosphere, andwaterinlakesandoceans.Thesepressuresystemsareapparently affected by the Pacific Ocean in the westandtheGulfofMexicoandAtlanticOceanintheeast.Low-pressuresystems,assignedthesymbolLonweathermaps,usuallydevelopoverregionsofthePacificOceanduetotheevaporationoflargeamountsofwaterthatriseintotheair.Thesethenaretheallegedtropicalmon-soonsystems,anamethatU.S.weatherforecastersoftenusedforlow-pressuresystemsthatdevelopabovethePacificOcean.TheyareusuallycarriedeastwardbythepredominantlywesterlywindintheUnitedStates.Onlyinafewcasesare low-pressuresystemscomingfromtheAtlanticOcean,butduetotheprevailingjetstreamfromwesttoeast,theireffectisfeltonlyontheeasternseaboardandisseldomextendedtoaffecttheweatherpattern of the Western, Southwestern, Northwestern,andMidwesternStates.Dependingontheconditions,low-pressuresystemsaretherainmakersortheymayjustfizzleout.High-pressuresystems,developedbycool-ing conditions, are generally associated with dry airandareassignedthesymbolH.Wherehigh-pressuresystemsarepresent,theareausuallyhasnice,clear,andsunnyweather.Thesehighpressuresmaystallorblockthe movement of the low-pressure systems. At theselocations,thelow-pressuresystemmayunloaditscargoofmoistureintheformofsomekindofprecipitation.

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However,thehigh-pressuresystemscanalsobepushedawaybythelow-pressuresystemstowardtheAtlanticOcean.IftheymoveovertheBermudaislands,theyareoftencalledtheBermudahighs.

Inadditiontothepressuresystemsdiscussedabove,theweatheroftheUnitedStatesisaffectedbysystemsofcoolandwarmfronts.ThesefrontsarealsoconsideredimportantweathermakersoftheUnitedStates.Frontshavebeendefinedasfrontalbordersoflargeairmassesmovedbywindaction.ColdfrontsareusuallycausedbythearcticairmassesofCanada,andtheirmovementismainlysouthward.Ontheotherhand,warmfrontsmovenorthandnortheast,becausetheyoriginatepri-marilyfromthewarmwatersoftheGulfofMexico,andhence,theairmassbehindthisfrontismoistandwarm.Whenthewarmfrontcollideswiththecoldfront,thewarmandmoistairslidesoverthedensercoldairmasstoahigherelevation.Ontheotherhand,whenthecoldfrontpushesagainstthewarmfront,itcausesthewarmand moist air to rise to a higher elevation in the air,whereitmaycondenseintowaterdrops,ice,orsnow.Thewarmfront,whenactive,canalsofeedalow-pres-sure systemwitha lotofmoistureandenergy. Inallthese cases, theseactionsmay result in somekindofprecipitation,oftenaccompaniedbyviolentweather.

Nowthatweknowalittlebitmoreaboutmonsoon,low-andhigh-pressuresystemsaffectingtheclimatesofAsiaandNorthAmerica,respectively,itisuptoyou,thereader,tomakeyourownjudgmentaboutthecor-rectness of the use of North American Monsoon as theweathermakerintheUnitedStates.

69071.indb 58 4/25/08 10:41:34 AM


�.�.�.� WestandeastmonsoonsinIndonesiaThesystemofmonsoonwinds,discussedabove,waslaterextendedtocharacterizetheclimateofcountriesinSoutheastAsiawheresimilarwindpatternsasinIndiaare present. The climate of Indonesia, for instance, isconsideredbymanypeopletobedictatedbymonsoonwinds,butanumberofscientistsdisagreeaboutthis.ToconsidertheclimateofIndonesiaasmonsoonalonlymaynotbeentirelycorrect.Myopinionisthatthecli-mateofthearchipelagoshowsfeaturesofanequatorial,a tropical, and a monsoon climate, depending uponthespecificlocationwithinthebordersofthecountry.Large areas of Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Papua areaffected more by trade winds than by the monsoon.However,theislandsoutsidethelatitudesof5°NandSmayindeedfeelmoresubstantiallytheeffectofthemonsoonsystem(forexample,Java,Bali,Lombok,andespecially east on the Lesser Sunda Islands). BecauseIndonesia lieswithin the influencespheresofAsia inthenorthwestandAustraliainthesoutheast,themon-soonsystemisnowcontrolledmorebytheconditionsof these two continents. During wintertime, the highpressure,createdabovetheAsiancontinent,forcesthewindtoblowtothesoutheastwherealowpressureisformedbythesummerinAustralia(DecembertoFeb-ruary).Thisisusuallyreferredtoasthewest-monsoon,and theassociatednorthwesterlywind,aftercrossingtheSouthChinaSea,brings therainyseason inKali-mantanandSulawesi.ItisalsothecausefortherainyseasonintheLesserSundaIslands.Anaveragerainfallof270mm/monthwasrecordedinKupang,Timor,forthe months of October through March, in contrast to

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the6-monthdryseasonfromAprilthroughSeptember,whichregisteredonly16mmofrainpermonth.WhenwintertimearrivesinAustralia,themonsoonreversesdirection and blows to the low-pressure area in thenorthwest, created by the summertime in Asia. Thesoutheasterlywind,fromtheAustralianhigh-pressuresystem, is called the east-monsoon. This system comesfromthesubaridanddesert regionsofAustraliaandconsistsofdryair.WhenthiswindcrossestheTimorSea,ithasnothadthechancetopickupenoughmois-tureand is thereason forbringing thedryseason inthe Lesser Sunda Islands. However, after passing theBanda Sea, the east monsoon has picked up enoughmoisture from the sea, which brings a lot of rain toAmbon,Menado,andManokwari.

Fromthediscussionabove,itseemsthatalongitudi-nalvariationexistsinthemonsoonoverthearchipelago.Inotherwords,whenthewesternpartofIndonesiahasitsrainyseason,theMoluccasintheeasthavetheirdryseason,andviceversa.Therainyseasoninthiseasternpart isdue to theeastmonsoon,butonly the islandslocatedwithintheequatorialzoneintheeast(AmbonandotherislandsintheMoluccas)willbeaffected.ForJava,Madura,andtheLesserSundaIslands,locatedtothesouthof5°S(latitude),theeastmonsooncreatesthedryseason.Thisisespeciallytruefortheeasternpartofthisislandchain,wherelongandsharpdryseasonsare the norms for the months of April through Sep-tember.This is supportedbyevidenceobtained fromextensive studies on the geographical distribution ofthe flora in Indonesia in correlation with the climate.Theresultsseemtoindicatethatonlycertainpartsof

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the archipelago, and in particular the Lesser SundaIslandsinsoutheasternIndonesia,arecharacterizedbyatypicalmonsoonvegetation(Endert,1946;VanSteenis,1948),whereasmostofthewesternpartsarecoveredbyatropicalrainforest.Becauseaclimaxvegetationisoftenconsideredasanexpressionoftheprevailingclimaticcondition,manyscientistsbelievethatthepresenceofamonsoonflorashouldbeacceptedasanindicationforthepresenceofthemonsoonclimateintheLesserSundaIslands,asweshouldacceptthedistributionoftherainforestinSumatraandKalimantanastheproductofaconstantlywarmandhumidequatorialortropicalcli-mate.However,manypeopleremainunconvincedandareof theopinion that the lengthof thedryandwetseasonsismoreimportantforabetterdelineationofamonsoon,tropical,orequatorialclimate.

�.� Climaticdivisionsbasedonlengthofdryandwetseasons

Inordertobettercharacterizeamonsoonclimatefromequatorial and tropical climates, attempts were madebyseveralDutchscientiststodeveloplimitsofdryandwetseasons(Mohr,1944;SchmidtandFerguson,1951).OthershavetriedtodeterminetheclimaxvegetationinvariousregionsofIndonesia(Endert,1946;VanSteenis,1948),whereasIhaveexaminedtheusefulnessofKöp-pen’sclimaticsystemintheclassificationofIndonesia’sclimate.ThedatainTable3.1summarizethecombinedresultsoftheaboveefforts.

69071.indb 61 4/25/08 10:41:35 AM


�.�.� TheclimaticsystemofMohr

Mohr’s system isbasedupon the number ofdry andwetmonths(Mohr,1944).Adrymonthischaracterizedbyarainfallof≤60mm/month,whereasawetmonthisconsideredtohave≥100mm/monthofrainfall.ManyDutchscientists(Mohretal.,1972)believethatthesoilwillbecomeeasilydrywhenrainfallis≤60mm/month,whereasthesoilclimateishumidwhenrainfallisabovethislimit.Amonthwithprecipitationbetween60and100mmisthencalledamoistmonth.Thesoilwillreceivejustenoughwatertowetitspedon(orsoilprofile).Thiswaterisofbenefittogrowingplants.Mohr(1944)and

Mohr (1944) Number of Wet and Dry Months Endert (1946) Köppen

Climatic Class Wet Months>100 mm

Type ofVegetation

ClimaticSystem

Af120–1

2–3 9–10

3–5 7–8

I. Constantly Wet

II. Slightly or Weakly Dry

TropicalRain Forest

Am

III. Markedly DryTropical

MonsoonForest

Am

4–6 5–8IV. Severely Dry

7–8 5–6V. Fierce Drought

TropicalSavannah

AsorAw

Dry Months<60 mm

Table.3.1. NumberofDryandWetMonthsforClassifyingClimateandVegetationCoverinIndonesia

Sources:Mohr,E.C.J.(1944)andEndert,F.H.(1946).

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Mohretal.(1972)collectedrainfalldataoversufficientlylongperiodsoftimeandclassifiedtheclimateofIndo-nesiaintofivegroupsaccordingtothenumberofwet(≥100 mm/month) and dry (≤60 mm/month) months(Table3.1):

ClassIisawetorhumidclimate,wheretheaveragemonthlyrainfallseldomorneverfallsbelow60mm.ClassIIisaclimatewithaweakdryperiod.Underthisclimate,thesoildoesnotdryoutcompletely.ClassIIIisaclimatethatexhibitsadryseason.Thesoilmaydryoutinthedryseasontosomedepthin the pedon. During this period, evaporationapparentlyexceedsmoisturesupply.However,theamountofmoisturelostwillbereplenishedagainduringthewetseason.Class IV isa climatecharacterizedbyavery longand sharp dry season. The soil is dry for almosthalfoftheyear.ClassVisaclimatewithalongperiodofdrought.However, it is still too wet to consider it as anaridclimate.

Thisconcepthasmanypracticalapplicationsinsoiland agricultural science. Mohr is of the opinion thatatarainfallof>100mmamonth,theamountofwaterreceived by the soil exceeds the amount evaporated,andthemonthscharacterizedby>100mmofrainfallare called wet months, as indicated earlier. The excesswaterleachesthepedon,whereasalargepartisavail-ableforuptakebygrowingplants.Thisistheclimatethatwillsustainatropicalrainforest(Endert,1946;Van

•

•

•

•

•

69071.indb 63 4/25/08 10:41:36 AM


Steenis,1948).Ashortdryseasonwithamonthlyrain-fallof≤60mm,suchasinagroupIIclimate,isconsid-erednottobeharmfulandcanstillsupportthegrowthofalushtropicalrainforest.Ontheotherhand,atlongdryperiodsof3to5monthswithaprecipitationof<60mm/month,mostoftherainwaterpouringdownisrap-idlyevaporated,andthesemonths,calleddrymonthsbyMohr,tendtodryoutthesoilquickly.However,thesoilstillcontainsapparentlysufficientamountsofmoisture,replenishedduringthe7-to8-monthwetperiod,thatitcansustainatropicalmonsoonforestvegetationcover.When the dry season is long and sharp, as in groupIVclimate,theseverelydryconditioncansupplyonlyenoughmoisture for thegrowthof tropicalsavannahvegetation(Endert,1946;VanSteenis,1948).ThegroupV climate with its long and fierce drought periods isstilltoohumidtobeconsideredasarealdesertclimate.The soil possesses sufficient amounts of moisture forsustainingthegrowthofatropicalsavannah(Endert,1946;VanSteenis,1948).

Asindicatedabove,eachoftheclimaticclassesseemsto correlate with the distribution of a specific flora.Classes I and II (Table3.1) are the types of climatesoccurringinregionsofthetropicalrainforestscover-ingSumatra,Kalimantan,Sulawesi,Papua,andpartofJava.According toKöppen’sclimaticsystem, thecon-stantlywetclimategroupcanbeclassifiedasanAfcli-mate,whereastheclimatewithaweakdryseasonfallsintothecategoryofanAmclimate.ThelatterisnotedtooccurespeciallyinWestJava.Mohr’sclassIIIclimate,orthemarkedlydryclimate,seemstobethetypicalmon-soon climate, generally characterized by a relatively

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sharpdryseasonof3to5months.ThistypeofmonsoonclimateispresentonlyinCentralandEastJavaandinthewesternpartsof the islandsofNusaTenggara. Inadditiontotheseregions,themonsoonclimatecanbefoundinverylimitedareasofIndonesia(forexample,inAceh,NorthSumatra;Gorontalo,Sulawesi;Namlea,Moluccas;andMerauke,Papua).Thetypesofclimates,classifiedbyMohrasclassesIVandV,areaffectingonlytheeasternpartsofNusaTenggara,and thecloser toAustralia,thelongerwillbethedryseason.Thistypeofclimate,resemblingasavannah-typeclimate,isalsoreflectedbytheflora,asindicatedabove.

�.�.� ClimaticsystemofSchmidtandFerguson

The rainfall limits used by Mohr (1944) are appliedby Schmidt and Ferguson (1951) to revise Mohr’s cli-matic groupings with the purpose of eliminatingdisagreementsduetoinconsistenciesstillpresentintheclassificationoftheclimateofIndonesia.Theseauthorscalculatedtheratioorquotient(Q)oftheaveragenum-berofdrymonthsandaveragenumberofwetmonths:

Q Number of Dry Months mm/monthNumber= <( )60

of Wet Months mm/month( )>100 (3.1)

By using the quotient, Q, Schmidt and Fergusondivided the climate in Indonesia into eight types ofclimates, which they presented in a triangular dia-gram. There are, in fact, several climatic triangleversions present, as shown in Figure3.1. Mohr et al.(1972) originally used a semitriangular diagram forhis divisions of the five climate groups. In this text,

69071.indb 65 4/25/08 10:41:37 AM


therainfalldataofSchmidtandFerguson(1951)andthoseofMohretal.(1972)wereusedtocalculatetheQvalues.Thecalculatedvaluesarethenconvertedintopercentages by multiplying by 100%, used and inte-gratedintothediagramofSchmidtandFergusonasshowninFigure3.1.

21 3 4 5 6 7Average Number of Wet Months

Values of Q

Ave

rage

Num

ber o

f Dry

Mon

ths

8 9 10 11 12

2

1

0

3

4

5

6

7

8G

F

E

D

C

B

A

9

1011 700 %

300 %

167 %

100 %

60 %

33.3 %

14.3 %

0 %

12

H

Figure 3.1 ClimaticsystemofSchmidtandFerguson.(FromSchmidt,F.H.andFerguson,J.H.A.[1951];Mohr,E.C.J.[1944];andMohr,E.C.J.,VanBaren,F.A.,andVanSchuylenborgh,J.[1972].)

69071.indb 66 4/25/08 10:41:37 AM


Thesmallertheratioorquotient,Q,thewetterwillbetheclimaticconditions,whereasthelargerthevalueofQ,thelongerwillbethedryseason.AtQ=100%,theclimateischaracterizedbya6-monthdryperiod.ValuesofQabove100%indicatethatthedryseasonbecomeslongerandlonger.AtQ=700%,thedryseasonis10.5months,whichfortunatelydoesnotexistinIndonesia.MostpartsofthearchipelagoperhapsarecharacterizedbytypesAandBclimates,especiallythewholewesternregionofIndonesia.TypesCandDtypifytheclimatesof themonsoonregionsofCentralandEast Javaandotherregionswithasimilarpatternofsharpdrysea-sons,whereastypesEandFarefoundonlyinlimitedareasexhibitingtheverysharpandlongdryseasonsasprevailingintheeasternpartoftheNusaTenggaraIslandchain.TypesGandHarepracticallyabsent,asindicatedabove.Theyhavebeenobservedperhapsonlyoveraverysmallarea,suchas,forexample,inthePaluvalleyofSulawesi.

Though this systemseems tobegenerallyacceptedbytheforestserviceinIndonesia,manysoilscientistshaveviewed itasnotbeinganexact climatic system.Becauseitissolelybasedonrainfall,whichisjustonefactordeterminingtheclimate,theopinionexiststhatthesystemofSchmidtandFergusonwas justameredivisionofrainfalltypes.

�.� AltitudinalvariationsinclimateAsdiscussedearlier,Indonesiaiscoveredbyextensivemountain ranges, with mountains reaching summitssometimesover3000mhigh.Onaccountofthecontrast

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inreliefformedbythemountains,climaticchangeswithaltitudesabovesealevelareexpectedtooccur.Altitu-dinalzonesdevelopduetochangesinrainfallpattern,relativehumidity,temperature,andvegetationcover.

�.�.� Variationsinrainfallpatternswithaltitude

The total rainfall generally increases with increasingaltitudeandreachesamaximumsomewherebetween1000and1500mabove sea level.Thenumberofdrymonthsdecreasesgraduallywithelevationuntilacer-tain height is reached above sea level, where it startsto increase again (Table3.2). The point at which thenumberofdrymonthsstartstoincreaseagainisalsolocatedbetween1000and1500mabovesealevel.Thispointcoincidesnormallywiththecondensationlevelofwaterintheair,andatthisleveltheascendingaircools,resultingincondensationofwatervaporthatproducesalotofrain,densefog,andclouds.Atthesummitofthemountain,thenumberofdrymonthsoftenequalszero(Table3.2).

�.�.� Variationsintemperatureswithaltitude

Temperaturedecreasesgraduallywithincreasingalti-tude.Witheach100-mincreaseinelevationabovesealevel,thetemperaturedecreasesby0.6°C.ThevariationintemperaturewithincreasedelevationabovesealevelcanbecalculatedwiththeaidofaformuladevelopedbyBraak(1925–1929):

t=26.3°–h×0.6°C (3.2)

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where26.3° is theaverage temperature in IndonesiaindegreesCelsiusatsealevel,andhistheelevationinhectometers.

�.�.� Zonaldivisionsintolowland,upland,mountain,andhigh-mountainlands

Thevariationsorchangesinrainfallandtemperature,withincreasedelevationabovesealevel,arethereasonsformanyattemptstodividethecountrysideintoseveralaltitudinalzones (Mohr,1922;SchmidtandFerguson,

LocationRainfall Climate

MeanAnnualRainfall

<60 mm >100 mm Ka S&Fb

Pasar Minggu

Depok

35

95

266

540

900

1800

2211

3.2

2.0

0.3

0.1

0.4

0.6

0.0

7.9

9.9

11.5

11.8

10.1

10.6

11.1

2173

3130

4230

4880

3644

4201

5467

Afa

Afa

Afa

Afa

Af

Cfi

Cfi

C

A

A

A

A

A

A

Bogor

Tjiapus

Pondok Gedeh

Mandalawangi

Salak Volcano

mmm

Table.3.2. AltitudinalVariationsofRainfallandClimateinIndonesia

a K=Köppensymbols;b S&F=SchmidtandFerguson.Sources:Braak,C.(1931);Mohr,E.C.J.(1944);andSchmidt,F.H.andFerguson,J.H.A.(1951).

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1951; Van Steenis, 1948). On the basis of variations intemperatures with increased elevation, Mohr (1922,1944)recognizesfourzonesfromsealeveltomorethan1800mabovesealevel(Table3.3):

1. Tropicallowlands2. Tropicaluplands 3. Tropicalmountainlands 4. Tropicalhigh-mountainlands

For comparison, zonal divisions are also provided,developedbyVanSteenis(1948)andSchmidtandFer-guson (1951). As can be noticed in Table3.3, they aremuchsimplerthanMohr’szonalconcept.

Mohr

Zone °C Elevationm Zone Zone

Tropical Lowland

Tropical Upland

Tropical Mountain Land

Tropical High-MountainLand

Van Steenis S&Fa

Lowland

Upland

Upland

MountainLand

25–27

14–19

13–18

0–12

Tropical Zone

Tropical Zone

Submontane

MontaneZone

Subalpine

0–200

200–1000

1000–1800

1800

2400–4100

Table.3.3. ZonesofLowland,Upland,Mountain,andHigh-MountainLandsinIndonesia

a S&F=SchmidtandFerguson.Sources:Mohr,E.C.J.[1922,1944];VanSteenis,C.G.G.J.[1948,1954];Schmidt,F.H.andFerguson,J.H.A.[1951];andJunghuhn[1850].)

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Thealtitudinallimitsforthesezonaldivisionsoflandsarebelievedtoshiftsomewhattohigherorlowereleva-tionsabovesealevelinatropicalmonsoonclimate(Tan,1958;TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1959;VanSchuylen-borgh,1958).Theauthoralsowonderswhetheritisnotmoreappropriateusingnamessuchastropicalhighlandsandtropicalmountainlands,respectively,forthetropicalmountainlands(3)andhigh-mountainlands(4)?Thisismoreinlineandconsistentwiththeusageoftropicallowlandsanduplands.

Mohr’szonalconceptaboveisbasednotonlyonthelimitsoftemperatureandlocationabovesealevel,butapparentlyalsoonsuitabilityforthegrowthofcertaincropsandplants.Forinstance,thetropicallowlandhasbeendefinedastheregionnothigherthan200mabovesea levelandwith temperaturesnot lower than20°C.Theseconditionsappear tobeexcellent forsugarcaneandtobaccocultivationinIndonesia.However,inaddi-tiontotheabovefactors,amonsoonclimateisnecessaryfortheripeningprocessandharvestingofthetwocrops.Thetropicalupland,originallycalled“HillyLand,”isthezonebetween200and1000mabovesea level.At≥1000 m above sea level, coconut palm trees will notflourish.Thisisthezoneofthetropicalmountainland,wheregenerallythecondensationlevelofwatervaporintheairisreached,increasingtherelativehumiditythatconsequentlyproducescloudsandfog,oftenhoveringconstantlyoverthemountainsides.Theconditionsandcompositionofthevegetationcoverthenchangevisibly.Themountaintreesareusuallyloadedwithmoss,andconiferous trees start to increase in numbers. One oftheindigenouspinetreesinSumatraisthewell-known

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Pinusmerkusii,whichhasbeenusedfortransplantingonotherislandsforpulpproduction.Closetothesum-mit,startingat±2400mabovesealevel,thetimberlineisreached.VanSteenis(1954)hascalledthisthesubalpinezone.

�.� Significanceoftropicalandmonsoonclimatesinpedogenesis

Fromthediscussionabove,itcanperhapsbeconcludedthatitisverydifficulttodesignatetheclimateofIndone-siaeitherasamonsoonclimatealoneorasonlyatropi-calclimate.Threemaintypesofclimates,atleast,seemtooccurinthearchipelago.Theyarethetropicalrainforest climate, the tropical monsoon climate, and thetropicalsavannahclimate.Theequatorialclimatewithitstropicalrainforestiscoveredbythetropicalrainfor-estclimate.Thenametropicalhumidclimate isperhapsabetter termthan tropical rain forest climate,under-scoringmorethedeterminingfactorforclimate,ratherthantherainforest.Avegetationcoveristheresultingexpressionoftheprevailingclimaticconditions.

Ingeneral, the tropicalhumidclimateprevailsovermostoftheislandsinthearchipelago,andespeciallyinSumatra,Kalimantan,Sulawesi,Papua,andWestJava.The tropical monsoon climate is restricted to CentralandEastJavaandthewesternpartoftheLesserSundaIslandschain,whereasthetropicalsavannahclimateisfoundtoaffectsmallregionsonlyintheeasternpartoftheLesserSundaIslands, locatedunder the influencesphere of Australia. Because altitudinal variations in

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theclimateexist,thethreemainclimaticformswillnodoubtalsobeaffectedby thesechangesandwill fol-low similar zonal divisions with increased elevationabove sea level. These variations may have produceddifferent“shades”intheprevailingmainclimateoftheregion,whichareratherimportantfromthestandpointofsoilformation.Thedifferencesinclimatewillaffectthetypeofvegetation,andthis,inturn,willaffectthenatureofsoilsformed.

�.�.� Balanceeffectsbetweenprecipitationandevaporationindifferentclimatictypes

Oneof theeffectsofclimatecanperhapsbeascribedtothebalancebetweenprecipitationandevaporation,whichnaturallywilldifferindifferenttypesofclimates.Thetropicalmonsoonclimatewillaffectsoilformationwithalternatingdownwardandupwardmovementofsoilwaterinthepedon(soilprofile).Theupwardmove-mentduetothepullofevaporation,occurringmostlyduringthedryseason,mayvaryindurationwiththelengthof thedryseason. Itwillbe longer in the truemonsoonclimatesandshorterwherethedryseasonisweakandshort.Thesoilwillbeleachedduringthewetseason,butsomeoftheelementslost,especiallybases,willbe retransportedupwardduring thedryseason.Ontheotherhand,thetropicalhumidclimate,charac-terizedbyacontinuouslywetcondition,willaffectsoilformationwitharatherconstantdownwardmovementof soil water. In this condition, the soil is constantlyleachedandtendstobemoreacid inreaction,duetothelossofbases,thanthesoilinthemonsoonregions.

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�.�.� Altitudinalvariationsinsoilgenesisandsoilfertility

With increased location above sea level, soil organicmatter content, and in particular humic acid content,tends to increase substantially. This factor, togetherwiththecoolerandwetterclimateinthehighlandsorMohr’smountainlands,providesfavorableconditionsformobilizationofelements,especiallyAl,Fe,andCa,in the formof chelates (DeConinck,1980;Tan,1986).Due to formation of metal–organic complexes, humicsubstancesandotherorganiccompoundsmayacceler-atethedecompositionofsoilminerals,generallypres-ent in abundance in the young volcanic ash parentmaterials.Thedissolutionproductshaveaveryimpor-tantbearingonsoilgenesisandfertility.Movementormobilizationofsoilconstituentsisthemainreasonforhorizon differentiation, a process yielding soils withdifferentkindsofprofiles.Currentconceptsinforma-tionofspodichorizonsarebasedonformationofalu-minum-andiron-humicchelates.TheirmobilizationtotheBhorizonscausestheformationofthespodichori-zon,amaincharacteristicofspodosolsorpodzols.Thisprocesswascalledinthepast“podzolization,”anamethat was phased out by the U.S. soil survey division,creatingconfusionandargumentsfromalotofinter-nationalscientists.

Podzolizationgenerallyoccursincoolandhumidcon-ditionsintemperateregionsunderconiferousorothertypes of vegetation yielding acid humus. An almostsimilarconditioncanbefoundinIndonesiaonlyinthehighlandsorthetropicalmountain-landszone.Several

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otheraspectsinsoilgenesisrelatedtoorgano-complexformationwillbediscussedinChapter5,includingfor-mationofalbichorizonsandtranslocationofclays.

In addition to its role in soil genesis, organo-metalchelatesplayanimportantroleinmicronutrientavail-abilitytogrowingplantsandhencebenefitsoilfertilityingeneral.Becauseofchelation,Lindsay(1974)reportedthatmobilizationbydiffusionandmassflowofmicro-nutrientelementstoplantrootswasmadepossible.Thechelatesarebelievedtoprovidethecarriermechanismbywhichdepletedmicronutrientsat the roots canbereplenished. However, availability of chelated iron,zinc, and manganese is reported to be dependent onpHandstabilityoftheorgano-metalcomplexes.

The cooler climate of the tropical highlands is alsoidealforthecultivationofmanytemperateregioncrops,suchasIrishpotato,carrots,cauliflower,andcabbage.Thefreshproducecanbeharvestedyearlongforsaleatlocalmarketsorinshopsofbigtowns,suchasJakarta,Bandung,Surabaya,andMedan.Thelatterprovestobeaverylucrativebusinessforlocalfarmers.

Conditions in the lowlandsarequitedifferent fromthose discussed above for the mountain-land zone.Duetothehighertemperatures,decompositionofsoilorganic matter in the lowlands generally occurs at averyrapidrate,andhence,soilorganicmattercontentsare substantially lower than in the mountain lands.Themainsoilformationprocessinthelowlandsiscon-sidereddesilicification,bywhichsilicaisreleasedfromsoil silicatesby theprevailingdrasticweatheringduetohightemperatureandhumidconditions.Partofthesilicareactswithaluminumtoformclay,andanother

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partissubjecttoleachingintheconstantlyhumidcon-ditions.Mobilizationofironandaluminumisataveryminimumintheabsenceofadequateamountsofhumicacids,andtheseelements,instead,tendtoaccumulateinthesoil.Theprocesses,asdescribed,mayalsooccurintemperateregionsbutareusuallymorepronouncedin the humid tropics (Tan, 1998). In the past, such aprocessofsoil formationwasknownas laterizationorferralitization.Inessence,itisthereverseprocessofpod-zolization.Thesoilsformedwerecalledlatosols,theoxi-solsintoday’sU.S.SoilTaxonomy.

Intheuplands, thezonebetweenthe lowlandsandthe highlands or mountain lands, both podzolizationandlaterizationprocessescanoccursimultaneously.

69071.indb 76 4/25/08 10:41:40 AM

��

chapterfour

VegetationofIndonesia

�.� ClimaxvegetationThe vegetation is believed to reflect the climatic pat-tern of a particular region or country. The climate isexpected,ingeneral,toputitsimprintonthevegetationdevelopingintheregion.Consequently,thegrowthofthevegetationisadaptedtoandinbalancewiththepre-vailingclimaticconditions.Thetypeandcompositionofthisvegetation,dictatedbytheclimate,arecalledbyJenny (1941) the climax association. Therefore, differenttypesofvegetationarepresentinIndonesiaduetothepresenceofdifferent typesof climates.Because threemajor types of climates are recognized in Chapter 3,threedifferenttypesofclimaxvegetationmaybepres-ent in Indonesia—the tropical rain forest, the tropicalmonsoonforest,andthetropicalsavannahforest.

�.�.� Thetropicalrainforest

Thetropicalrainforestexistsintheconstantlywetareasof the humid tropics. It is generally characterized by

69071.indb 77 4/25/08 10:41:41 AM


evergreenformsofvegetation,asfarasithasnotbeendestroyedforfarmingandtimberproduction.Initsorig-inal state, the forest looksawesomeand impenetrableduetoanabundanceofverydensevegetativegrowth.Ingeneral,itiscomposedofawidevarietyofplantspe-cies,andonlyinveryfewexceptionscanonefindarainforeststandcomposedofasingleplantspecies.

Another characteristic of the tropical rain forest isthatitoftenformsthreedistinctivelayersofcanopies.Thehighestcanopyisformedbyverytalltrees,often40to60mhigh,toweringintotheskyasratherisolatedor widely spaced trees above the second layer of therainforest.Thissecondlevelisformedby20-to30-m-tall trees thataregrownmoreclosely together,henceyieldingadensecanopy,likearoof.Belowthissecondlevel,athirdlevelexists,consistingofsmallyoungtreesgrowingbetweenapopulationofavarietyof shrubsandothertypesofgroundvegetation.Alargenumberofcreepingpalms,thornyrattanplants,andmanytypesoflianas,climbingupwardsfromonetreetrunktowardanother,addtothetangledimageofathickanddenseundergrowth.Alayeroffreshlitter,consistingofdeadandhalf-decomposedleavesandtwigs,coversthesoil.In general, it takes at least 50 years to form a 20-cm-thicklitterlayerunderahealthyrainforest.Thislitterlayeristhelifelinefortherainforestduetoitsroleinnutrientcycling(Tan,2000).

�.�.� Thetropicalmonsoonforest

Thetropicalmonsoonforestexistsinthetropicalmon-soon climate. The southeastern part of Indonesia in

69071.indb 78 4/25/08 10:41:41 AM

Chapterfour: VegetationofIndonesia ��

particulariscoveredbytypicalmonsoonvegetation.Ingeneral,itismixedwithanumberofdeciduoustreesthatshedtheirleavesinthedryseason.Thoughmostofthetreesarenotthattall,somecanbeastallasthoseofthetropicalrainforest.Forexample,teak(Tectonagran-dis),acharacteristicmonsoon forest tree, cangrowastallas50m.Thetreesinamonsoonforestalsogrowratherwidelyspacedfromeachother.

�.�.� ThetropicalSavannahforest

The tropical savannah forest occurs only in limitedareas, such as in the eastern part of Nusa Tenggara,which is under the influence sphere of the arid anddesertregionsofAustralia.Ithardlyresemblesatrueforest,becausethevegetationissubstantiallythinnerorlessdensethanthatofthetropicalmonsoonforest.Thetrees of the savannah forest (for example, Acacia andEucalyptus species)aremoreadapted to longdrysea-sons.Withlotsofgrassvegetationbetweenthewidelyspaced trees, the tropical savannah forest, lookingmorelikeaparklandscape,isexcellentforgrazing.Theremainingwildlifeisuniquetothisregion,especiallythesmallwildhorses.Unfortunately,thesehorsesarenowontheendangeredspecieslist,ifnotalreadycon-sideredextinct.

�.� VegetationprovincesAnothermethodofdescribingthevegetationofIndo-nesiaistheconceptofVanSteenis(1948),whodividedthe archipelago into three vegetation provinces, each

69071.indb 79 4/25/08 10:41:41 AM


characterizedbyadistinctiveassociationofforestveg-etation,composedofspecificplantgenera.VanSteenis’three vegetation provinces are the West Indonesian,East Indonesian, and South Indonesian vegetationprovinces.

�.�.� WestIndonesianvegetationprovince

Thisprovince,characterizedbyaDipterocarpaceaerainforest(Figure4.1),issubdividedasfollows:

1. Dipterocarpaceae and Pinus forest of NorthSumatra.

2. Dipterocarpaceae and Ironwood (Eusideroxylonzwageri)forestofSouthSumatra.

3. DipterocarpaceaeforestofKalimantan,withIron-woodonthesoutheastcoast.

�.�.� EastIndonesianvegetationprovince

Thisprovince,characterizedbyanAgathisrainforest,issubdividedasfollows:

1. AgathisforestofSulawesi.2. Agathis forest with Ironwood, Melaleuca, and

sagopalm(Metroxylonspp.)ofMaluku. 3. Agathis forest andalpine grassland in theSnow

MountainrangeofPapua(WestIrian).

69071.indb 80 4/25/08 10:41:41 AM


�.�.� SouthIndonesianvegetationprovince

Thisprovinceischaracterizedbyamonsoonforestandisdividedasfollows:

Figure 4.1 TheDiterocarpaceaerainforestinthelowlandofNorthSumatrawithitsdenseundergrowth.

69071.indb 81 4/25/08 10:41:42 AM


1. Teak(Tectonagrandis)andCasuarinaforestofCen-tralandEastJava.

2. CasuarinaforestofBaliandLombok. 3. Savannah vegetation on the eastern islands of

NusaTenggaraand,inparticular,inTimor.Theseislandsarealsofamousforsandalwood(ExocarpuslatifoliaandSantalumalbum).

In addition to the major plant species listed above,thethreeprovincesarehometonumerousotherplantgenera. On the slopes of Mount Lawu in Central Java(SouthIndonesianVegetationProvince),thereareexten-siveforestareaswithtrees, identifiedbyBloembergen,ProfessorofBotanyatInstitutPertanianBogor(IPB;Indo-nesia), as Querqus spp. (personal communications). Formore detailed information on the vegetation of Indo-nesia,thereadersarereferredtothemultivolumeFloraMalesianabyVanSteenis(1954).Perhapsalsoofimpor-tanceistheworkofHeyne(1950)andthedetailedvege-tationmapoftheForestServiceofIndonesiaascompiledbyHannibal(Figure4.2).ItshouldberealizedthatthisvegetationmapofIndonesiadatesfromtheearly1940sto1950s,andthevegetationcoverofIndonesiahassincethenbeenchangeddrasticallybywide-scaledeforesta-tion for crop and timber production, including illegallogging,andbytheresultingdisastrouswildfires.Effortshavebeenmadetoassessthedestructionandtheextentoftheremainingvegetativecover.Byapplyingmoderntechniques,suchasLandsatsatelliteimagery,theForestServiceofIndonesiaistryingtoupdateolddataandoldmaps.

69071.indb 82 4/25/08 10:41:42 AM


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re 4

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etat

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Map

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69071.indb 83 4/25/08 10:41:45 AM


�.� AltitudinalvegetationzonesBecausethevegetationwillfollowaspecificclimaticpat-tern,asindicatedintheaforementionedpages,inviewofthepresenceofaltitudinalchangesintheclimateofIndonesia, several vegetational zones can also be dis-tinguishedwithincreasedelevationsabovesealevel.Ingeneral,fivemaintypesofclimaxvegetationarerecog-nizedfromthelowlandstothehigh-mountainlands—thecoastalflora,therainforest,themountainforest,thecloud-belt forest, and the subalpine/alpine vegetation.Thesealtitudinalvegetationzonesmayoccurbothinthehumidtropicsaswellasinthetropicalmonsoonregions.Somepeoplemayperhapsobject,consideringthecoastalfloraasazoneofvegetation,causedbyaltitudinalchangesinclimate.Itisaddedhereforthesakeofcompleteness,becausethediscussionstartsfromsealevel.

�.�.� Thecoastalflora

Thecoastalformisadeterminingfactorintheforma-tionofacoastalflora.Whereextensivelow-lyingareasarepresent,stronglyinfluencedbythetidesofthesea,aMangroveforestdevelopswithmanyRhizophoraplants,locally calledbakauorbako-bakoplants.Anotherwell-knownmangroveplant is theNipahpalm(Nipa fruc-ticans), whose leaves are used by local folks to makebaskets and roof-thatch. This kind of forest usuallyflourishesonrivermudundersalineconditions.Atthemoreshelteredbeaches,thegentlyshelvingshorelinesoftheSundashelfareusuallyborderedbysuchaman-grovebelt,varyinginwidthfromafew100mtoseveral

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km.Thesearethekindsofswamps,oftenfoulsmell-ing,thatoccurextensivelyontheeastcoastofSumatra,southernandsouthwesterncoastsofKalimantan,andthesoutherncoastalplainofPapua.Theseawaterbringswiththetidelargeamountsofsulfatesthatareretainedbythecoastalsediments.Underanaerobicconditions,the sulfates are reduced into H2S, which in turn willreactwithirontoformFeS,givingtothesedimentsadirtyblackcolor (Tan,2000).Togetherwith theoffen-sive stench caused by the H2S gas, the dirty pollutedappearanceoftenturnspeopleaway.Nevertheless,themangroveforestareaprovidesshelterformanyformsof wildlife and is an important breeding ground formanytypesoffish,shrimp,andshellfish.

It is typical tofind thatmore inland, themangrovevegetationchangesgraduallyintoabrackishthenintoa freshwater swamp vegetation. As soon as the soilbecomesmixedwithmoresandymaterialandthesalineconditiondecreasesinland-ward,thetypicalmangroveplantsdisappeargraduallyandratherselectively.FirsttodisappeararetheRhizophoraplantsoftheAvicenniaspp.(locallyknownaskayuapi),thensecondinlinearetheNipahpalms.Thefreshwaterswampforestbehindthe mangrove belt supports a large variety of otherpalmtrees.ThePinangpalm(Arecacatechu)treesflour-ishinthiskindofswampandaresometimesfoundas“monocultures”(Figure4.3).Thenuts,knownasbetel-nuts,arefavoredasfoodbysomewildcacatuasandareusedforchewing-consumptionbylocalfolks.Theyarebelievedtobeaddictive,similartochewingtobacco,andbadforhumanhealthbecauseoftheircontentsofcar-cinogens.Anothercharacteristictreeofthefreshwater

69071.indb 85 4/25/08 10:41:45 AM


swamparea is thesagopalm(Metroxylon spp.) that isoften harvested by the people (Figure4.4). The starchfromthepithofthetreeisusedasfood,inthethicken-ingofgravy,orasglueandforthestiffeningofclothes.

Quiteadifferenttypeofcoastalvegetationwilldevelopifthecoastconsistsofabroadsandybeach.Inthiscase,dune formation often occurs, as is found along the

Figure 4.3 A“Pinangpalm”(Arecacatechu)forestinCeram(Moluccas)developedatriverbanksandfloodplainsunderanAfa(Köppen’s)climatetype.Theauthorisshown(ontheleft)withhissoilsurveycrew.

69071.indb 86 4/25/08 10:41:46 AM


northeastcoastofMaduraandthecoastalregionsborder-ingtheIndianOceanonthesouthandsouthwestcoastsofJava.Moreinland,behindthedunes,abeachforestusu-allydevelops,consistingoftreeswithfall-tintedleavesandbeautifulflowers, suchas theKetapang tree (Termi-naliacatappa),theHibiscusplants,andtheErythrinatrees.

Figure 4.4 Atypical“sagopalm”(Metroxylonsp.)forestintheMoluccas,developedinriverfloodplainsandfreshwaterswamps.

69071.indb 87 4/25/08 10:41:47 AM


TheediblenutsoftheKetapangtreeareoftencollectedforlocalconsumption.However,onthesandybeaches,exposedtothesea,avarietyofsalt-tolerantgrassesgrow(forexample,Spinifex littoreus, locallyknownasrumputangin[grassthatbreaksthewind]).Thisgrassvegetationisapparentlyprotectingthebeachesbyencouragingthedunes to form. Large numbers of coconut palms alsogrowontheexposedbeaches.Wherethepalmtreesareabsent,Casuarinaequisetifoliatreescanbefoundgrowingontheshorelines.Thelattertreesarelocallycalledcamara(Indonesianforpine)trees,duetotheirlongneedle-likeleavessimilartopineneedles.

�.�.� Therainforestandthemountainrainforest

Movinginland,thecoastalvegetationgiveswaytoarainforestassoonastheconditionsbecomefavorableforitsdevelopment.Therainforeststartsatsealevelbutcanextend toward higher elevation. Usually the plants ortreesoftherainforestareverylargeandtall,oftentallerascomparedtothoseofthetemperateregions.Temper-ateregiontreesthatcanreachaheightof50mbelongtotheQuercussp.Inthehumidtropics,anumberofjunglegiantsmorethan60mhigharepresent.Theyareusuallyadornedwiththetypical“plankroots.”Anothercharac-teristicofatropicalrainforestistheprolificgrowthoflianas,rattans,andanassortmentofotherepiphytes.

As this rain forest extends to higher elevations, itscompositionchangeswithincreasingaltitude.Perhaps,at elevations of 100 m above sea level, some typicalplantsbegintodisappear.Lianasandrattansbecome

69071.indb 88 4/25/08 10:41:47 AM


gradually more slender and grow very poorly. Otherplantswillstarttodisappearordecreaseinnumbersat500to700mabovesealevel,whereastemperateregionplantsthenmaketheirappearancebetweentheindige-nousflora.Thisis,forinstance,thecasewiththeDiptero-carpaceaethatdecreaseinnumberatthishighelevation.Atthesametime,plants,typicalforamountainflora,appearandgraduallyincreaseinnumber.Forexample,atanelevationof500mabovesealevel,Quercus (oakorKayupasang)andCastaneajavanica(locallycalledKihiyur)orCastaneaargentea(Saninten)treesstarttoflour-ish.The fruitof theSaninten tree resembles the tem-perateregionchestnut.Athigherelevation,theSchimanoronhaetree(Kayupuspa)becomesdominant.Thelat-terisconsideredatrulytypicalmountaintree.

In many regions, the mountain flora may be domi-natedbyasinglespeciesoftrees.SuchisthecasewiththeconiferousforestinNorthSumatraandinCentralandEastJava.Intheseregions,themountainfloratendstobedominatedbyPinusmerkusii,anindigenouspinespecies,asindicatedbefore.

Theinfluenceofamonsoonclimateontherainforestandmountainfloracanbenoticedbytheappearanceofplantsadaptedtoaperiodicdroughtperiod.Thenthefloraconsistsmoreofdeciduousplants,suchasTectonagrandis(teak)inthelowlands,andQuercustreesinthecaseofamountainforest.

�.�.� Thecloud-beltforest

This name is probably better than the name “HighMountain Forest” as given by Mohr (1922). With

69071.indb 89 4/25/08 10:41:47 AM


increasing altitudes, the mountain rain forest, as dis-cussedintheprecedingsection,isgraduallyreplacedbyacloud-beltforest.Theconversionstartstotakeplacewhenthecondensationlevelofwatervaporintheskyisreached.Atthiselevation,lotsoffog,mist,andcloudsare consequently produced, which usually hang overthemountainsides.This iswhy thenamecloudbelt ispreferredinthisbook.Thiscondensationlevelmaybereachedat1000to1500mabovesealevel,butdepend-ingupontheconditionselsewhere,itmayalsobeginatanaltitudeof2000to2400m.

The cloud-belt forest is sometimes considered animpoverished type of a mountain rain forest. Due tothemistyconditionsproducinghighrelativehumidity,itsflora is typifiedbytreesdrapedbymanykindsofmosses.Atthelowerboundaryofthecloud-beltzone,plants typical of the mountain rain forest still exist,though in decreased numbers. With increasing alti-tudes, theysoondisappear tobereplacedby increas-ingnumbersofLaurantaceae,Myrtaceae,andconiferousplants.Atthehighestboundaryofthecloud-beltforest,thetreesareoftendistortedinappearanceandstuntedingrowth.Thesetrees,knottyandgnarledbythecoldmountain winds, will soon also disappear when athigherelevationthetimberlineisreached.

�.�.� Thesubalpinevegetation

Athigherelevationsabovesealevel,thecloud-beltforestwillbereplacedbyasubalpinevegetation.Asindicatedabove,atthehighestboundariesofthecloud-beltzone,thetreescanstillberelativelytall,thoughtheyaremore

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dwarfed and gnarled in appearance, especially whenthe “tree level” or “timberline” is reached. This leveldependsonthelocalclimate,topography,andgeomor-phology, but generally it starts at approximately 2400to 3000 m altitude above sea level. The large fluctua-tionsbetweenmaximumandminimumtemperaturesatthesehighestelevationsinIndonesia,togetherwiththelowrelativehumidityandlowairpressure,requireexceptionaladaptationforthevegetationtogrow.Thiscold and windy area above the timberline is oftencalled the subalpine zone. However, true alpine condi-tionsexistonlyintheSnowMountainrangeofPapua(WestIrian).

Duetolowtemperaturesandfiercewinds, theveg-etationtendstobegrasses,bunchgrasses,andshrubs.Mostoftheshrubshavefeltorvelvetyandhairyleavesand twigs as adaptations and protection against thesevereorharshgrowingconditions.AgoodexampleofsuchaplantistheEdelweissplant(AnaphalisjavanicaorLeontopodiumalpinum)foundonthemountaintopsinJavaandSouthSulawesi.Atthelowerboundariesofthesubalpinezone,closetothetimberline,somedwarfedanddistortedtreescanstillbeseengrowinginthebleaklandscape.Somerhododendronshrubsarealsofoundstrugglingtosurviveatthisaltitude.SporadicsurveysandvisitstothetopofthemountainsinJava,withtheirsubalpinevegetationandareasofpollengrassorbunchgrass, gave the impression to the author of this bookthattheysomewhatresembletheTussockgrasslandinthemountainsofNewZealand.

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69071.indb 92 4/25/08 10:41:48 AM

��

chapterfive

Soilformation,classification,andlanduse

�.� Soil-formationfactorsBy previous conventional standards of pedology, thecharacter of the soil is attributed largely to the effectof interactions of five major factors of soil formation:climate, vegetation, parent material, topography, andtime(Jenny,1941;Joffe,1949;Robinson,1951;TaylorandPohlen,1962).Apparently thisconcept isstill relevanttoday,becauseithasnotbeenchallenged,but,instead,hasbeenquotedinmanymoderntextbooksofsoilsci-ence(BradyandWeil,1996;MillerandGardiner,1998;SoilSurveyStaff,2006b).

Asexplainedintheprecedingchapters,manykindsofrocksandvolcanicparentmaterials,severaltypesofclimates, different forms of vegetation, a great varia-tionintopography,andlandformsofdifferentagesarepresent in Indonesia. Though a great variety of soilsmayhavebeenexpected to form inviewof somanydifferences in soil-forming factors, surprisingly this

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seemsnottobethecase.Thepatternofthesoil’sdistri-butioninthearchipelagoisalsomoreregularaswouldnothavebeenexpectedfromthepresenceofthelargenumberofdifferentsoil-formationfactors.

�.� Soil-formingprocessesTheinteractionofthefactorsofsoilformationmaybeexpressedbyaseriesofsoil-formingprocesses,whichgenerallyinvolvecomplexphysical,chemical,andbio-logical reactions. The reactions may occur simultane-ously, or a sequence of reactions one after another isinvolved.Generally,itisbelievedthatthesoilisformedbythecombinedactionofadditionsoforganicmatterandinorganicmaterialstothesurface,transformationand new formation of compounds within the pedon,verticaltransferofsoilconstituents,andremovalofsoilcomponents from the soilbody (Simonson,1959;Tay-lor and Pohlen, 1962). The type of processes involvedvariesaccordingtotheconditions,andmanyprocesseshavebeenrecognizedinthisrespectasreasonsfortheformationofdifferentkindsofsoilsintheworld(Buolet al., 1973; Robinson, 1951; Taylor and Pohlen, 1962).Previous well-known processes of soil formation are,for example, laterization, podzolization, calcification,salinization,andgleyzation,representingprocessesforwarmhumid,coolhumid,semihumid,arid,andpoorlydrainedconditions,respectively.

Unfortunately,thisconceptofsoil-formingprocesseshasbeenphasedoutbytheU.S.DepartmentofAgri-culture(USDA)SoilSurvey,whichispromotingacon-ceptbasedsolelyonsoilmorphology(SoilSurveyStaff,

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Chapterfive: SoilFormation,Classification,andLandUse ��

1975,2006a).Differencesinsoilsaredeterminedbysoilprofilesonly,whicharedefinedasthemajorfactorforcausingvariationsfromsoiltosoil.Anumberofdiag-nosticpropertieshavebeendevelopedandassignedtoseveralofthesoilhorizonsforuseinidentificationofsoildifferences (SoilSurveyStaff, 1975, 2006a, 2006b).The soil-forming process in question should then bereadbetweenthelines.ThisideaoftheUSDAisappar-ently considered an excellent concept, because manyagreed to use it without question. However, a largenumber of scientists also have voiced concerns thattheU.S.SoilTaxonomysystemisoftennotapplicabletoconditionsdifferentthanthoseintheUnitedStates.ManyalsobelievethattheconceptistooartificialandsomewhatdistortedtofitU.S.conditions.Itshouldberevisedandadaptedappropriatelywhenusedinquitedifferentorforeignsoilecosystems.Readingsoil-form-ingprocessesinabstractionfrommorphologicaldataisveryriskyandmayleadtodifferentinterpretations.

ThefollowingissuesmayserveasanexampleaboutthedifficultiesusingtheUSDAsystem.Questionshavearisen,forinstance,astowhatthesoil-formingprocessofoxisols is intheUSDAsystem.Consideringoxisolsto be formed by oxidation is very unclear for many,whereasrelatingtheconceptofECEC(effectivecation-exchangecapacity),oneofthediagnosticpropertiesforan oxic horizon, to an oxidation process is stretchingtoofartheprinciplesofoxidationinsoilchemistry.Inaddition, the identification of oxisols solely on theirmorphologicalcharacteristicsisoftenveryconfusinginIndonesiaandmanyothercountries,becauseseveralofthemorphologicalfeaturesaretotheeyeoftensimilar

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to thoseofultisolsandsomealfisols in the lowlands.Many more examples can be given, but it is beyondthescopeofthisbooktoaddresstheweaknessesandstrengthsoftheAmericansystem.ItissufficienttosayherethattheUSDASoilTaxonomyisanexcellentsys-tem, but abandoning or phasing out well-establishedconcepts of soil-forming processes is perhaps unwar-ranted,ifnotarrogant.Whycanthetheoriesofsoil-for-mationprocessesnotexistsidebysidewiththeUSDASoilTaxonomysystem?Asfarascanbenoticed,thetwotheoriesdonotconflictwitheachotherandcanbeusedtosupporteachother.Scientistsaroundtheworldhavefrequently,butdiscretely,usedtheprocessesofsoilfor-mation tounderscore or emphasize thepresenceofasoilafterdoubtswereraisedwhenapplyingtheU.S.SoilTaxonomy(FAO-UNESCO,1998,2006,2007a).Manyoftheallegedlyoldterms,forexample,podzolsandsalinesoils,arestillinuseinGermanyandtheUnitedStates,respectively. The advantage of using both systems inparallel can be summarized by the following conclu-sion.By recognizing the factorsof soil formation, thesoil-formationprocess,andreflectedcharacteristics inthesoilprofile,geographicunitsofsoilsmaybedistin-guishedmoreproperlyandtheirdistributionmapped.

Forcompleteness,thesoil-formationprocesseswillbediscussedinthefollowingsections,andtheirinterpreta-tioninsomewhatmoremodernizedversionsaddressed.

�.�.� Previousconceptofsoil-formingprocesses

Intheearlystagesofdevelopmentoftheconcept,onlyfive major soil-formation processes are considered of

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importance,asindicatedaboveintheprecedingsection.However,severalotherprocesseshavebeendiscoveredandaddedsincethe1950s.Theadditionsincludeferral-ization and allitization (Kovda, 1964; Robinson, 1951),lixiviation (Mohr,1922;Mohratal., 1972), rubification(Kubiena,1962), illimerization(Kanno,1961),argilliza-tion, and melanization (Taylor and Pohlen, 1962). Forthepurposeofexplainingthemeaningoftheterms,alistofthesoil-formingprocessesisgivenbelow:

1. Laterization:Thisisaprocessinwhichsilicaandbases tend to be lost with the subsequent accu-mulation of sesquioxides in the pedon. A warmhumid climate is a requirement for a completedecompositionofprimaryminerals,releasingtheSi,bases,Al,Fe,andothercomponents.Thesoilsproduced were called latosols, lateritic soils, andlaterites.UsingtheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,thesesoilsarerenamedtodayasoxisols.Theadditionalpro-cesses,asproposedearlierbyRobinson(1951)andKovda (1964), are, in this author’s opinion, onlysubprocesses of laterization. Therefore, the pres-entauthorsuggestsdividinglaterizationintothefollowingtwosubdivisions:

a. Ferralization:. A subprocess of laterizationinvolvingalso strongchemicalweathering,bywhich silica is removed, causing sesquioxides,mainlyFe2O3,toaccumulate.

b. Allitization:.Thisisthesecondsubprocess,alsoinvolvingstrongchemicalweatheringbywhichsilicaisremovedandleavingAl2O3toaccumu-lateintheresidue(=soil).

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ThetwosubprocessesareoftenusedbyFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO[UnitedNations])scientists, which in combination are believed bythepresentauthortobethereasonforthedevel-opmentoftheFAOferralsols.Thelattercanbecon-sidered another alternative name for latosols oroxisols.

2. Podzolization:. This term is still used today bytheFAOandWRB(WorldReferenceBaseforSoilResources) systems for the formation processof podzols by which a rapid translocation takesplaceofiron,alumina,claymaterials,andhumicacidstotheBhorizons,yieldingsoilprofileswithwell-developedeluvialEandilluvialBhorizons.Bases are also depleted by leaching, causing thesoils formed to become very acidic. In a sense,the process is a reverse process of laterization.It requires the presence of a cool humid climateandvegetationyieldingacidichumus.Thehumicacidsformedplayanactiveroleinthemobiliza-tionprocessbyformingaluminumandironche-lates.Theprocessesofmobilizationofaluminum,iron,andclaysintheformofmetal(clay)-organochelatesarecalledcheluviation(leaching)andchil-luviation(accumulation)bytheFAOandWRBsys-tems (FAO-UNESCO, 2007c). The soils producedwerecalledpodzols,brownpodzolic,andgray-brownpodzolicsoils,whichtranslateintospodosolsandalfi-sols, respectively, in thenewU.S.SoilTaxonomy.The name podzol is still used in Germany andmanyotherEastEuropeancountries,asindicatedabove.

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3. Calcification:. This term is used for a process ofsoil formation in which the surface soil is keptsuppliedwithcalciumtosaturatethesoilcolloidstoahighdegree,renderingtheminthiswayrela-tively immobile. This process requires the pres-enceofasemihumidtosemiaridclimate,asfoundintheMidwestoftheUnitedStates,intheMedi-terranean, and in the monsoon regions of Indo-nesia. The process yields soils previously calledchernozems,brownforestsoils,andred-yellowMedi-terraneansoils.TheequivalentsintheU.S.SoilTax-onomyarethemollisols,inceptisols,andalfisols,respectively.

4. Salinization:. This is the name for a soil processbywhichsolublesalts tendtoaccumulate in thesoils.Theprocessrequiresanaridclimatewheretheaverageprecipitationislessthan500mm(20in.)annually.TheamountofH2Ofromprecipita-tionisinsufficienttoneutralizetheamountlostbyevaporationandevapotranspiration.Asthewaterisevaporatedintheatmosphere,thesaltsareleftbehindtoaccumulate.Inthepast,thesoilsdevel-oped were called saline soils, solonchaks, or whitealkalisoils.TodaythesesoilsarecalledaridisolsbytheU.S.SoilTaxonomy.

a. Solonization:. This is a process of removal ofexcesssaltsfromthesolonchaks,producingsol-onetzicsoilsorsolonetzs,whicharecalledarid-isolsbytheU.S.SoilTaxonomy.

b. Solodization:. This is a process of transloca-tionofsaltsandhighlydispersedsoilcolloidsto deeper horizons. The salts accumulated by

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salinization may eventually saturate the soil-exchange complex with Na. Increasing thesodiumsaturationisinfactasodicationprocessthatalsoresults inincreasingthesoilpH.Thelatter is referred to as alkalinization; hence, sol-odization is often also called sodication andalkalinization. The soilsproduced were previ-ouslycalledsolods,sodicsoils,orblackalkalisoils.TodaytheyarethearidisolsoftheU.S.SoilTax-onomy,nodifferenceinnameornomenclaturefromthesalinesoils.

. . Note:The“older”namesgivenaboveforthesalt-affectedsoilsarestill inusetoday.However,thegroups have been simplified, and each is distin-guishedbycriteriaonthebasisofelectricalconduc-tivity(EC),andexchangeablesodiumpercentage(ESP) (MillerandGardiner,1998;Richards,1954;Tan,1998):

1.SalinesoilsarecharacterizedbyvaluesofEC4mmho/cmat25°CandESP<15%.Thedis-persionofsalinesoilsstartsatESP=15%.ThesoilpHisordinarily≤8.5.

2.Saline-alkalisoilsaresoilswithEC>4mmho/cmat25°CandESP>15%.ThesoilpHisnor-mally≥8.5.

3.Nonsaline-alkalisoilshaveEC<4mmho/cmat 25°C and ESP > 15%. The soil pH rangesfrom8.5to10.

The selected criterion of 4 mmho/cm is sup-posed to be the limit at which salt damage to

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Chapterfive: SoilFormation,Classification,andLandUse �0�

cropsstartstooccur(KamphorstandBolt,1976;Richards,1954).

5.. Gleyzation:.This isasoil-formingprocessundertheinfluenceofexcessivemoistureconditions,nor-mally caused by poor drainage. Sometimes alsoreferredtoasgleying(TaylorandPohlen,1962),theprocess takes place in anaerobic environments,whereironisreducedyieldingthespecificgrayishandrustycolors.Itoftenoccursinthepresenceoforganicmatter inwetsoilswith lowordeficientoxygen content. The process is not restricted toanytypeofclimateandcanoccurintrazonally.Thesoilsformedarecalledingeneralterms,hydromor-phicsoils,thoughgleysolsarerecognizedintheFAOandCanadiansystemsofSoilTaxonomy.TheU.S.SoilTaxonomyplacedtheminanaquasuborder.

6. Lixiviation:.Thisisaprocessinvolvingmechani-calremovaloffinematerialsfromtheuppersoillayers,withoutthebreakdownofprimaryminer-alsandwithouttheactivityofsoilorganicmatter.

7. Rubification:.Thisisanonlateriticredearthforma-tion,usedbyKubiena(1962)insoilmicromorphol-ogy,characterizingasoilfabrichecalledrotlehm.

8. Illimerization:. This is a process of clay migra-tiontodeeperlayersinthesoilprofileandisalsoknownunderthenamesoflessivageandperhapsferralitization. It isnotexactlya soil-formingpro-cess, but more the reason for formation of Bt orargillichorizonsoftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy.

9. Argillization:. This is the formation of clays bychemicaldecompositionorweatheringofminer-alsintheparentrocks.

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�0� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia

.10. Melanization:.Thisistheformationofthickdarksurfacehorizons,enrichedwithsoilorganicmat-terwithnarrowC/Nratios.TheU.S.SoilTaxon-omyrecognizesamelanicepipedon.

Thefirstfiveinthelistabovearethemajorsoil-for-mationprocessesthatwerewellestablishedandexten-sivelyusedbeforetheywerephasedoutintheUnitedStates.Theremainder(6through10)arenotexactlysoil-formingprocesses,butonlybignoisesfromwell-knownscientists. The latter is perhaps one reason why theUSDASoilSurveyDivisionisopposedtousingthem.Ascanbenoticedfromthedescriptions,theyaremoreresponsibleforformationofaspecificsoilhorizon,orarejustsimplyweatheringprocesseswithoutformingaspecificsoil.

�.�.� Today’sversionsofsoil-formingprocesses

Efforts have also been made by several scientists toreplace the traditional soil-forming processes as dis-cussed above with new terms, which boils down tomodernizingtheoldversionsonly.Thenewversionsofsoil-formingprocesseswithapplicabilitytothedevel-opmentofpedons,suchasdesilicification,willbedis-cussed below, including translocation of clays and ofaluminumandiron,whicharemorerelatedtothefor-mationofargillic,albic,spodic,andoxichorizons.

�.�.�.� DesilicificationDesilicification isaprocess inwhichsilica is releasedfromsoilsilicates.Partofthesilicareactswithalumina

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toformclay,whereastheremainderissubjecttoleach-ing.Consequently,thesoilwillloseitssilicabutatthesame time will gain sesquioxides and other types ofclays due to residual accumulation of stable weather-ing products. This process may occur in the tropicsor in temperate regions in the presence of sufficientamountsofmoistureand the right temperature.Usu-allyitismorepronouncedinthehumidtropics.Ascanbenoticedfromtheexplanationabove,itisjustanewnameforapreviouslywell-knownsoil-formingprocesscalledlaterizationorferralitization.Acontinueddisilicifi-cationprocessovergeologictimeperiodswillultimatelytransformtheAl2O3mineralsintobauxite(Tan,1998).

Thesolubilityofsilicaisdictatedbythelawofpoly-merization.Silicaremainssolubleatconcentrationsof140mg/L in thepHrangeof2 to9 (Krauskopf,1956;Millot,1970;Tan,1998).Polymerizationoccurswhentheconcentrationsofsilicaexceed140mg/L,butthiscanbe prevented by the presence of humic acids. Humicsubstancesandotherorganicacidsareknowntoformcomplexesorchelateswithsilica,asillustratedinFig-ure5.1.Intheformofachelate,silicaremainssolubleandisfreetomovewiththepercolatingwaters,apro-cessenhancingdesilicification.Theauthorbelievesthatthis istheprocessbywhichsilicaandorganicmatterarelostduringtheformationofoxisols.Itexplainsthelowsilica-to-sesquioxideratiosandloworganicmattercontentsinoxisols.

�.�.�.� SilicificationThisisareverseprocessofdesilicificationthatoccursunderpoorlydrainedconditionsandlowpermeability.

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Leaching is inhibited, preventing loss of silica. Theresulting increase in H4SiO4 activity may lead to theformation of smectites and illites, characterizing thevertisols in the lowlands of East Java (Tan, 1998; VanSchuylenborgh,1971).Underchangingphysicochemicalconditions, smectite can be transformed into kaolin-ite and the latter into gibbsite, or vice versa, by desi-licificationandsilicificationprocesses,asillustratedinFigure5.2.Thesereactionsarereferredtoastransfor-mationbySinger(1979).

�.�.�.� TranslocationofclaysThis process, leading to the enrichment of B hori-zonswithclays,wasearliercalled illimerizationor les-sivage(Buoletal.,1973;TaylorandPohlen,1962).SuchB horizons are referred to as argillic (Bt) horizons in

OH

OH

OH

OH

Chelation

Si

Si

COO

COOH

O

O

OH

Complex Formation

Figure 5.1 Complexformationandchelationbetweenmonosi-licicacidandhumicacid.(FromTan,K.H.[1998].)

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theU.S.SoilTaxonomy.Whydid theUSDASoilSur-vey suggest terminating this concept of soil-formingprocesses,favoringtheuseofsoilmorphology?Intheauthor’sopinion, the terms illimerizationor lessivagearemoreattractiveandmoreexplanatorythantheuseof morphology or profile characteristics. The same istrueforlaterization,podzolization,andthelike.

ThemigrationofclaysfromAtoBhorizonsismadepossiblebypeptizationoftheclays,whichisenhancedbyinteractionsoftheclayswithhumicacids(Greenland,1971; Tan, 1976). Though the exact mechanism is notknown, the hypothetical reaction, as shown in Fig-ure5.3, serves as an example. The reaction adds anacidicgroup(COOH)totheclaysurfaceandincreasesthenegativechargeoftheclay.Thesurfacepotentialoftheclay–organiccomplexisthenlargerthanthatoftheclay alone. Consequently, the electrokinetic potential,related to the zeta (ζ) potential, becomes larger. As a

Desilicification

AlSi

GibbsiteSilicification

KaoliniteSmectite

O2 or OH

Figure 5.2 Desilicification and silicification of smectite,kaolinite,andgibbsite.(FromTan,K.H.[1998].)

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clay–organiccomplex,theclayremainssuspendedforalongertimeandmovesdownwardwiththepercolat-ingwater.Severalreactionsareresponsiblefordeposi-tionandclayaccumulationintheBhorizon.Movementofclaystopswherethepercolatingwaterstops,result-ing in flocculation of clay. Capillary withdrawal ofwaterfromtheporesintothesoil fabricdepositsclayonwallsofporesandpeds,producingtheargillansorclayskins.

�.�.�.� TranslocationofaluminumandironThe downward movement of aluminum and irontogether with organic matter results in formation ofalbic (E) and spodic (Bhs) horizons. This process wascalledpodzolization,givingrise to formationofpod-zols(spodosols).Severalscientistsbelievethatpodzols

COOHAl

O

OSi

OSi

O

Al

Si

Si

Org. Comp

Clay-Organic Complex

CLAY

COOH + H2O

OH + HO

O

Figure 5.3 Formationofhumo–claycomplexes.

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areformedbyaprocesscalled lessivage.However,thelatterprocessmayexplaintheformationofargillic(Bt)horizonsbutdoesnotjustifythetranslocationofalumi-num,iron,andorganicmatter,requiredforthedevel-opmentofspodichorizonsorpodzols.

Mostoftheironsubjecttotranslocationcomesfromthedecompositionofbiotiteandferromagnesianminer-als.Formobilizationofirontotakeplace,thesoilsmustbewelldrained,andhence,mostoftheironisinoxi-dizedform—inotherwords,itisinFe(III)ionicform.The possible ionic forms of Fe(III) are Fe3+, Fe(OH)2+,Fe(OH)2

+,Fe2(OH)4+,andFe(OH)4−(VanSchuylenborgh,

1966).Formoredetailsonthechemistry,solubility,andmobilization of Fe compounds, including redox reac-tions,referenceismadetoTan(1998).

Almost all soil silicates are sources for aluminum.TheionicformsofAl(III)areAl3+,Al(OH)2+,Al(OH)2

+,Al(OH)4

−, Al2(OH)24+, Al2(OH)4

2+, Al4(OH)102+, and

Al6(OH)126+.Formoredetailsonthechemistry,solubility,

stability,andmobilizationofAl, reference ismade toTan(1998)andVanSchuylenborgh(1966).

ThegeneralconsensusisthatthepHrangeinmanysoilsissuchthatmostofthealuminumandironcom-poundsareessentiallyinsolubleandhenceimmobile.Thepossibilityofmigrationofaluminumandironintheirionicformsshownisverysmall.Otheragentsarerequiredtomakethemmoresoluble.Evidencehasbeenpresentedthatdecompositionproductsofsoilorganicmatter,andespeciallyhumicacids,arecapableofsolu-bilizingtheinsolublesubstancesbycomplexreactionsorchelation (Tan,2003).Asacomplexorchelate,alu-minumandironmayremainsolubleatpHrangesthat

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makethemusuallyinsoluble.Stabilityandmobilityofthesecomplexesdependalsoon themetal concentra-tion in the soil solution and saturation of the humicexchangesites.Ifthealuminumorironconcentrationsare low, complexes will be formed in the A horizonwithlowmetal/organicligandratios.Inthiscase,theamountofsiliconandironchelatedareinsufficienttocauseimmobilizationoftheorgano-metalcompounds.The complex or chelate is then free to move downthepedon(DeConinck,1980).Duringthedownwardmigration,thechelatesmaypickupadditionalpolyva-lentcations,resultinginprogressivelydecreasingtheirnegative charges. The presence of higher cation con-centrationsinthesubsoilandanaciditydifferentfromthat in the A horizon may eventually neutralize theremainingcharges.Theconsequentprecipitationofthechelatesgivesrise to thedevelopmentofspodic (Bhs)horizons,diagnosticforspodosols(podzols)oftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy.

�.�.�.� RedoxreactionsReductionandoxidationreactionsoccurinalmostanysoils but have not been regarded or emphasized as asoil-formingprocess.Redoxreactions,infact,contributeto formationofplinthiteandgleyhorizons (Tan,1998).Gleyingisespeciallysignificantinpoorlydrainedsoils,suchas thepaddysoilswhereartificial inundationofthe soil is a required operation for the cultivation oflowlandrice(Tan,1968).

Bydefinition,reductionisagaininelectrons,whereasoxidationisalossofelectrons,asillustratedbytheclas-sicalreactionasfollows:

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Fe e Fe3 reductionoxidation

2+ −+ →← ++ (5.1)

Oxidation reactions usually occur in well-drainedsoils.Ontheotherhand,reductionprocessesaremorelikely to be predominant in poorly drained soils orwhere excess water is present. Usually known as thesoilredoxstate,thisconditionoccursinalmostanysoils.Both oxidation and reduction conditions can occursimultaneouslyinthesoil.Whilethesurfacelayersofthe pedon are in an oxidized state, the subsoil layersmaybeinareducedconditionowingtoafluctuatinggroundwater level. The latter may lead to pseudo-gleyformationortoplinthization.

Theredoxsysteminsoilsaffectsstabilityofironandmanganese compounds. To a certain extent, micro-bial activity and accumulation of organic matter arealso affected. Fresh organic matter is thought to aidformation of a reduced condition. Bloomfield (1953,1954)reportedthataqueousleafextractsreducedFe(III)intoFe(II)insoils.Themobilizationofironandman-ganeseduetoredoxconditionsandsubsequentforma-tionofiron-andmanganese-organochelates,hasbeenreportedtogiverisetoformationofiron-B,followedbymanganese-Bhorizonsinpaddysoils(Tan,1968).Intidalfloodwaterzones,reductionprocessesplayaconsider-ableroleinformationofsulfur-richsoils,asdiscussedinearlierpublications(Tan,2000).

SoilswithdifferentredoxconditionsmayalsoreactdifferentlyuponNfertilization. Inwell-drainedsoils,ammonium-N is subject to nitrification and con-vertedintonitrates(NO3

–).However,iftheammonium

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��0 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesia

fertilizerisappliedtoareducedsoil,suchastopaddysoils, it remains available as ammonium (NH4

+). Formoredetailsontheredoxsystemandredoxpotentialsinsoils,referenceismadetoTan(1998).

�.�.� Influenceofclimaticvariationsonsoil-formingprocesses

InthehumidtropicsofIndonesia,movementofwatertendstobedownwardinthepedon,enhancingleachingofbasesandothersoilelementsreleasedbytherapiddecompositionofsoilminerals.Undertheseconditions,laterization or desilicification has been consideredto be the major soil-forming process in the lowlands,provided drainage conditions are favorable (Tan andVan Schuylenborgh, 1961a; Van Schuylenborgh andVanRummelen,1955).On theotherhand,podzoliza-tionhasbeendetectedastheprocessofsoilformationat higher altitudes, especially in the highlands or inMohr’s mountain lands. In between the two zones, atransitional zone exists, earlier called the uplands,where both laterization and podzolization have beennoticedtooccursimultaneously.

�.�.�.� MineralizationversushumificationThezonaldivisionsofsoil-formingprocessesabovearecausedbythechangingclimateswithelevationabovesea level, yielding differences in the rates of organicmatterdecomposition.Asindicatedearlier,inthelow-lands, organic matter is observed to be mineralizedcompletely,andonlyverysmallamountsofhumicsub-stances have been formed. The peculiar picture of a

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tropicalsoilprofileinIndonesia,exhibitingaverythinlitterlayer(Ohorizon)ontopofthemineralpartofthesoil,tendstogivesupporttotheabove.Consequently,onewouldexpecttheroleofhumicsubstancestoalsobeveryminimal,ifanyatall,insoilformationinthehumid tropical lowlandsof Indonesia.Becauseof therapid mineralization of soil organic matter into CO2,H2O, and other substances, several Dutch scientistswereoftheopinionthattheweatheringagent,percolat-ingthroughthepedon,isthereforemainlywatercon-tainingCO2(Hardon,1936a;VanSchuylenborgh,1958).Hence,therateofmineralizationofsoilorganicmatterandtherateofdiffusionofCO2gasintothesoilandtheatmosphereareconsideredthedeterminingfactorsforsoil formation in the humid lowlands. The producedCO2dissolvesinsoilmoistureandmayformcarbonicacid.Thereactionmaybeillustratedasfollows:

CO2+H2O→H2CO3 (5.2)

In pure water, the amount of CO2 dissolved gener-allyamountsto0.984×10−5moles/L,whichisbasedonair,containing0.03%CO2(at1atmpressure),thatisinequilibriumwithwater.ThepartialpressureofthisCO2(Pco2)equals0.29×10−3atm.ThevalueofPco2insoilairisexpectedtobesomewhathigherthaninordinaryairbecauseofproductionofadditionalCO2duetomin-eralization,respirationofroots,andmicrobialactivity.ForthechemicalcalculationsusingHenry’slaw,refer-enceismadetoTan(2000).

Dissolvedcarbondioxide,CO2,affectsmanybiologi-calandchemicalreactionsinsoil.Itisusedbyaquatic

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plants, suchasalgae, inphotosynthesis (Tan,2000). ItischemicallyactiveandinteractswithsoilmoisturetoformcarbonicacidasindicatedaboveandhencemayaffectthesoilpH.Carbonicacidisaweakacidandwilldissociatesomeofitsprotons,asindicatedbythereac-tionbelow:

H CO HCO H2 3 3→← +− + (5.3)

Byapplyingthemassactionlaw,VanSchuylenborgh(1958)reportedthefollowingrelationshiptobevalid:

k (HCO H )H CO

3

2= = ×

− +−)(

( ).

3

73 5 10 (5.4)

He then calculated, with Equation 5.4 and Henry’slaw, thepHvaluesof soilmoistureatdifferent levelsofPco2andcametotheconclusionthatatPco2=0.25× 10−3atm,thesoilpH=4.23.ThepartialpressureaboveisclosetothatofanormalCO2contentinairincontactwithwater.Onceagain,fordetailedchemicalcalcula-tions,referenceismadetoTan(2000)andVanSchuylen-borgh(1958).

ThoughthevalueofPCO2 insoilairwasconsideredhigherduetorespirationofplantrootsandmicrobialactivity, it can nevertheless be argued that the litterlayer(Ohorizon)ofsoilsinthelowlandsofIndonesiaisoftenverythin.Thisconditionmakespossiblearapidexchange of the produced CO2 with the atmosphericairabovebydiffusion.Consequently,thepartialpres-sureofCO2isexpectednottorisesignificantlyabove0.25×10−3atminsoilair,withtheresultthatthepHofthepercolatingwaterisstillaround4.23to4.0.Thisis

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then themainweatheringagent,whichhasanacidicstrengthsimilartothatofweakacids.

Athigherelevations,orinthehighlandsofIndonesia,quite different processes are taking place. Due to theprevailingcoolerclimate,chemicalactivitiesaresome-whatsubdued.Thelitterlayer(Ohorizon)tendstobebetterdevelopedandisoftenconsiderablythickerthanthatinthelowlandsoils.Consequently,morehumusisexpectedtobeformed.Oxidationofsoilorganicmatterwillalsobelessintensive,whereasmineralizationtendstobereplacedbyhumificationprocesses.Theweather-ing agent is, therefore, soil moisture, containing highamountsofhumicsubstancesandotherorganicacids.Itappearsthattheseorganiccompoundsareplayingagreaterroleinsoilformationthancarbonicacids,espe-ciallyataltitudesof1000mabovesealevelorhigher.Therefore,inthehumidtropicalhighlands,podzolizationis considered as the main soil-forming process. Theeffectsofhumicacidsinsoilformation,andespeciallyintranslocationofclays(illimerization)andofalumi-numandiron,resultinginformationofalbicandspodichorizons,havealwaysattracteda lotofresearchatten-tion(Aarnio,1913;Bloomfield,1953,1954;DeConinck,1980;Gallagher,1942;JonesandWilcox,1929;Tan,1986;VanSchuylenborghandBruggenwert,1965).Theprin-ciplesofmobilizationandimmobilizationofaluminumand ironasa resultofchelationbyhumicacidshavealsobeensufficientlydiscussedinthesectionsabove.

In the monsoon zones, the soils are affected by aseasonalalternatingwatermovement.Duringthewetseason,watermaypercolatedownward,favoringlateri-zationtotakeplaceinthelowlands.Laterizationisstill

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the main soil-forming process, especially in regionswithveryshortdryseasons.Itisalsonoticedthattheprocesscanproceedtohigheraltitudesinthemonsoonregions.Whereas in thehumid tropics, laterization ispronouncedonlyataltitudesof≤600mabovesealevel,inthemonsoonregionslaterizationisstilldetectedat1000mabovesealevel.Inmonsoonareas,wherethedryseason is especially longer and sharper, water move-ment tendstobeupwardduringthedryseason,andbecauseof this, somecalcificationprocessesaremorelikelytoaccompanytheprocessoflaterization.

Calcificationisnoticedtobecomemorepronouncedinmonsoonregionswithverylongdryseasons.Thisisthenthereasonwhythesoilsinthemonsoonzonesarelessacidicinreactionsthanthesoilsintheconstantlyhumidareas.

From the discussion above, the conclusion can bemade that the condition in the humid highlandsapproachesthatofacoolhumidclimate intemperateregions, where humification is believed to be moreimportantthanmineralization.ThiscanbesupportedperhapsbythedatainTable5.1,showingorganicmat-tercontentanditsC/NratioinatemperateregionsoilversussoilsofthehighlandsandmonsoonregionsofIndonesia.TheC/Nratiosofthegray-brownpodsolicsoil inthehumidtropicsoftheIndonesianhighlandscomparefavorablywiththoseofitscounterpartsoilinthe United States. The data indicate that these ratiosdecreasewithdepthintheprofile,meaningthatorganicdecomposition products richer in nitrogen have beenproduced (that is, humic substances). However, a dif-ferent trendwasobserved in thebrownpodzolicsoil

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ofthemonsoonregionsinIndonesia.TheC/NratioisnoticedtodecreaseslightlyfromAtoBt1horizons,toincreaseagainintheBt2horizon.Theoldtermsinsoilclassificationhavebeenusedabove,becausenonameisavailableintheU.S.SoilTaxonomysystemthatcom-parescloselytothebrownpodzolicsoiloftheIndone-sianmonsoonregion.

�.�.� Influenceofparentmaterialsonsoilformation

Resultsofinvestigationsindicatethattheparentmate-rial plays a very important role in soil formation inIndonesia (Tan and Van Schuylenborgh, 1961a; VanSchuylenborgh,1957,1958;VanSchuylenborghandVan

Gray-Brown Podzolic Soil

(Alfisol), USAb

Gray-Brown Podzolic Soil

(Alfisol), HumidTropicsa

Brown PodzolicSoil, Monsoona

Hor. Hor.%Cor %Cor C/N

A — 14.0 A 9.45 12.6 A 12.0 18.7

E — — E 7.19 9.2 — — —

B — 10.1 Bt1 5.45 7.9 Bt1 7.84 16.9

C — 7.6 Bt2 Bt22.73 6.3 7.65 21.4

C/N Hor. %CorC/N

Table.5.1. OrganicCContentsandC/NRatiosofTemperateRegionsandIndonesianSoils

a FromTan,K.H.andVanSchuylenborgh,J.(1961a)andVanSchuylenborgh,J.andVanRummelen,F.F.F.(1955).

b FromAnderson,M.S.andBeyers,H.G.(1934).

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Rummelen,1955).Itappearsthatonandesiticvolcanicmaterial quite different soils have been formed thanondaciticor lipariticmaterialsundersimilarclimaticconditions. Tan and Van Schuylenborgh (1959, 1961a)havedetectedformationofpredominantlylatosols,thecurrentoxisols,onintermediateparentmaterials,suchasandesitictuffs.Incontrast,red-yellowpodzolicsoils(theultisolsoftoday)werefoundonliparitictuff,whichisclassifiedasanacidicparentmaterial(seeChapter2fordefinitionsofthegeologicterms).Bothobservationswere valid for the lowlands under similarly constanthumidclimates.

Compared to the ultisols of the southern region ofthe United States, the Indonesian ultisols and oxisolsarerelativelymuchyoungerinage.TheAmericanulti-sols were formed after the latest ice age, the Wiscon-sinIceAge,whichisequivalenttotheWürmIceAgeofEurope.Accordingly,theyarenotmorethan25,000yearsold.ThesoilsinIndonesiaoriginatefromvolca-nicdepositsoflateHolocenetosubrecentgeologicage,whichisestimatedtobeabout12,000yearsold.ItcanbefurtherarguedthattheIndonesiansoilsmostlikelydonotrepresentfinalstagesintheirprocessofforma-tionbutare transitional forms toother soils. Inaddi-tion to the above, the prevailing higher temperaturesinIndonesiainduceamorerapidweatheringprocesstooccurthaninthetemperateregionzonesoftheUnitedStates. As discussed earlier, the average annual tem-perature in Indonesia may fluctuate from 13 to 20°C,whereas this temperature in the United States mayvaryfrom7to10°C.Thisisadifferenceofabout9°C.ThelawofVan’tHoffindicatesthattherateofchemical

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reaction increases two- to threefold with an increaseof10°Cintemperature(Tan,2000).Hence,itisperhapswarrantedtoconcludethatinIndonesiaacertainstagein soil formation would be reached in only one-halftoone-thirdof thetimeof thatrequiredintemperateregions.Thefasterrateofweatheringandsoil forma-tionissupportedbythefollowingfacts.OnAugust26and27,1883,adisastrouseruptionoftheKrakatauvol-canointheSundaStraitoccurred.Enormousquantitiesofvolcanicdustwereejectedintheair,coveringneigh-boringLangIslandwithvolcanicdepositsofmorethan30minthickness.Forty-fiveyearslater,onOctober31,1928,Versteeghdiscoveredasoilprofilewithasurfacesoilof35cminthickness.

In addition to the rate of weathering as discussedabove, an important factor affecting soil formation istheintensityofweathering,whichisalsoentirelydiffer-entbetweenIndonesiaandtheUnitedStates.Theissueofweatheringintensityisespeciallyimportantforsoilformation in themountainzonesof Indonesia,wherehumificationplaysasignificantroleinthedecomposi-tionofsoilorganicmatter(seenextsection).

�.�.� Precipitationandevaporationratioandweatheringintensity

Theconclusionwasmadeintheprecedingsectionthatsoil formation was also affected by the intensity oftheweatheringprocess,whichparticularlyaffectssoilformationinthemountainsofIndonesia.Theissueiscloselyrelatedtothestrengthofthesoilsolution.Theconcentration of the liquid percolating through the

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parent material in Indonesia is believed to be muchlower than that in temperate regions.This isperhapscausedbyadilutionoftheleachingsolutionduetothefactthatprecipitationalwaysexceedsevaporationinthehumidtropicsascomparedtothetemperateregions.InIndonesia,theevapotranspirationofamountainforestin West Java is estimated to be 860 mm of water peryear(Coster,1937),whichisconsiderablylowerthantheamountofannualprecipitation.BecauseNorthSuma-tra has a comparable humid climate as West Java, itsevapotranspiration figure is reported to be the same.However, theevapotranspirationvalue inEast Java isreportedtobesomewhathigherduetothepresenceofamonsoonclimate.Nevertheless,whentheaverageistaken,themountainsoilsinIndonesiaasawholehavebeen formed in climates exhibiting a rainfall/evapo-transpirationratioof3:6.Inthetemperateregions,thisratioofprecipitation/evapotranspirationisentirelydif-ferent.Forinstance,thezoneofpodzolicsoils,andinparticular of the alfisols (gray-brown podzolic soils),in theUnitedStates (Beyersetal., 1935) lies inabelt,inwhichtheprecipitation/evaporationratiofluctuatesbetween1.1and1.5.Thisratioisperhapsalittleonthehighside,becausetheevaporationindexusedincludesdataofevaporationfromafreewatersurfaceandhencedoesnotrepresentthelossofwaterbyevapotranspira-tionofanaturalforestvegetation.Nevertheless,atrendcan be noticed that the ratio is substantially smallerintheUnitedStatesthaninIndonesia.Theconclusionmaythenbedrawnthatdilutionoftheweatheringsolu-tion is much greater in Indonesia than in the UnitedStates. Therefore, weathering intensity is expected to

69071.indb 118 4/25/08 10:41:57 AM


bemuchsmallerinIndonesiabutconsiderablygreaterin the United States. This difference explains the factwhyinIndonesiathesamesoilsasintheUnitedStatescanbedevelopedfrommoreacidicor fromlessbasicparentmaterials.ThefollowingexamplesaregiventoillustratethedifferencesineffectofthestrengthoftheleachingsoilliquidontranslocationsofaluminumandironinIndonesianandtemperateregionsoils.Thedatain Table5.2 compare the mobilities of aluminum andiron, as expressed by the molar ratios of Al2O3/Fe2O3insoilsofIndonesiaandtheUnitedStates.Ascanbenoticed,thisratioisrelativelyconstantwithdepthintheprofileofalatosol(oxisols),soilsformedbylaterization.

Latosols(Oxisols)a

Red-YellowPodzolic Soils

(Ultisols)a

Gray-BrownPodzolic Soil

(Alfisols)a

Alfisols (MiamiSilt Loam)b

Horizon Al2O3Fe2O3

Horizon Al2O3Fe2O3

Horizon Al2O3Fe2O3

Horizon Al2O3Fe2O3

A1 5.50 5.28 4.75 4.68A1A1A/E

5.17 5.32 5.85 4.55EEBt1

5.13 6.10 7.47 3.19BBt1Bt2

5.09

5.39

8.90 8.26 3.38CBt2C

A2

A3

AC

C

Table.5.2. MolarAl2O3/Fe2O3RatiosofSelectedSoilsinIndonesiaandtheUnitedStates

a From Van Schuylenborgh, J. and Van Rummelen (1955); VanSchuylenborgh, J. (1957, 1958); Tan, K.H. and Van Schuylen-borgh,J.(1959).

b FromBeyers,Alexander,andHolmes(1935).

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As explained earlier, the weathering solution here iscomposedmainlyofwaterandCO2,whichwasconsid-eredarelativelyweakleachingsolutionforsoilforma-tion.However,theAl2O3/Fe2O3ratioincreasesfromAtoChorizonsinthered-yellowpodzolicsoil(ultisols)andthegray-brownpodzolicsoils(alfisols)ofIndone-sia.Thismaysuggest that translocationofaluminumisgreaterthanthatofironcompounds.Thesolubilityconstants (pK value) of aluminum and aluminum–organiccomplexesaregenerallysmallerthanthoseofiron and iron–organic complexes. At a pK = 32.0, theconcentrationofsolubleAl3+iscalculatedbyTan(1998)tobe1×10−2moles/L.Itagreeswiththeconceptthatstronglyacidicsoils (pH=4.0)contain largeamountsofaluminum.WhensimilarcalculationsweremadebyTan (1998) for amorphous Fe(OH)3, an Fe3+ concentra-tionof1×10–8.2moles/Lwasobtainedforasoilwitha pH = 4.0. This supports the allegations above thatiron ismore insoluble thanaluminum.Consequently,aluminum and aluminum–organic complexes maymoveearlierdownthepedonthaniron–organiccom-plexes(Tan,1998;VanSchuylenborgh,1966).Whenthealfisol (Miamisilt loam)of theUnitedStates isexam-ined(Table5.2),aquitedifferenttrendcanbenoticed.TheAl2O3/Fe2O3ratiosdecreasewithdepthinthesoilprofile, which can only mean that iron is made moremobile thanaluminum.The latter isbelieved tohap-penonlywhenotheragentsarepresent inconcentra-tionscapableofproducingastrongerleachingsolutionforchelatingmoreiron.Duetothegeneralpresenceofhumification processes in the temperate regions, theconcentration of the soil solution percolating through

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thepedonoftheMiamisiltloamisapparentlyhigherinhumicacidcontentorotherorganicsubstancesthanintheIndonesiansoils.

�.� ThesystemofsoilclassificationinIndonesia

Inprewartime,theclassificationofsoils inIndonesiafollowedtheDutchconcept.AreviewofthesystemandtheworkdoneinthisfieldisgivenbyEdelman(1947).

AfterWorldWarII,thesystemofsoilclassification,asdevelopedintheUnitedStates,replacedtheolderDutchsystem.Atfirst,soilclassificationbasedonthezonalityconceptgainedpopularityandwassoonadaptedforuseinsoilsurveyandsoiltaxonomyinIndonesiawithoutorwithslightmodifications,especiallyattheuniversities.This conceptgrouped the soils intozonal, intrazonal,andazonalgroups(Baldwin,Kellogg,andThorp,1938;ThorpandSmith,1949).Usingthissystemofsoiltaxon-omy,theSoilResearchInstituteatBogorstartedin1955toundertakeasystematicsurveyofthesoilresourcesinIndonesia.Afive-yearworkingplanwasestablishedinthisrespectincooperationwiththesoilsdivisionoftheFAO-UN.Alothasbeenachieved,butonlyasmallpartoftheresultshasbeenpublished(DudalandJahja,1957;DudalandSupraptohardjo,1957).

Thezonalitysystemabovewaslaterchangedsome-whatbySupraptohardjo(1961),whopresentedarevisedsystembasedonsoilmorphology.Theuseofsoilpro-files in the identification of soils was believed to beabletoeliminatethemanydifficultiesencounteredin

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soil survey and mapping. The modification places alotofemphasisonprofile characteristicsas shown inTable5.3,whereaselementsofsoilgenesisorsoil-form-ingfactorsfailedtobeconsidered.

Withtheprogressineducationstartinginthe1960s,many Indonesian scientists sent to universities andresearchinstitutionsintheUnitedStateswiththeKen-tuckyContractTeam(KCT)andMidwesternUniversi-ties Consortium for International Activities (MUCIA)projects (see Chapter 1) became exposed to the newU.S. Soil Classification system. At first introduced bythe USDA Soil Survey Division under the title of �thApproximation, A Comprehensive System of Soil Classi-fication (Soil Survey Staff, 1960), the system was laterrevised to become the current Soil Taxonomy, A BasicSystem of Soil Classification for Making and InterpretingSoilSurveys(SoilSurveyStaff,1975,2006b).OneofthemajordifficultiesencounteredinapplyingtheU.S.sys-teminIndonesiashouldbebrieflymentionedhere.TheU.S. Soil Taxonomy is unfortunately very difficult toread not only for many U.S. scientists, but especiallyforoverseassoilexperts,whoseprimarylanguagesarenotEnglish.Thetextisexcessivelywordy,andoveruseof“oneofthefollowing,”followedbythemany“ors”and“eithers,”with longsentences inbetween,makesone forget, when reaching the final words, what theissuewasinthebeginning.Anexampleisthefollow-ing:“Organicsoilsaresoilsthat(�)haveorganicsoilmate-rials that extend from the surface to one of the following:(a)....,or(b)...,or(�)...,and(a)...(�)...or(�)...etc.”(SoilSurveyStaff, 1990, p. 39, 2006a). And this example is not theworst.Themanychoicesandselectionsphrasedinone

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Category Profile Development Great Soil Group

A. Organic Soil Without Profile Development 1. Organosol

B.Mineral Soil I. Weak (A)C or No Profile

2. Lithosol 3. Regosol 4. Alluvial Soil

II. AC with Prominent A1 or Chernozemic A

5. Grumusol 6. Rendzina

III. A(B)C with Prominent A1 7. Andosol

IV. A(B)C with Color B 8. Brown Forest 9. Noncalcic Brown Soil

V. ABC with Textural B or Color B and High in Bases

10. Red-Yellow Mediterranean Soil

VI. ABC with Latosolic B 11. Latosol

VII. ABC with Textural/ Color B and Low in Bases

12. Red-Yellow Podzolic Soil13. Lateritic Soil

VIII. ABC with Podzol B 14. Podzol

IX. ABC with Prismatic/ Columnar B 15. Solonetz

X. AC/ABC with Gley horizon and Podzol B or Textural B or Textural B or Color B or Prominent A or Saturated with Ca, cs, and sa

16. Groundwater Podzol 17. Groundwater Laterite 18. Gray Hydro- morphic Soil 19. Low Humic Gley Soil 20. Humic Gley 21. Planosol 22. Solonchak

Table.5.3. SoilClassificationUsedattheSoilResearchInstitute,Bogor,Indonesia

Sources:Supraptohardjo,M. (1961);Dudal,R.andSupraptohardjo,M.(1957).

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extremelylongparagrapharenotonlymindboggling,butalsoviolatetherulesofwritingtextbooks,journals,orreports.Nonetheless,severaloftheyoungergenera-tionofsoilscientiststriedtoapplythenewU.S.systeminIndonesiabutsoonrealizedthatithastobemodifiedsomewhatandadaptedtolocalconditions.TheBogorSoilResearchInstitutehasusedamodifiedversioninrevisingitsExploratorySoilMapofIndonesia.The2000-versionsoilmap,asshowninFigure5.1,recognizesinits indexthefollowingdivisionsofsoils inIndonesia,listed below by the author in descending order fromsoilswiththelargestacreages.

Thetotalsoilacreageislistedas1,882,102km2(Cen-treforSoilandAgroclimateResearch,2000).Ascanbenoticed,severalof thesoilordersoccur inverysmallacreages (for example, alfisols, spodosols, and verti-sols),perhapsforreasonsthattheyarenotrecognized

Percent.(%).of.Total.AreaInceptisols 38.51Ultisols 24.27Entisols 9.62Oxisols 7.50Histosols 7.01Mollisols 4.56Alfisols 2.77Aridisols 2.55Spodosols 1.16Vertisols 1.15Miscellaneous 0.90

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ortrulyoccuronlyinalimitedextent.Thiswillbedis-cussedinlaterchapters.

�.� LanduseinIndonesiaThe soils above are used in agriculture for the culti-vationoffood,estate,andindustrialcrops.ThemajorfoodcropsgrowninIndonesiawhenrankedbyacre-agesarerice,corn(calledmaizeinEuropeancountries),cassava,andsoybean.AsnoticedfromTable5.4,thesoilacreagesunderricefarexceedthosecultivatedbyotherfoodcrops,withcornsecond,cassava third,andsoy-beanfourthinimportance.Othercrops,notstatedhere,arefoundinsmallersoilacreagesthanthefourabove.Fromthedata,itseemsthatthebiggestconcentrationsofricecultivationareontheislandsofJavaandSuma-tra, with 5 million and 3 million hectares under rice,respectively (Biro Statistik Indonesia, 1999; FAO-WFP,

Table.5.4. AcreagesofMajorFoodCropsofIndonesia(×1MillionHectares)

Island Rice Corn Cassava Soybean

Java 5.00 1.80 0.69 0.67Sumatra 3.00 0.65 0.27 0.20Sulawesi 1.20 0.45 0.07 0.06Kalimantan 1.00 0.05 0.04 0.09BaliandN.Tenggara 0.63 0.34 0.13 0.15MoluccasandWestPapua

0.04 0.10 0.02 0.03

Total 10.87 3.39 1.22 1.20

Sources:BiroStatistik(1999);FAO-WFP(1999);Fisher,C.A.(1966).

69071.indb 125 4/25/08 10:41:59 AM


1999).Thefiguresreferperhapstoacreagesoflowlandrice and to these should perhaps be added the acre-agesofuplandricecultivation.It is importanttonotethatwheneverpossible,thepeopleinIndonesiaprefergrowinglowlandriceorricegrownininundatedfields,calledpaddy-sawah.Mostofthesawahfieldsarelocatedonoxisols,ultisols,inceptisols,entisols,andpeatsoils(histosols).Riceisamajorstaplefoodcrop,andthe1999paddyproductionwasestimatedtobe48.6milliontons,an amount not much different from the 48.5 milliontonsreportedfor1998.AccordingtotheBiroStatistik,Indonesiahadtoimportintheyear2000anadditional3.1milliontonsofricetofeeditspopulation.

The most important estate and industrial crops arerubber,oilpalm,tea,coffee,cocoa,copra,andspices.Adistinction wasmadeby theAgency forAgriculturalResearchandDevelopment(AARD,1986)todividethenonfoodcommoditiesintoindustrialandestatecrops.Crops produced by large plantations owned by thegovernmentorlargecompaniesareclassifiedasestatecrops(forexample,tea,coffee,cocoa,andoilpalm).Allothercropsproducedbysmallholders,ownedbysmallfarmers,arecalledindustrialcrops(forexample,coco-nut[copra],fibercrops,andspices).Therubberoilpalmandcoconutpalmestates,fortheproductionofcopra,aregenerallyfoundinlowlandareas,wheretheclimateismostsuitableforgrowingtheseplants.Ontheotherhand, tea, coffee, and cocoa estates are usually culti-vatedintheuplandandhighlandsofIndonesia.Theyare considered mountain crops, and the best tea andcoffeeplantationsarefoundinthecoolmountaincli-mateof Indonesia.Tearequiresacoolhumidtropical

69071.indb 126 4/25/08 10:42:00 AM


Afclimate,andhence,mostoftheteaplantationsareinthemountainsofSumatraandWestJava.Ontheotherhand,coffeeismoreadaptedtoacoolmonsoonAmcli-mateofthemountainsofEastJava.ThenameJavaCoffeeis derived from this island. Another important estatecropissugarcane,whosecultivationislimitedtolow-landareaswithanAmaclimate.ThistypeofclimateisfoundinthelowlandsofEastJavawheremostofthesugarcane estates are therefore located. The soils arethevertisols withpoor physical properties. Indonesiaisalsoknownasthespiceislands,andthesespiceswerethereasonsforthePortugueseandDutchcompaniestoventureeastintheearlydaysofthe1500sand1600s.Themajorcropsproducingspices,cultivatedinIndonesia,includepepper(Pipernigrum),clove(Eugeniacaroyphyl-lataoraromatica),andnutmeg(Myristicafragans).PepperplantsarevinesandaremostlygrownbysmallholdersintheLampunglowlandofSouthSumatraandontheislandsofBangkaandBelitung.Thepepper fruits, intheformofkernels,areprocessedintoblackandwhitepepper,respectively,formarketing.Thefinalproductislocallycalledcollectivelymericaorlada.WhitepepperisthespecialtyoftheBangkaislands,whereasblackpep-perisproducedintheLampungs.Theclovetreeswereorginally grown in the Mollucas, but the cultivationwasextendedtoWestJavainthelate1960sduetosoar-ingdemandsforclovesbythedomesticcigarette,calledkretek,industry.However,duringthe1990s,cloveculti-vationseemedtowinddownagainduetounfavorablegovernment interference and because of import com-petitionfromZanzibar,Africa.ThetreesaregrowninWestJavaprimarilyinthelowlandsonultisolsandon

69071.indb 127 4/25/08 10:42:00 AM


uplandandosols.Theflowerbudsareharvestedgreenanddriedtoproducethebrown-coloredcloves,locallycalledcengkeh.Nutmeg(locallyknownaspala)treesarealso grown originally in the Molluccas, but as is thecase with cloves, its cultivation has been extended tootherislandsoftheIndonesianarchipelago.Thefruitsareverytangyandsourintasteandthelargepitsorseeds inside the fruits yield after proper drying thenutmegs(calledbijipala;biji=pit),whereasthemem-brane or fleece enveloping the nuts is producing thenutmegmace(locallyknownaskembangpala;kembang=flower).Moredetailsonthecultivationandregionalimportanceofmajoragriculturalcropswillbeprovidedinthesoilsections.

69071.indb 128 4/25/08 10:42:00 AM

��

chaptersix

SoilsinthelowlandsofIndonesia

�.� IntroductionThesearethesoilsthathavebeenformedprimarilybylaterizationprocessesundertheinfluenceofyear-roundhumid tropical climates. Rapid and drastic weather-ingprocessesaredominant,whereasorganicmatterisusuallymineralizedintoCO2,H2O,andtheirmineralcomponents. Humification is of little importance andplays a minor role in soil formation. The major soils,discussed in the following sections, are the latosols,called oxisols, and red-yellow podzolic soils, calledultisols,by theU.S.SoilTaxonomy (SoilSurveyStaff,2006b). These soils tend to occur mainly in Köppen’sAfatypesofclimates.Aswillbediscussedinthesec-tionsbelow,itisverydifficulttocomparethesesoilsinIndonesiawiththoselistedintheU.S.SoilTaxonomy;hence,theFoodandAgricultureOrganization–UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganiza-tion (FAO-UNESCO, 2006) and World Reference Base(WRB)forSoilResources(FAO-UNESCO,1998)systemsarealsoconsultedforproperdelineationsof thesoils

69071.indb 129 4/25/08 10:42:00 AM


inquestion.Forexample,inIndonesiatheultisolscanbedistinguishedintolowlandanduplandultisols.Aswillbediscussed,thelowlandvarietytendstobered-yellowpodzolicsoilsdefinedbyacidicparentmateri-als,whereastheuplandvarietyismorethezonalgroupof red-yellow podzolic soils formed in tension zoneswhere both podzolization and laterization are occur-ring.Thesetermsofsoil-formingprocessesarecurrentlyphasedoutinthesoilscienceoftheUnitedStates,butfortunatelytheyarestillinuseandcurrentlyvalidintheFAOandWRBsystems.OtherimportantsoilsinthelowlandofIndonesiaarethered-yellowMediterraneansoils and grumusols, for convenience called lowlandalfisolsandvertisols,respectively.Bothsoilsaretypicalin theiroccurrence inKöppen’sAmaclimate,amon-soon-typeclimatedifferentfromtheyear-longhumidtropicalclimateoftheoxisolsandultisols.ThischapterwillalsodiscussthepeatsoilsthatoccurextensivelyinthecoastalregionsofIndonesia,whicharecalledhisto-solsbyU.S.soilscientistsbutarenamedtropicalpeatsoilsbyFAO-UNscientists(Andriesse,1988).Thesoilshaverecentlyattractedworldwideattentionduetotheirreclamationforfoodandtimberproduction.Thedisas-trousdeforestationintheeffortsaboveandtheensuingdamagingwildfireshavealarmedtheregionsinSouth-eastAsia.

�.� OxisolsThis group of reddish-colored soils of Indonesia, for-merly known as latosols, has received considerableattention. They are confined to the tropics (Beinroth,

69071.indb 130 4/25/08 10:42:01 AM

Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ��

1973), and many ideas concerning their genesis andclassification were suggested (Edelman, 1950; Har-ris, 1963;Kellogg,1949;Prescott andPendleton,1952).Manyargumentsandobjectionsstillexistconcerningitsnomenclature.Namessuchasterraroxashavebeensuggested(Beinroth,1973),andmanyothernameswereintroducedforthisgroupofsoils,someakinorrelatedtothetermlatosols,andothersonlystressingthekindofpresumedsoil-formingprocessthatmayhavetakenplace(Aubert,1954;Cline,1955;Harris,1963;MohrandVanBaren,1960).TheU.S.SoilTaxonomyhascompletelydeletedthetermlatosolsinfavorofoxisols(SoilSurveyStaff,1975,1990).Allofthemseemtohavetheeffectinmakingtheproblemevenmorecomplicated.

Thenamelateritewasfirstusedforthisgroupofsoils,as introduced by Buchanan in 1807 (see Prescott andPendleton,1952),andfromwhichthetermlaterizationisderivedfortheweatheringandsoil-formingprocessesofthissoil.Thishasledtothedevelopmentofnamessuchaslaterites,lateriticsoils,andlatosols.Generally,itisacceptedthattheprocessofformationofthiskindofsoilinvolvestheremovalofsilica,alkali,andalkalineearth with the consequent concentration of iron andaluminumoxidesandtheirhydratedforms.ThelatterwasdiscussedinChapter5.

InIndonesia,thisgroupofsoilsoccupiesmostofthelowlands,especiallyinJava.Ontheotherislands,thesesoilsdonotseemtobeveryimportant,andtheiroccur-renceseemstobelimitedtosmallareasorregions—inSouthSumatra(Lampungprovince), inWestSumatra(Padang and surroundings), in the southeastern cor-ner of Kalimantan, in South Sulawesi, and in North

69071.indb 131 4/25/08 10:42:01 AM


Sulawesi(Minahassaprovince).Formoredetailsaboutthedistributionofthesesoils,seetheExploratorySoilMapofIndonesia(Figure1.2).Ifonewouldconsultpre-war reports (Mohr,1938), a fargreaterdistributionoflatosols(oroxisols)intheIndonesianarchipelagothanisstatedabovewouldbenoticed.Thisproblemwillbeaddressedinmoredetailinthefollowingpages.

�.�.� Parentmaterials

The latosols (oxisols) in Indonesiaarederived fromawidevarietyofparentmaterials.Theyhavebeenformedfrombasictointermediatematerials,suchasquaternaryandesiticvolcanictuff,volcaniclahar,andriverdepositsorMiocenesediments,providedgooddrainagecondi-tionsprevail.Tertiarymaterialshaveformedsoils,usu-allyclassifiedasultisols(red-yellowpodzolicsoils)bytheBogorSoilResearchInstitute(Dames,1955),thoughtheirmorphologicalfeaturesaresimilartothoseofthelatosols.Themorphologicalcriterionusedtodifferen-tiate ultisols from latosols was in the past the quartzcontent.TheBogorSoilResearchInstitutethoughtthatinthiswaymappingproblemscouldbeeasilysolved.The soils containing quartz were mapped as ultisols,andsoilswithoutnoticeablequartzcontentwereiden-tifiedaslatosols.However,thatthisactioncreatesalotofconfusionisapparent.Thecentralconceptoflatosols(oxisols)doesnotexcludetheexistenceofquartzinthesoil.True latosols (or thecurrentoxisols)may, infact,contain quartz (Soil Survey Staff, 1960, 1975; Harris,1963). Latosols, which morphologically do not exhibitquartz,containappreciableamountsofquartzintheir

69071.indb 132 4/25/08 10:42:01 AM


sandfractionswhenanalyzedbypetrographicmeans(Table6.1).

Thisseparationoflatosolsfromultisols,basedonthequartzcontent,isoneofthereasonswhythedistributionoflatosols(oxisols)inIndonesiaisnotaslargeaswouldhavebeenexpectedfromprewarreports.Manyofthesoils, which could have been classified as oxisols, arenowmappedasultisolsbyvirtueofthequartzcontent.

Thelatosolsinthelowlands,fromBogortothecoastalplain of Jakarta, originate from parent materials pro-ducedbyrecentquaternaryeruptionsoftheSalakandPangrango-Gedeh volcanoes. This andesitic volcanicmaterialstretchesnorthwardasavolcanicfanfromthefoot(±600mabovesealevel)oftheabove-statedmoun-tainstotheplainofJakarta(Verstappen,1953).Accord-ingtoVerbeekandFennema(1896),thisvolcanicfancanbedividedintotwosections:ayoungersectionandanoldersection.Theexistenceofsuchaseparationissup-ported by results of petrographic (Table6.1) and par-ticlesizedistributionanalyses(Table6.2).Theyoungersection, which is andesitic tuff and exhibits a hyper-sthenetohypersthene-augiteassociation(TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1959),occupiestheareaofBogornorth-ward to regions located at elevations of 100 to 150 mabovesealevel.FromhereontotheplainofJakarta,theoldersectionisfound,whichwasdeterminedasdacito-andesitic, a more siliceous material than the youngerandesiticvolcanictuff.Thedivisionlinecanbedrawnat the Ciluar profile, where the quartz content of thesandfractionsuddenlyincreases(Table6.1),andwherethe particle size distribution of the soil also changesabruptly (Table6.2). Other indications for the more

69071.indb 133 4/25/08 10:42:01 AM

�� SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesiaTa

ble

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69071.indb 134 4/25/08 10:42:02 AM

Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ��R

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69071.indb 135 4/25/08 10:42:02 AM


siliceousnatureoftheolderandesitictuffintheplainofJakartaarethelowerhyperstheneandespeciallythesubstantiallyloweraugitecountsintheredlatosolsofbothCibinongandPasarMinggu(Table6.1).Hence,toindicatethemoresiliceousnatureofthematerialsinthe

Profile I (7.5YR 4/4)(Brown Latosol)Pasir Muncang

<50 <2

Profile II (5YR 4/4)(Reddish-Brown Latosol)Bogor

Profile III (5YR 4/8)(Red-Yellow Latosol)Ciluar

Profile IV (5YR 4/6)(Red-Yellow Latosol)Cibinong

Profile V (2.5YR 4/6)(Red Latosol)Pasar Minggu

A1A2B1B2C

A1A3B1B2

A1A2B1B2B3

A1A2B1B2

A1A2B1B2B3

5.964.255.104.76

15.57

5.545.384.323.92

1.161.881.231.041.09

1.711.991.011.85

0.860.730.660.740.57

49.9753.1433.8632.1427.64

33.7936.8533.4730.89

14.4518.5714.89

7.5813.35

12.9213.07

9.268.10

11.4911.82

8.086.97

11.04

42.9241.6459.1161.6956.32

58.5954.9860.3461.71

81.1278.7181.7086.6685.50

83.2582.8488.5389.31

86.1586.1588.3990.6286.15

Percentage

50–2

Soil

Table.6.2. ParticleSizeDistributionofLatosols(Oxisols)

69071.indb 136 4/25/08 10:42:04 AM


plainofJakarta,thenamedacito-andesitictuffisgiven.Hypersthene and, in particular, augite are mineralsoftenusedasmarkersforthepresenceofintermediatetothemorebasicvolcanictuff(forexample,andesitetobasalto-andesitictuffs)(MohrandVanBaren,1960).

Anotherissueinconnectionwiththeparentmaterialsistheopinionthatbasicparentmaterialswillproducethedarker-coloredlatosols,whereassiliceousvolcanicmaterialswouldgiverisetothedevelopmentoflighter-coloredlatosols(Dames,1955).SeeTable6.2,whereref-erence is made of brown- to reddish-brown (7.5-5YR4/4)-colored latosols (oxisols) formed on the youngerparentmaterials,whereasyellowish-redtored(5-2.5YR4/6)-coloredlatosols(oxisols)werefoundontheolderparentmaterials.Thoughhigherorganicmattercontentmaybea factor inproducing thedarkercolorsof thelatosols at higher elevations, it is believed that underequalclimaticandenvironmentalconditions,thehigherironcontentofthebasicmaterialsisanotherreasonforformationofsoilswithdarkercolors.Whentheparti-cle size distribution of the soils is studied (Table6.2),itcanbenoticed that theCiluar,Cibinong,andPasarMingguprofilesare composedoffineparticles.Theyareconspicuouslylowerinsandandhigherinclaycon-tents thanthePasirMuncangandBogorsoilprofiles,whicharelocatedclosertothecenteroferuptions.Thismay perhaps suggest that in addition to age and cli-mate,otherfactorsmayhaveplayedaroleintheforma-tionofthedifferentcolors,suchastextureoftheparentmaterials.Itisreasonabletoexpectthatonlythefinestmaterialshavebeentransportedfartherawayfromthevolcanoes and have reached the places in the coastal

69071.indb 137 4/25/08 10:42:04 AM


plainofJakarta.Asageneralruleinphysicalchemistry,the finer the particles, the greater will be the surfacearea for better and easy attack by forces of weather-ing.Hence,soilsareformedintheplainofJakartawithhighclaycontents.Duetotheprevailinghotclimateintheplains,dehydrationanddessicationofironminer-alstendstooccur,givingrisetodevelopmentofhema-tites,whichimposetheirintensebrightredandyellowcolorstothelatosols.Ontheotherhand,themineralsinthelatosols(oxisols)ofBogorandhigherelevationsare more goethite-like in nature, generally carryingthedarkbrowncolors.Mohr(1938,1944)believesthatthecoastalplainofJakartainquestionwasinthepastmost probably inundated by the Java Sea. Therefore,theolderparentmaterialswouldhavebeendepositedmore likely inthesea,orafter theirdepositioninthePleistoceneagehavebeensubjectedtoaseabath.Eitherthevolcanictuffsweresubmergedatonetime,orafterhavingbeenweatheredintobrown-coloredsoilsweretemporarily submerged in the sea. Either or both ofthese treatments are thought to be sufficient to bringabout thedehydrationof ironoxidemineralsandtheconsequentdevelopmentofbrightredcolors.

�.�.� Climate

AspreviouslydiscussedinChapters1and3, latosols(oxisols)are foundin Indonesiaasazonalbelt in thehumidlowlands,fromsealeveltoplacesatelevationsof600mabovesealevel(Tan,1958;VanSchuylenborgh,1957). In this belt, they are formed under the influ-enceofahumidtropicalrainforestclimate,classified

69071.indb 138 4/25/08 10:42:04 AM


byKöppenasanAfaclimate(Table6.3).Indrier,mon-soon(m),climates,theyhavebeennoticedtooccurathigher altitudes to approximately 1000 m above sealevel. Here, the climate is classified as Köppen’s Ama,whichissimilartoahumidtropicalrainforestclimate,butwithaslightinfluenceofadryseason.Ingeneral,it was noticed by various Dutch scientists, as well asbythepresentauthor,thattheregionsofoccurrenceoflatosolsarewithinthelimitsofKöppen’sAfatoAmcli-matic types. Latosols rarely occur in Indonesia in Asand Aw (savannah or aridic) climate types, and withtheprevailingconceptsofsoilsurveyandclassificationinIndonesia,thesesoilsarealsoseldomfoundinareaswith Cf (mesothermal) climates. Therefore, with ourpresentknowledge,noconclusionscanbemadeastothe relationship or correlations of Indonesian latosolswith the proposed subdivisions of oxisols into udox,ustox,andtorroxoftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff, 1960, 1990). Tentatively, it can perhaps be statedthat latosols in Indonesia, falling in the udox subor-der,mostprobablywillbefoundinAfaclimaticareas,theustoxandtorroxinAwtoAsclimates,ifany.ThisisoneoftheissuesordrawbacksofapplyingtheU.S.SoilTaxonomyinforeigncountries.Thereisnoques-tion that it is a good system, but as indicated before,itappliesonlyforconditionsintheUnitedStates.Theclassification system also seems to be too artificial,because the use of morphology only complicates andfurtherconfusestheissue.Tothenewgenerationofsoilscientistsnotacquaintedwith theconceptof thesoil-formingprocessesoflatosols,thetermsustoxandtorroxindicatethattheseoxisolshavebeenformedunderdry,

69071.indb 139 4/25/08 10:42:04 AM


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69071.indb 140 4/25/08 10:42:05 AM


aridconditions.AsdefinedintheU.S.SoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,1990),eventheauthorisinclinedtothink that ustox are soils derived in ustic and torroxinaridicsoilmoistureregimes.However,theformationofoxisols(ortheformerlatosols)requiresthepresenceof lots of water, high temperatures, and well-drainedconditions,asconditionedbythedefinitionoflateriza-tion.Itisverydifficulttorealizehowtheseconditionscanbemetinanustic,torrox,orotheraridicsoilmois-tureregime.True,thesesoilscanbefoundinthedryclimates,butthisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthattheyhavebeen formedunder the influenceof the“aridic”climate.Manybelievethattheseoxisolsare“relics”andmayhaveoriginallybeenformedinAfatoAmclimaticregimes.Afterformation,theclimatehaschangedintothearidictypesofclimateswheretheoxisolsarenowfound.

Anotherimportantproblemistheinfluenceofchang-ingclimatewithincreasingaltitudesontheformationof oxisols with different colors in Indonesia. As dis-cussed above, brown to reddish-brown latosols (oxi-sols) are generally found at higher elevations (300 to1000m)abovesealevel,whereasred-yellowtoredlat-osols (oxisols) are usually noticed at lower elevations(200mtosealevel).Thisdifferencewasexplainedintheprecedingsectionasduetodifferencesinparentmate-rials.However, itshouldalsoberealizedthatorganicmattertendstoaccumulatemoreinsoilsathigheralti-tudesthaninsoilsatlowerelevationsabovesealevel.Asdiscussedearlier,mineralizationofsoilorganicmatterprevailsinthelowlands,whereashumusformationandaccumulationarefavorableinthesoilsoftheuplands

69071.indb 141 4/25/08 10:42:05 AM


andhighlands.Theresultingdifferenceinorganicmat-tercontentisanadditionalreasonfortheoccurrenceofdarker-coloredlatosolsintheuplandsandlighter-col-oredlatosolsinthelowlandsofIndonesia.Whenlato-sols (oxisols) also occur in association with andosols,intergradesareformedattheborderregions,formerlycalled black latosols (Tan, 1959), which perhaps exhibitsomeresemblancetothehumiclatosolsofHawaii(Cline,1955). The U.S. Soil Taxonomy thought to cover someof these latosols (oxisols) by classifying the brighter(lighter)-colored soils as rhodic hapludox or kandiudoxand the humus-rich soils as humic rhodic hapludox orkandiudox(SoilSurveyStaff,1990).Noreferenceismadeto a tropical origin of the oxisols, which is expected,because a number of U.S. scientists do not believe in“tropicalsoils,”asmentionedearlier.Unfortunately,thetropudoxhasbeendeletedaltogether,aswellasthetro-pudalfs and tropudults, used in the older versions oftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,1960,1975).However,troporthents,tropaquents,tropofluvents,andsoforth,arestillrecognized,whichmakesthesystemratherinconsistent.

�.�.� Soilmorphology

Previousconceptsindicatethatlatosolsarefeaturelessin morphology, exhibiting usually deep profiles withminimum horizon differentiation. This is somewhatreflectedinthesystemoftheU.S.SoilTaxonomythatrequires theupperboundaryofoxichorizons,oneofthediagnosticcriteriaforoxisols,tobewithinadepth

69071.indb 142 4/25/08 10:42:05 AM


of150cmofthesoilsurface.BecauseoxichorizonsareBhorizons,itisperhapsclearthatacompletesoilpro-fileofABChorizonscanthenbemorethan1.5m(=±5ft)thick,andmanylatosol(oxisol)profilesinIndonesiawill even be 3 m (±10 ft) deep before reaching the Chorizons. In many cases, the profile was customarilydugtoadepthofnotmorethan1.5morless,andthedescription will then cover only this exposed part ofthelatosol.Thisisperhapsoneofthereasonsformak-ingconclusionsthatlatosols(oxisols)havenocleardif-ferencesinhorizons.

Undertropicalconditions,suchasoccurringinIndo-nesia,atleasttwokindsofmodalprofilescanbefound:a moderately deep (brown latosol) and a very deeplyweathered profile (red latosol). After careful and thor-oughexaminations inthefield, theconclusioncanbereachedthattheoxisolsoftheredlatosol types,whicharetheoldestinage,havemorphologicalfeaturessimi-lartotheclassicallatosolprofileaspresentedbyPrescottandPendleton(1952).ApictureshowingaredlatosolisprovidedinFigure6.1,andtheaccompanyingsoilpro-filedescriptionofaredlatosolisasfollows:

Thesoilprofileis locatedinCibinong,the plain of Jakarta, Indonesia (50m above sea level), exhibiting a roll-ing topography with the soil profiledugonaflatpart of the topof a roll-inghill.Thevegetationiscomposedofgrasses and Eupatorium bushes, withisolatedbambooforestscatteredinthesurroundings.

69071.indb 143 4/25/08 10:42:06 AM


Ascanbenoticed, theprofile isverydeep,andthetransition from the concretion layer at 230 cm to themottledzoneisverygradual.Themottledzoneiscon-sideredsimilarasplinthite,andDutchscientistsareof

Depth.(cm) Profile.Description

0–20 5YR 3/4, dark reddish-brown (field moist),strong fine crumb, clay, friable, many roots,sometermites.

20–40 2.5YR3/4,darkreddish-brown(fieldmoist),strongfinecrumbtosubangularblocky,clay,friable, iron coating, many pores, abundantinsectactivity,roots.

42–67 2.5YR3/4,darkreddish-brown(fieldmoist),strongfinegranular,clay,friable,ironcoatings,manypores,abundantinsectactivity,roots.

67–104 2.5YR3/4,darkreddish-brown(fieldmoist),strong fine granular, clay, friable, less ironcoatings, porous, abundant insect activity,roots.

104–200 2.5YR 3.4, dark reddish-brown (field moist),strongfinegranulartoweakmediumblocky,clay,friable,veryporous,roots.

200–230 Blackiron/manganeseconcretionlayer(2to5mm),littleclaypresent,structureless.

230–280 Mottled zone, strong medium subangularblockytoblocky,clay,firmtofriable.

Redmottles:5YR4/6.

Grayishmottles:10YR7/1.

Note: The soilprofileabove isunderfield conditionby theeyebrightredtoreddish-brownincolor.

69071.indb 144 4/25/08 10:42:06 AM


theopinionthattheoxisolsinIndonesiacanbedividedinto two types: oxisols without plinthite and oxisolswithplinthite(Mohretal.,1972).Theoxisolsinthelow-landsof Indonesia areusually plinthitic,whereas theoxisols in the uplands generally do not exhibit plin-thites in their profiles. This difference is due to dif-ferences in soil-formation processes as discussed indetail inChapter5,Section5.2.3,stressingtheimpor-tanceoftheeffectofmineralizationoforganicmatter

Figure 6.1 RedLatosolatCibinong,PlainofJakarta.

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inthelowlands,andtheinfluenceofhumificationandchelation in the uplands and highlands. Perhaps it isnecessary to reinforce here some of the details. ThelowlandoxisolsofIndonesiahavebeenformedundertheinfluenceofleachingagentscontainingmineraliza-tionproductsoforganicmatter.Incontrast,theuplandoxisolsareformedmorebyanadditionalinfluenceofleachingagentscontaininghumicacids.

Thebrownversionofoxisolsexhibitscolors thatareusually in the 10YR to 7.5YR hues and are less clayeythanitsredcounterpart.Asindicatedearlier,theprofiledoesnotpossessplinthite.Ironconcretionlayers,mottledzones,andpallidzonesarerarelypresent.Thehypoth-esisisthatbrownoxisolshavenotreachedthestageofformationofredlatosolsduetotheinfluenceofdifferentfactorsofsoilformationathigherelevations.Anexampleofabrownlatosolprofiledescriptionisgivenbelow:

Depth.(cm) Profile.Description

0–16 10YR3/4(moist),darkyellowish-brown,clay,strong fine to medium granular structure,friable, many roots, termite activity, gradualsmoothboundary.

16–33 7.5YR 4/2 (moist), dark brown, clay, strongfine granular structure, friable, many roots,termiteactivity,gradualsmoothboundary.

33–57 10YR 4/3 (moist), brown, clay, weak, finegranular, friable, slightly more compact thanthehorizonabove,gradualsmoothboundary.

57 7.5YR 4/4 (moist), brown, clay, weak finegranular,veryfaintiron/manganesemottles.

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Profileislocatedinarubberplantation,nearBogor,WestJava(250mabovesealevel),withrollingtohillytopography.It was dug on a flat part of the area,whichiscoveredbyanunderbrushofsparse native vegetation, composed ofmainly grasses, with isolated spots ofbushes.

Betweenthetwomodalprofilesabove,differentkindsofintergradesarepossible.Anironconcretionlayermaybepresentthatisverythininthickness.Partofthetoppartofthesoilprofilecanbeerodedandbecomesverythin.Theremainingerodedsoilfrequentlyreceivesnewmaterialsfromneweruptionsbecauseoftheactivevol-canisminIndonesia.Recentadmixturesofvolcanicashandrockfragmentsintheremainingsoilallowfortheoccurrenceofanewcycleofsoilandclayformation.

Atafewlimitedareas,whererejuvenationwithvol-canic ash has not happened and where erosion hascompletelystrippedoffthetopsoil,theconcretionlayer,whenpresent, tends tosurfaceandbecomecementedoveraperiodoftimetobecomeanironcrustlayer.Thishas been noted by the author in limited areas in thelowlandseastofJakarta.Theywereonlyafewsquaremeters wide and were surrounded by ordinary lato-sols.Suchformations,consideredtobethestartoftheformation of laterites, may take hundreds of years tofinish.

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�.�.� Soilclassification

Internationally, the classification and terminology ofthesesoilshavebeencriticallydebated,sincetheirfirstintroductioninsoilscienceunderthenameoflaterites(Harris, 1963; Mohr and VanBaren, 1960). Many con-cepts and many names were presented (Cline, 1955;Kellogg,1949).Kellogg(1949)proposeduseofthenamelatosolorcromosolatthesubgrouplevelforthisgroupofzonalsoils,whichhepreviouslycalledlateriticsoils.The central concept of latosols is that they are zonalsoils exhibiting dominant characteristics associatedwith low sesquioxide ratios in the clay fractions, lowcation-exchangecapacities,andlowcontentofmostoftheprimaryminerals.Thesoilsarecomposedentirelyofsecondarymineralsandquartz,showingminimumhorizondifferentiationandpossessingahighdegreeofaggregatestability.

Asubdivisionatthegreatgrouplevelcanbecreatedbyusingappropriateadjectivestolatosol.Forexample,Cline(1955)classifiedthesoils inHawaii intothefol-lowinggreatgroups:

1. Lowhumiclatosols,developedatelevationof≤2600m,under125to1000mmrainfall(annually).

2. Humic latosols,developedatelevationsfromsealevelto750mabovesealevel,under1000to2500mmrainfall(annually).Thisgroupisdifferentiatedfromtheformerbyahighorganicmattercontent.

3. Ferruginous humic latosols, occurring in simi-larclimaticzonesasthehumiclatosols,buthave

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purplish A horizons, overlying a heavier red toreddishBhorizon.

4. Hydrolhumiclatosols,developedatelevationsof150to1500mabovesealevel,under3800to9000mmannualprecipitation.

Manysoilscientistsseemtoobjecttousingthenamelatosol, and termssuchasallitic soils, solduralitic, ferral-sol,andthelikeweresuggested,especiallybytheFrenchschool (Aubert, 1954; Harris, 1963). Kovda (1964), whoseemedtobeinfluencedbytheFrenchsystemofsoilclas-sification,suggestedadivisionofthesesoilsofthehumidtropicsintotwomajorgroups.Dependinguponthehydroregimeandthebalancebetweenmineralandorganicmat-tercontents,Kovdapresentedthefollowingdivisions:

1. Alliticsoils,formedonaresidualalliticweatheringcrust. This group includes tropical brown earth,yellow earth, red earth, rubrozem, and bauxitesoils. The brown and yellow earth soils containkaolinite,butattheredearthstage,kaolinitedis-appearsandgibbsiteandboehmitepredominate.

2. Alliticsoils,formedonferruginousaccumulativeweatheringcrustasaresultofanancientorcon-temporaryhydromorphousprocess.ThesearethelateritesasproposedbyBuchanan.

In Indonesia, the soils were first called laterite or lat-eritic soils, but later the name latosols was adopted(Table6.4).

Supraptohardjo (1961)distinguishes latosols fromlat-eriticsoilsbyclaimingthat the lateriticsoilshave iron

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concretions throughout the solum in contrast to lato-sols.Heproposesplacingthelateriticsoilsinthegroupofsoilswithtextural/colorBandlowinbases,orinthesamecategorywithred-yellowpodzolicsoils(Table5.3).

With the inception of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy (SoilSurvey Staff, 1960, 1975, 1990, 2006b), the Bogor SoilResearch Institute tried to adapt its existing conceptabovetothenewU.S.system.AsindicatedinChapter1, in thepostwarefforts toquickly replace theDutchscientists,whowereforcedtorepatriatetotheirhome-land, many young Indonesian scientists were sent toU.S.universitiestopursuefurthergraduateeducation.Manyofthem,especiallythesoilscientists,havebeenexposedtotheU.S.SoilTaxonomysystem.Becausethisistheonlysystemthattheywereobligatedtostudyin

Table.6.4. SummaryoftheTermsUsedbyDutchandIndonesianSoilScientists

1910 Mohr Redlateriteformation1916 Mohr Redlateritesoil,red

lixivium1916 MohranddeJongh Lateritesoilfrom

volcanicmaterial1933 Thorenaar1936 TeRiele Laterite-lateriticsoils1937 Idenburgh1938 Hardon Laterite-lateriticsoils1950 VanderVoort Lateriticsoils1951 VanDijk Lateritesoils1955 Dames Lateriticsoil1957 DudalandSupraptohardjo Latosols1958 VanSchuylenborgh Latosols

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U.S. classrooms, they were now eager to disseminateandapplythisnewacquiredknowledgeinIndonesia.Hence,theU.S.SoilTaxonomyseemstogainmorepop-ularityinIndonesiathantheFAO-UNsoilclassificationsystemoranyothersoilclassificationsystem.Moreover,manyoftheFAO-UNscientistsobtainedmostoftheireducationintheUnitedStates.Aftergraduation,theytooseemtobemostwillingtoincorporatetheU.S.con-ceptintotheFAOsoilclassificationsystem.Therefore,itisnowonderthattheFAO-UNsoilclassificationsystemwasatonetimebiasedtowardtheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,buteffortshavebeennoticedlatelytofurtherdeveloptheirsystemontheirownbymanyofthenewgenera-tionofFAO-UNsoilscientists.

TheU.S.SoilTaxonomyplaceslatosolsinthecategoryofoxisols,whichrecognizesfivesuborders:aquox,tor-rox,ustox,perox,andudox.TheorthoxusedbyBeinroth(1973)hasapparentlybeendeletedinnewereditions.Fordefinitionsandcriteria,referenceismadetoSoilSurveyStaff(1990,2006a).AscanbenoticedfromTable5.3,theIndonesian soil classification system is based on mor-phologicalfeatures,similartothatoftheU.S.SoilTax-onomy.Therefore,onlysmalladaptationsandrevisionsin terminology and definitions are required. Latosols,which were defined as soils with latosolic B, are nowconveniently changed into oxisols. As defined by theU.S.SoilTaxonomy,thesearethesoilsthatmusthaveanoxichorizonwithitsupperboundarywithin150cmofthesoilsurfaceormeettherequirementsof≥40%clayinthesurface18cm.MostoftheoxisolsinIndonesiawillmeettherequirementof40%clayinthesurface18cm(Table6.1)butmayhaveproblemsinmeetingpart,ifnot

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all,oftherequirementsforoxichorizons.Theapparenteffectivecation-exchangecapacity(ECEC)ofIndonesianoxisolsmorelikelywillexceedthe≤12cmol(+)/kgclayrequirementandsowillbetherequiredcontentof10%weatherable minerals in the 50- to 200-µ fraction (SoilSurveyStaff,2006a,2006b).Theseareduetothefrequentrejuvenationofthesoilswithfreshvolcanicash,richinminerals,bases,andcations,andtheveryrapidweath-ering in the humid tropics. They are the reasons forthecontentionthattheU.S.classificationconceptneedsadjustments for it to properly work under Indonesianconditions.TheoxisolsinIndonesiaaredifferentfrom,forexample,theDavidsonsoiloftheUnitedStates,withwhichtheywerefrequentlycompared,orevenfromoxi-solsinPuertoRicoorHawaii.ExceptinHawaii,theU.S.oxisolsarerelativelyoldsoilsthathavealsoneverbeensubjectedtorejuvenationprocesseswithnewashdepo-sition from volcanic eruptions, whereas their climaticconditionsforweatheringarequitedifferentfromthoseofthehumidtropicsinIndonesia.

Asdiscussedearlier,thelatosolsofIndonesiamayfitplacementasudox.Forreasonsexplainedbefore,theyrarelycanbeplacedasustoxortorrox.Unfortunately,latosols cannot qualify to become aquox, because thecriteriaforaquoxviolatethebasicprinciplesofforma-tion of latosols, requiring well-drained conditions fordesilicificationormobilizationofsilica.Onpaper, thepresence of aquox is not an issue, but under poorlydrainedconditions,asrequiredforformationofaquox,theprocessofsilicificationoccursandnolatosolswillthenbeformed.Theseprocesseshavebeendiscussedin detail in Chapter 5. The issue of aquox is another

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reasonforconsideringtheU.S.soiltaxonomytobeanartificialsystemonly,whichlacksitsconnectionswithfieldconditionsoftheoutsideworld.Toavoidcreatingmoreconfusion,noattemptswillbemadetoalsocor-relatethelatosolswiththelowercategoriesoftheU.S.soilclassificationsystem.

�.�.� Physicochemicalcharacteristics

�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionAscanbenoticedfromthedatainTable6.2,theoxisolsinIndonesiaareveryfine-texturedsoils.Thebrown-toreddish-brown-coloredoxisols,indicatedearliertobetheyoungestinage,arerelativelycourserintexturethanthered-coloredoxisols.Theirclaycontentsrangefrom42.92to61.71%,qualifying the twobrownvarieties listed inTable6.2tobecalledclayeysoils.TheA1horizonofthebrownoxisolis,infact,siltyclayintexture,whereasthatofthereddish-brownlatosolisclayeyduetoitsslightlyhigherclaycontent.Thered-yellowandredoxisolsareconsiderablylowerinsand(>50µfraction)andhigherinclaycontentthantheyoungerbrownoxisols.Inthered-coloredsoils,thesandcontentmayevendropto<1.0%,whereastheclaycontentmayvaryfrom86.15to90.62%inAtoBhorizons.Inalltheoxisolprofilesstudied,thedis-tributionofclayseemstoberatherconstantwithdepthinthesoilprofiles,confirmingtheconceptoflatosolsoroxisolswithrespecttotheiruniformparticlesizedistri-butionwithdepth.Suchahighclaycontentandratheruniform distribution with depth in the profile seemtoagreewith thenowdeletedconceptsof the tropicalorthoxfromHawaii (SoilSurveyStaff,1975).However,

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thesefeaturesareinsharpcontrastwiththeDavidsonsoilinthesouthernregionoftheUnitedStates.Theclaycontent in theDavidsonsoil is reportedtorangefrom31to66%withdepthintheprofile,withthehigherclaycontentnotedintheBhorizons.Generally,soiltexturesinDavidsonsoilsoftheU.S.southernregionsvaryfromsandyloamtoclayloamandclayfromAtoBthorizons(Robertson,1968).Theoccurrenceofsuchanargillic(Bt)horizon isa requirement forultisolsbut isagainst thegeneral concept of oxisols or latosols. Dutch scientistsbelievethatlatosolsexhibitingclaymovementdowntheprofile, yielding clay accumulations in B horizons, areaffectedbypodzolizationandshouldbeproperlyclas-sifiedaspodzolicsoils,whichagreesfairlywellwiththeconceptofultisols.

Theratheruniformlyclaydistributionoveraconsider-abledepthintheoxisolprofiles isprobablyduetothenatureoftheclaymineralandthehighcontentoffreeironoxides.Thelatterhaveacementingeffectontheclayparticles,givingrisetodevelopmentofhighlywater-sta-ble aggregates (soil structure) and the often gritty feelof these soils when rubbed in the field determinationforsoiltexture.Thecementingeffectalsodecreasesclaymobilitytoaminimum,causinguniformityinclaycon-tentdowntheprofile(VanSchuylenborgh,1958).

�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsIngeneral, theoxisolsof Indonesiaaremoderately toslightlyacidinreactions,withpHvaluesvaryingfrom5.5to6.5.Some,andinparticularthered-coloredvari-eties,arestronglyacidsoils(Table6.5).

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Profile pHH2O(1:1)

Corg % N % CECme/100 g

BaseSat. %

Humid Tropics

CN

ApBrown Latosola

5.65.95.6—

A2B1B2

Red Latosola

4.94.74.84.3

ApB1B2B3

Reddish-BrownLatosolb

6.56.2

A1A2

Monsoon

A1Brown Latosolb

6.66.45.85.5

B1B2B3

5.96.06.0

2.61.81.1—

2.11.21.10.8

3.21.3

1.380.620.410.21

1.560.950.860.82

101112—

22141116

118

14.26.3

11.46.6

13.312.812.812.8

18171710

12211922

——

————

————

0.260.160.09—

0.090.090.100.05

0.280.16

0.100.100.040.03

0.120.070.070.066.7

A1B1B2B3

Reddish-BrownLatosolc

62737262

10552

4221

————

————

Table.6.5. SoilOrganicMatter,Nitrogen(N)Content,Cation-ExchangeCapacity(CEC),andpHH20ofSelectedOxisolsinIndonesia

Note: Cation-exchangecapacity(CEC)andbasesaturationanalysesbyNH4ace-tatemethod;me/100g=cmol/kg.

a FromSupraptohardjo,M.(1961).b FromMohretal.(1944);VanSchuylenborgh,J.(1958).c FromTan,K.H.andVanSchuylenborgh,J.(1959).

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Thesoilsoftheconstantlyhumidregionsseemtocon-tain appreciable amounts of organic matter, consideringtheconcentrationsreportedfor%Corg,rangingfrom2.1to2.6%inthesurfacehorizons.Thisisnotexpectedinviewofthesoils’redcolors.Italsocontradictstheopinionofmanyscientistsaboutloworganicmattercontentsinoxisols.

The nitrogen contents of the brown oxisols in thehumidtropics,rangingfrom0.26to0.28%intheirsur-facehorizons,aresubstantiallyhigherthanthoseofthesoilsintheUnitedStates,wherethepercentageofnitro-genhasbeenreportedtovaryfrom0.06to0.18inthesurfaceofmostU.S.mineralsoils(Brady,1990).Intheredoxisols,itssurfacesoilnitrogencontentisaslowas0.09%,but thisvaluecompares favorablywith thatofU.S.ultisols.Theabovefactsseemtosupporttheopin-ionabouttherelativelyhighfertilityleveloftheoxisolsinIndonesia.ItvalidateslocalrumorsthatevenstickswillgrowinIndonesianoxisols,asisthecasewithcas-sava or yuca (Manihot sp.) cuttings, stuck in the soilswithout any other measures of cultivation. The latteris perhaps also supported by the often high percent-ageofbasesaturation.Inthebrownoxisol,thepercentbasesaturationisoftenreportedashighas≥70%inBhorizons(Table6.5),thoughitisconsiderablylowerintheredoxisolsofthehumidregions.Thisdifferenceisacceptable,becausethebrownoxisolshavebeenformedfromandesitictuffandaretheyoungestinage.Thered-coloredoxisolsoriginatefromlessrichparentmateri-als(e.g.,dacito-andesitictuff)andarealsoolderinage,whereastheiroccurrenceintheplainofJakartafavorsahigherdegreeofweatheringandmoreleachingthanin the uplands. The data of cation-exchange capacity

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(CEC)inTable6.5alsosuggestthatthevalueforECEC(=CEC+Al)willmostlikelyexceedthe12cmol(+)/kgclay,arequirementforoxichorizons,creatingtheissueofU.S.oxisolsbeingquitedifferentfromoxisolsinthehumidtropicsandinparticularinIndonesia.ForKCl-extractableAl3_contentsseeTable6.6.

�.�.�.� ChargecharacteristicsOnthebasisofthepresentknowledgeofsoilchemis-try, thesoilelectricalchargesareheldresponsible forthemanychemicalreactionsoccurringinsoils.Thesecharges,originating frombothorganicand inorganicsoilconstituents,areusuallyexpressedintermsofCECvaluesandcanbeashighas200cmol(+)/kgforhumus,to100cmol(+)/kgsmectite,and30cmol(+)/kgforillitetoaslowas8cmol(+)/kgforkaoliniteand4cmol(+)/kgforsesquioxides.

ResultsofchargedistributionanalysesbyMehlich’smethod (Mehlich, 1960), as listed in Table6.6, indi-catethattheoxisolsinIndonesiacarrylowpermanentcharges(CECp),thoughitisnoticedforthered-coloredoxisolstoberelativelyhigherinthesecharges.Thedif-ferences are more pronounced for the CEC (v=vari-able),CECatpH8.2andCECm (m=maximum).Thedata show the low values for the variable charges toincrease significantly from the reddish-brown to thered-yellowoxisols,withtheredoxisolsexhibitingcom-parativelythehighestvariablecharges.Thedifferencesinvariable charges seem to justify themorphologicaldivisionsintobrown-andred-coloredoxisols,withthelowestvariablechargesexhibitedbythebrownvariet-iesofoxisols,whereasthehighestvariablechargesare

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exhibitedbythered-coloredoxisols.Thesubstantiallyhigher variable charges are perhaps an indication ofthe presence of higher amounts of sesquioxides andamorphousornoncrystallineclaysbesidekaolinite in

Soil Profile CECv CECp CEC8.2 CECm A13+ACE

Reddish-BrownOxisol

ApA2B

Red Oxisol,Jakarta

A1A2BPlinthite

Red-YellowOxisol

0.30.30.3

A1A2B

1.32.42.6

2.53.12.07.5

Red OxisolJonggol

A1

5.629.487.11

19.6714.08

7.216.26

9.724.78

11.94

11.9612.7811.78

12.4215.4013.89

31.6126.3218.6121.90

14.536.26

17.52

23.4026.1228.57

7.829.199.54

15.8816.9913.7112.65

6.567.689.32

10.6711.1210.98

10.2612.3911.48

23.8817.3510.1016.33

13.999.77

16.35

20.7922.6323.13

4.642.914.37

4.213.272.89

10.07

4.724.994.41

8.839.85

11.35

B1B2

4.26.58.4

Humid Tropics cmol(+)/kg

Table.6.6. ChargeCharacteristicsofOxisols

Note: AnalysesbyMehlich’smethod.

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the red oxisols. Therefore, the chemical activities ofredoxisolsmaybeaffectedmorebysesquioxidesandnoncrystallineclaysthanbycrystallineclayminerals.ThisisincontrastwithU.S.oxisolsandespeciallywiththeDavidsonsoil,usedoftenascomparison,where,asindicatedearlier, crystalline clays (kaolinites) seem toplayamoreimportantrole.

�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyInvestigationsintheprewarperiodbyDutchscientists(Hardon,1939)haveidentifiedbyx-raydiffraction(XRD)analyseskaoliniteintheclayfractionoflatosols(oxisols).Inaddition,VanSchuylenborgh(1958)detectedbyXRDsmallamountsofhydrargillite,theEuropeannameforgibbsite. The occurrence ofkaoliniteandgibbsitehasbeensupportedbydifferentialthermalanalyses(DTA)conductedbytheauthorattheInstitutPertanianBogor(IPB).However,theDTAthermograms(Figure6.2)alsolistotherdetailsabouttheclaymineralogyofthediffer-ent-coloredlatosols.Whenthethermogramsarestudiedfromnumber1to10,itisobviousthattheclaysofthebrownandreddish-brownlatosols(numbers1through5)yieldthermogramswithstrongendothermicpeaksat150to190Candbetween500and600C,whichbystandards in DTA indicate the presence of halloysite.However,consideringtheXRDresultsstatedabove,theclaymineralisthenmorelikelydisorderedkaolinite.Thelow-temperatureendothermicpeaksbecomegraduallyweaker,thoughstillpresent,intheDTAthermograms(fromnumber6to10).Athermogramwithadominantpeakonlyat500 to600C isusuallycharacteristic forkaolinite. Therefore, the kaolinite detected in the red

69071.indb 159 4/25/08 10:42:11 AM


latosolsappears tobemixedwithhalloysiteclay.Thelatterisduetotransformationofsomeofthedisorderedclayminerals intowell-ordered (crystalline)kaolinite.Theoccurrenceofhalloysiteordisorderedkaolinitein

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

°C

300

100

500

600

800

900

Figure 6.2 Differential thermal analysis (DTA) thermo-gramsofCiawibrownlatosols:(1)A1,(2)A3,and(3)B3hori-zons;Bogorreddish-brownlatosols:(4)A1and(5)B3horizons;Ciluaryellowish-redlatosols:(6)A1horizons;Sukamajayel-lowish-red latosols: (7) A1 and (8) B3 horizons; and PasarMingguredlatosols;(9)A3and(10)B2horizons.

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thebrown latosols isbelieved tobepossible,becausethesesoilsarecomparativelytheyoungestinageandhaveprobablynotreachedthefinalweatheringstagesin the constantly humid climate. The red latosols, ontheotherhand,aretheoldestinageandhavebeensub-jectedtomoredrasticweathering,includingdehydra-tionprocesses,yieldinghighamountsofhematites,asexplainedearlier.Hematitesareknown to carryhighvariablecharges.Thevaryingamountsofgibbsitepres-entareindicatedbytheDTAendothermicpeaksaround350C,whicharestrongestinthermograms4and5.Thelattermaysuggestthatthereddish-brownlatosolshavecomparativelythehighestamountsofgibbsite.Forthepurposeofenhancingclarityofpresentation,summa-rizedinTable6.7arethedataonclaymineralogyofthelatosols(oxisols)inrelationtotheirweatheringstages,asdeterminedbydifferentcolors,thicknessofsoilpro-files or profile depths, weatherable mineral contents,andCEC.

�.�.� Landuseandevaluation

�.�.�.� EvaluationofanalyticalpropertiesThe total area of Indonesia occupied by oxisols isapproximately141,157.65km2or14,115,765ha(seepage16orFigure1.2),whereasthetotalareaofthesesoilsinJavaamountsperhapsto1,253,100haormore.Theyareclayey soils, but they exhibit excellent physical prop-erties, characterized in general by stable and stronggranular to crumb structures. Notwithstanding theveryhighclaycontent,thesoilconsistenceisexcellent,thoughinwetconditionsthesesoilsareslightlyplastic,

69071.indb 161 4/25/08 10:42:11 AM


andwhendrymaycrackandshrinksomewhat.Ingen-eral, they are well drained, have good permeability,andexhibitmoderatewater-retainingcapacity.Regard-lessoftheredcolors,organiccarboncontentsinsurfacesoilsarenottoolow(Table6.5)andcontradicttheopin-ionofmanysoilscientistsaboutoxisolsalwaysbeinglow in organic matter contents. However, the chemi-cal activities of these soils in Indonesia are affectedmorebyvariable-chargeclayminerals thantheirU.S.counterparts.Regardlessofthehighleachingandthe

Soil Profile Depth

Primary Mineral Content

(other than

quartz)

Clay Mineral

Suite

Variable Charges in Terms of

CECv

BrownOxisol

Moderate Moderate Low

Reddish-BrownOxisol

Moderate

Red-YellowOxisol

Red Oxisol Very Deep Very Few (+ quartz)

Halloysite or Disordered Kaolinite

High

Halloysite + Kaolinite

Halloysite, Kaolinite, + Hematite

Moderate Halloysite + Gibbsite

Low

Medium Deep Few (+ quartz)

Table.6.7. ClayMineralogyofOxisolsinIndonesiainRelationtoDegreeofWeatheringStages

Note: AnalysesbyMehlich’smethod.

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resultingslighttomoderateandstrongsoilacidity,thepercentagebasesaturationisrelativelyonthemediumto high site because of the frequent rejuvenation byvolcaniceruptions.Therefore,duetosomeofthemorefavorable featuresand theoftendeepprofiles,oxisolsinIndonesia,asawhole,formgoodagriculturallandsandallowfordeeprooting.Thisisincontrastwiththeopinion of Beinroth (1973), who indicates that annualcrops with shallow roots may suffer from even shortdryperiodswhengrownonoxisolsinPuertoRico.Aswill be discussed below, the oxisols in Indonesia areconsidered productive soils for vegetable gardeningandfruitcrops.TherelativelyyoungeroxisolsinIndo-nesiaareoftenprovidedwithhigheramountsofplantnutrientsbynewashdepositsandespeciallywhenirri-gatedcanbeconsideredashighlyproductivesoils.Theolder, more developed members are strongly leachedandhavelostmostoftheirbases(Table6.5).Theseredoxisolsarealsostronglyacidicinreactionsandmaybedeficient innitrogenand inmanycases inphosphateandpotassiumaswell.Anexceptionistheredoxisolfrom tephretic volcanic material, which is generallyrichinpotassiumandphosphate.ThisgroupofoxisolsislocatedinCentralJava,forinstance,intheareaoftheMuriavolcano(Dames,1955).Inthiscase,thesoilcanbeclassifiedashighlyproductive.Nevertheless,mostoftheredoxisolsinthelowlandarecultivatedwithavarietyofcrops thataresurprisinglyproducingwell.Cassavaandbananas,oftengrownwithoutadditionalfertilization,providemoderatelygoodyields.However,resultsoffieldexperiments(AARD,1986)indicatethattheyieldswillbeincreasedconsiderablywithadequate

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applicationsoforganicmatterandespeciallywhenthelatteriscombinedwithartificialfertilizers.

�.�.�.� SignificanceofbasicsoilpropertiesIn view of the rapid mineralization processes in thelowland of Indonesia, the organic matter contents of1to2%insurfacesoilsmayquicklybedestroyeduponcultivation.Thisrequiresresupplyingtheoxisolswithorganicmatterthatcanbeappliedintheformsofplantor organic residues or green manures, or a combina-tionofboth.Thesoilsalsoneedadequatefertilizationtooffsetnutrientlossesbyplantuptakeandespeciallybyleaching.ThelowCECneedsperhapstoberaisedtohighervalues,sothatmoreoftheappliednutrientscanbeheldontheexchangecomplexforplantuseandbepreventedfromleaching.BecausetheCECismostlycausedbyvariablecharges,increasingitsvaluecanbeachievedeasily.TheconventionalmethodinIndonesiaisbylimeapplication,whichnotonlyincreasesthesoilpHbutalsoraisesthevariablecharges.Limeapplica-tionappearstobeveryhelpfulinincreasingthefertilitylevelofthesetypesofsoilsinthetransmigrationareasofSitiung,WestSumatra(Hakim,1982,1985).Frommorerecent investigations, it is noticed that organic matterisalsocapableofincreasingthetotalCECvalueofthesoils.HumicacidisknowntocarryCECs5to10timeslarger than those of smectite or vermiculite minerals(Tan, 2003a). Cultivation including the use of organicmatterwillnodoubtbereceivedwithenthusiasmbytheorganicfarmingsociety.

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�.�.�.� Agriculturaloperations�.�.�.�.� Ricecultivation Largeareasoccupiedby

oxisolsareprobablycultivatedwithlowlandrice,locallycalled“sawah”forwetpaddy-fieldsor inundatedrice(Figure6.3). Rice cultivation in Indonesia still followstraditional principles by impounding water in dikedterraces.Theseneatlyman-madeterracesclimbupthehillsides, and the irrigation water is recycled for useagainbypassingitthroughfromthehighestterracedfieldsinthemountainsidesortheuplandstothelow-est sawah fields in the lowlands. The sawah method

Figure 6.3 Female workers, usually owners or their rela-tives,plantingriceseedlingsinasawahfield.Theywillalsoweedthefieldsandtakepartinharvesting.Paymentfortheseservicesisusuallyintheformofashareinthepaddyyieldthattheycancashinbysellingtooneoftheseveralmiddle-men,preyingasbuyersinthefield.Mostoftentheywillkeepitforconsumption.

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used tobeverydependenton the rain foraconstantsupplyof irrigationwater.But,duringheavyrainfallsthe dikes could collapse, destroying extensive tractsofsawahfields.Also,duringperiodsofextremelydryseasons,nowaterisavailable,especiallywhenitismostneeded.Tocopewiththoseproblems,theDutchstartedin1937buildingmodernirrigationworksandcanalstocontrolbanjirs(floods),knownlocallyas“banjircanals,”and began construction of “waduks” (large ponds orreservoirs) for thestorageof rainwater.This isappar-entlycontinuedtodaybytheIndonesiangovernment,andmentionismadeinChapter1ofthe1965Jatiluhurmultipurpose dam project for control of the annualfloods affecting the Citarum River in West Java. Thehugeartificiallakecreatedcontainssufficientamountsofwateryear-longforirrigationofmorethan240,000haofpaddy-fieldsinthecoastalplainofJakarta.EffortsinconstructioncontinuebybuildingahugedamunderaveryrecentSiakriverproject,sponsoredbythegovern-mentsofWestSumatraandRiau(seeChapter1).Whenfinished,theprojectwillgeneratehydroelectricpower,controlannualbanjirs,andprovideaconstantsupplyofirrigationwatertotheagriculturalfieldsofboththeprovinces.

DuringtheDutchoccupation,riceyieldsinthepre-warperiodweregenerallyintherangeof1000kg(1met-ricton)ofdrypaddyperhectarewhengrownwithoutfertilization. However, with available irrigation waterandapplicationsofadequateamountsofnitrogenandphosphatefertilizers,riceyieldswerelaterreportedtobedoubled.However,VanDijk(1952)mentionedayieldofgabahorunhulledrice(fortheperiodof1923to1940)

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ofonly1.24tons/hawhenplantswereadequatelyfer-tilizedwithNPK+Ca.Itwasnotedthatinsomecasesnoresponsewasobtainedbytheapplicationofpotas-sium fertilizers, which was believed to be caused bytherelativelyhighcontentofavailablepotassiumintheirrigationwater(Dames,1955;Go,1957;VanDijk,1952).Theuseofimprovedricevarietieshasraisedriceyieldssince1986to4to5tonsperhectare(gabahorgrain).Intherice-producingareasofCianjur,consideredthericebasketofWestJava,theyieldin2006was6tons/ha(airdrygabahorairdrygrain)fromanIR64ricevariety.ThefarmersinIndonesiapreferhigh-yieldingricevarietiesthatmatureearlyandexhibitgoodeatingqualities(forexample,IR36,IR64,andCisadane)(AARD,1986).TheIR36andIR64arevarietiesdevelopedbytheInterna-tionalRiceResearchInstitute(IRRI)inLosBãnos,thePhilippines, and originate from a cross between theIndicaxJaponicaricevariety.TheCisadaneisnativetoIndonesiaandbelongs to the Indicavariety.A formerfavorite Indonesian variety was the Peta, which wasusedbytheIRRIinitsearlybreedingtrials,whichpro-ducedtheIR8,thefirstreleasedhigh-yieldingricevari-ety,carryingthebeneficialattributesofthejaponicaandindica(Tan,2000).

Thepaddy-fieldsarenormallycultivatedbythefarm-ers but are also often managed by a system of share-cropping.Agreatmanywealthypeople,livinginlargecitieslikeJakarta,considerowningpaddy-ricefieldsasa highly regarded social standing and have investedtheirextracapitalinbuyingsawahsinthecountryside.Becausetheylackthetimeandtheknowledgetoprop-erlycultivate thesawahs, it iscustomaryto loan their

69071.indb 167 4/25/08 10:42:14 AM


propertytolocalfarmersintheformofsharecropping.Byharvesttime,theownerswillbeinthepaddy-fieldstocollecthalfofthepaddyyield,thegoingrateinshare-croppingatthistime.Thericeyieldsareusedforlocalconsumptionorforsaletomiddlemenatapriceof2000rupiahs/kg (drygrain),whosell itagain to ricemillsforRp.3000/kg.Inthericemills,thegrains(gabbah)arehulledandprocessedintopolishedrice,calledberasinIndonesia.Normally70%ofthegabahyieldberas.�Thelatter,readyforexportorlocalconsumption,isworthRp.5000/kgatthemarkets,whichamountstoUS$0.50(atarateof$1.00toRp.10,000.00).ThoughintheUnitedStatesriceissellingforaround$2.00/kgatthesuper-markets,atyieldsof6tonsgabah/ha(or4200kgberas/ha),ricecropsarestillprovidingahandsomeincometoIndonesianfarmers.

Intheolddays,manyDutchcompaniesestablishedhugericemills,especially intherice-producingareasofthenortherncoastalplainofJava(forexample,intheTelukpucungareaneartheBekasiRiverandinthethen-famous Pemanukan and Ciasam lands on the banksand surroundings of the Pemanukan River in WestJava).Thefarmersatthattimewereencouragedtogrowrice crops for sale and processing at those rice mills.Thatpartthatthefarmerkeptforconsumptioncouldusuallybehulledandmilledintoberasatthemillsforasmallfee.Today,thisconceptofdoingricebusinessseemstocontinue,andmanylocallyownedricemillsarenowavailablefromTangerang,Bekasi,Cikampek,

�Riceplant=paddy;unhulledricegrain=gabah;hulledorpol-ishedrice=beras;cookedberas=nasi;hence,weeatnasi,butgabahandberasarebirdseed.

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totheKrawangareasinWestJavaandextendingintothecoastalplainsoftheTegalareainMiddleJava.

�.�.�.�.� Nonrice crops The area not used forsawahsiscultivatedwithuplandrice,palawija(nonrice)crops,vegetablesandfruittrees,andalsoestatecrops.Thenonricecropsincludecorn,soybean,peanut,mungbean, and the like. Upland rice is rice cultivated ondrylands,plantedinthesamewayascornisgrown.Uplandriceandcornplayaveryimportantroleinthetransmigration program of the Indonesian govern-ment.AsdiscussedinChapter1,farmersfromdenselypopulatedareasinJavaarerelocatedinSumatra,Kali-mantan, or other less densely populated islands. Thetransmigrants are usually provided with 2 hectaresof land,andthefocusatthestart is thenongrowinguplandriceandcornforaquicksupplyoffood.Whenadequately fertilized, corn yields are 3 to 3.5 tons/ha(drykernels),whichhavemorethandoubledfromthe1.56tons/hareportedfortheperiodof1923to1940(VanDijk,1952).Otherimportant(nonrice)cropsarecassava(yucca,Manihotutilissima)andsweetpotatoes(Ipomoeabatatas),whichcanyield12to16tons/haand10to20tons/ha,respectively,whengrownontheoxisolswithadequate fertilization (O. Iskandar,BogorAgricultureUniversity,IPB,andD.H.Goenadi,ResearchInstituteofBiotechnologyforEstateCrops,personalcommuni-cations).WithcompleteNPK+Cafertilization,theyieldof cassava in Indonesiahas topped33.6 tons/ha (TanandBertrand,1972).

Inthehumidregions,corn,cassava,orsweetpotatoareoftenalsogrowninrain-fedsawahfieldsinrotation

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afterrice(forexample,riceintherainyseason,followedbythenonricecropsduringtherelativelydryerseason).However,where irrigation isavailable, farmersprefergrowingtworicecropsormoreperyear.

�.�.�.�.� Vegetablecrops Thevegetable,fruits,andother horticultural crops are grown preferably in thevicinityoflargetownsornearmajorpopulationcenters(ThrowerandDudal,1957),wherethedemandsforthesecommoditiescancommandhighprices.Thevegetablesare the local lowland varieties—for example, spinach(Amaranthus spp., locally called bayem), green onions(Allium fistulosum), long beans (Vigna sinensis, locallycalled“kacangpanjang”),cucumbers(Cucumissativus,or “ketimun”), eggplants (Solanum melongena, locallycalled “terong”), “sawi” (Brassica rugosa), “kangkung”(Ipomoeareptans),andthelike.Theyareraisedonsmallpatchesofemptylands,onriverbanksforeaseofwater-ing,orasbackyardgardening(Figure6.4).Often,largetreatmentswithorganicmanuresorcompostareneces-saryandareappliedtotheoxisolstoensurethegrowthandproductionofcommerciallyacceptablecrops.Arti-ficialfertilizerswereeithernotavailableatthattimeorwererelativelyexpensive.Shallots(Alliumcepa),locallycalled “bawang merah,” are usually grown after riceinthedrypaddy-fieldsofthenortherncoastalplainofCentralJava,nearthetownsofBrebesandTegal(westofSemarang),wheretheclimateismorefavorableforthiskindofcrop.Cabbage,carrots,andothertemperateregionvegetablesareusuallycultivatedintheuplands,andespeciallyinthehighlandsofthemountainareasofIndonesiaondifferentkindsofsoils.

69071.indb 170 4/25/08 10:42:14 AM


�.�.�.�.� Fruit crops A variety of fruit trees arealsogrownonoxisolsinthevicinityofpopulationcen-ters. For example, several varieties of mangoes (Man-giferaindica);rambutans(Nepheliumlappaceum),asortof

Figure 6.4 Farmer carrying vegetables grown on emptylandinasuburbanareaintown.Thegardenisclosetoariverforeaseofwateringandconvenientlylocatedincloseprox-imitytoconsumersandlocalmarketplaces.

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litchi;guava(Psidiumguajava),locallycalledjambukelu-tuk(Figure6.5);sawo(Achraszapota);andmangosteens(Garcinia mangostana) are growing well around largetownsasbackyardgardeningorinsmallorchardsontheoxisols,oftenwithoutapplicationsof fertilizersofanykind.Recentinvestigationshaveshownthatspray-ingwith1%KNO3of theflowerbudsofmangoes (of

A B

C

Figure 6.5 (A) Rambutans and (B) ripe guava fruits readyformarket.(C)Papayasemangkagrowingonthetrees.

69071.indb 172 4/25/08 10:42:16 AM


thearumanisvariety)increasesthenumberoffruitsby28%(AARD,1986).TheCibinongareanearmetropoli-tan Jakarta isknownfor thesesmallorchardsonredoxisols, and the fruits are offered year-long in smallstalls lining up major highways to town (Figure6.6).Theareaisalsoknownforproducingparticulartypes

Figure 6.6 AtypicalfruitstallintheCibinongarea,show-ing baskets of jeruk siam, papaya semangka hanging fromtheceilings,andothervarietiesoffruits,enticingbuyersfromtravelersandpeoplefromnearbymetropolitanJakarta,capi-talofIndonesia.

69071.indb 173 4/25/08 10:42:17 AM


oforanges,calledlocally“jeruksiam”or“jerukpaseh”(Citrusnobilis),favoredbyconsumersinJakartafortheirsweettasteandjuicynature.Whencitrusisgrownonsandy soils, the plants may show micronutrient defi-ciencies with symptoms resembling a CVPD (citrusvein phloem degeneration) disease. Fortunately, thiscanbecorrectedeasilybyapplicationofzinc,manga-nese, and magnesium (AARD, 1986). Another popu-lar Cibinong product, grown on oxisols, is a specialtype of papaya (Carica papaya), called locally “papayasemangka”(semangkameans“watermelon”),duetoitsdeepredmelon-likeflesh.Bananas(Musasp.)andsev-eralothervegetablesareoftengrownasintercropswithpaddyriceonthedikesofthesawahs.

�.�.�.�.� Estatecrops Themajorestatecropgrownonoxisolsisrubber(Heveabrasiliensis).Fibercrops,suchascotton(Gossypiumbarbadense),“kapok”(Ceibapentan-dra),“sisal”(Agavesisalana),and“cantala”(Agaveangus-tifolia), were at one time also cultivated on the Dutchplantations,duetotheirsuitabilityforgrowthonoxi-solsinthehumidlowlands.

Therubberplantationsarelocatedmostlyinthelow-lands, but some estates and smallholders’ plantationscanoccasionallybefoundintheloweruplands.BecauseoftheiroriginfromCentralandSouthAmerica,char-acterizedalsobyhotandhumidclimatesandalmostsimilarsoilconditionsasinIndonesia,theheveatreeshaveshowntobetheonlyplantsspecificallyadaptedforplantation agriculture on Indonesian oxisols. Tea andcoffeearecultivatedmoreondifferentsoilsinthecoolmountain regions of Indonesia. Rubber has attracted

69071.indb 174 4/25/08 10:42:17 AM


attentionsincethedaysoftheconquistadorsbecauseofitselasticity,itsapplicationaserasersinthe1700s,andlateralsoforsealingobjectstomakethemwatertight.Severalvarietieswereoriginallyavailableintheirnativehomelands(forexample,Heveabrasiliensis,Heveaguya-nensis,Ficussp.,andManihotglaziovii).Theoldestrubberplantation(datingbackto1846)waspresumablyaFicusplantation,locatedatthePemanukan-CiasemlandsinWestJava(MaasandBokma,1957),butHeveabrasiliensiswaslaterconsideredsuperiorovertheothersinrubberproduction.ThehevearubbercultivationinsoutheastAsiastartedwhenheveaseedswere,allegedly,in1876smuggledfromtheAmazonjungles,Brazil,byHenryWickham,whogerminatedthemintheKewGardensofEngland (Fisher, 1966).This storywasdisputedbyDutchscientists,whoclaimedthat,thoughveryroman-tic,theseedswereobtainedandsent,infact,withtheproperlicense(MaasandBokma,1957).Itwaspresum-ablygrownatfirstintheEnglishgardensforitsbotani-calvalue,butafter thediscoveryof thevulcanizationprocessbyGoodyearandDunlop,revolutionizingthetire and automobile industry, hevea rubber became avery importantcropat thestartof the twentiethcen-tury.ItscultivationspreadquicklythroughsouthandsoutheastAsia,andbytheendof1920,itwasthelead-ingexportproductofthethenDutchEastIndies.Since1929,thedemandforrubberhasincreasedevenfurtherdue to the invention of foam rubber. Unfortunately,this demand for natural rubber diminished sharplyin 1945 because of the discovery and development ofsyntheticrubberinGermany.InIndonesia,manyofthe

69071.indb 175 4/25/08 10:42:17 AM


rubberplantationshavenowbeenreplacedbyoilpalmplantations.

Inplantationagriculture,theheveaplantsareplantedasclonalseedlingsorbud-graftsinneatlylaidoutrows.ExperimentstationsinIndonesia,suchasAlgemeneVer-eenigingvoorRubberOnderzoekterOostkustvanSumatra(AVROS) (see Chapter 1) in Sumatra, have put mucheffortintodevelopinghighlatex-yieldingrubberclonesresistanttotheleafblightdiseasebyDothidellasp.,capa-bleofwipingoutwholeplantations.Dependingonthemethodsused,thenumberofplantsmayvaryfrom400to500treesperhectareorlesswhenplantedwithinter-cropsforcashcrops.Withoutintercropping,theemptyspacesbetweentherowsoftreesarecoveredbycoverplants,preferablylegumes,whichvaryfrombushtypes(e.g., Crotalaria and Tephrosia spp.) to creeping coverplants.Thecreepinglegumesfavoredforuseascoverandgreenmanureplantsare,forexample,Centrosema,Pueraria,Mimosa,orCalapogoniumspp.Cleanweedingoperations, used in the beginning, were later aban-donedbecauseoferosionandsoildegradationhazards.Thecoverplantsareexpectedtoprotectthesoilsandat thesame time improve thephysical, chemical,andbiological conditionsof the soil for thegrowthof theheveaplantsintherows.Exceptduringplantingtime,whenphosphateswereplacedintheplantingholes,thetrees are seldom fertilized. The cover plants, instead,usuallyreceivetreatmentswithphosphorusandpotas-siumfertilizers.Nitrogenfertilizertreatmentsofyoungheveatreesareoftendeletedforfearofwinddamage(MaasandBokma,1957).However,treesatproducingstagesmayreceivefertilizertreatmentsof±100gsulfate

69071.indb 176 4/25/08 10:42:17 AM


ofNH4plus50gKC1pertree.Thoughthesuggestionwasalwaystofertilizetreesoncein2years,resultsofinvestigationshaveshownlatexproductiontoincreaseto700to800kg/hawithannualfertilizerapplications,as compared to 300 to 400 kg/ha when unfertilized(Maas and Bokma, 1957). The latex yields have beenincreaseddramaticallytodaywiththeuseofnewhigh-yieldingclones(e.g.,AVROS2037,BPM1,PR255,andPR300).Theaverageyieldofa5-year tappingperiodwas recorded to range from 1000 to 2000 kg/ha peryear(AARD,1986).Withthedeclineofthelargerubberestates,smallholders’plantationshaveapparentlytakenoverthecultivationofrubberinIndonesia,because70%of the rubber is now produced by these small farms.Thelatexyieldisstilllow,buttheyhopetoincreaseitinthefuturebyusingnewhigh-yieldingclonesandbychangingthetappingsystem.Insteadofthenow-in-usesingletappingsystem,theuseofadouble-panelsystemisencouragedandbeinginvestigated.Thetreesarecutattwodifferentheights,andpreliminaryresultshaveshowna20%increaseinlatexyields(AARD,1986).

�.� UltisolsThisgroupofsoilswaspreviouslycalledred-yellowpod-zolicsoilsandconstitutesimportantsoilsworldwide.Incontrasttothelatosols,thered-yellowpodzolicsoilsarefoundnotonlyintropicalregions,butarealsoimpor-tantsoilsinNewZealand,Australia,andespeciallytheUnitedStates.Theycoverextensiveareasinthesouth-ern region of the United States from Virginia on theeasternseaboardtoTexasinthewest.Thesesoilshave

69071.indb 177 4/25/08 10:42:18 AM


beenformedintheSoutheasternStatesfromclayeyandloamysedimentsoftheCoastalPlain,derivedfromero-sionofAppalachia(FiskellandPerkins,1970;Perkinsetal.,1973),andtheconceptoftheirgenesiswasdiscussedby a number of scientists (McCaleb, 1959; Simonson,1949).ByWesternstandards,red-yellowpodzolicsoilsareconsideredtobeformedbypodzolizationprocessesonsoils’materialsaccumulatedthroughlateriticweath-ering in tension zones. The latter are defined as areaswheretheclimatefacilitatesbothlaterizationandpod-zolizationprocesses,suchasislikelytohappeninthesouthernregionoftheUnitedStatesandperhapsalsointhelowlandsofNewZealand.Simonson(1949)believesthatsuchatheoryisdifficulttomaintain,becausered-yellowpodzolic soilsalsooccur in the tropics,whichinhisopinioncannotbeconsideredastensionzones.Atthattime,Simonson,alongwithmostU.S.scientists,perhapsdidnot realize that theuplandsof Indonesiaexhibitclimaticfeaturesfavoringtheoccurrenceofbothpodzolization and laterization. However, under Indo-nesianconditions,red-yellowpodzolicsoilscanoccurin the tension zones as well as in the lowland areasdependingonthetypeofparentmaterial.Thiswillbeexplainedinmoredetailbelow.

The red-yellow podzolic soils appear to be morewidely distributed in Indonesia than are the latosols(oxisols).Withareportedsoilacreageof45,678,616ha(seepage16orFigure1.2),theextentofred-yellowpod-zolicsoilsis3to4timeslargerthanthatofthelatosols.Basedonthesizeof theirdistribution, thesesoilsareperhaps,nexttoinceptisols,themostimportantsoilsofIndonesia.Similartothelatosols,theyarealsoreddish

69071.indb 178 4/25/08 10:42:18 AM


toyellowish-redincolor,andifitwasnotfortheirquartzcontentsandtheiroriginfromacidicparentmaterials,theyareoftendifficulttodistinguishfromtheoxisols.TheyaremajorsoilsinthelowlandsofSumatra,Kali-mantan,Sulawesi,theMoluccas,andPapua,wheremostofthedacites,liparites,andgranitesarefound.InthelowlandsofJava,red-yellowpodzolicsoilsoccuronlyinBantam,thewesternprovinceofWestJava,ondaciticandandesito-daciticparentmaterials.Onintermediateor more basic parent materials, red-yellow podzolicsaremore typical in theuplandareas.Forexample, inCentralandEastJava,whereandesito-basaltictuffsaremoreprevalent,thesoilsarefoundonlyintheuplandsabovethezonesoflatosols,inthetensionzones.


Thered-yellowpodzolicsoilsinthelowlandsofIndo-nesia have been derived from acid parent materials.They may range from rhyolitic or liparitic to dacitictoandesito-dacitictuffs,withquartzcontentsdecreas-inginthissequence(Table6.8).Insomecases,thesoilscan also be formed from intermediate to more basictuffs or from calcareous materials of tertiary origin,whichoftencontainquartz(Supraptohardjo,1961;TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1961a).Inthelattercase,theyare found in the uplands, called earlier the tensionzones.InthewesternpartofWestJavaandinneigh-boring Lampungs, South Sumatra, the parent mate-rialsaredacitic innature.Aconsiderablepartof theregionbetweenthevillagesofSerang,Rangkasbitung,

69071.indb 179 4/25/08 10:42:18 AM


Tab

le.6

.8.

Min

eral

ogic

alC

ompo

siti

ono

fAci

dic

Tuf

fs

Nat

ure

.of

.Tu

ffs

Vol

can

ic..

Gla

ssQ

uar

tzS

anid

ine

Alb

ite

Oli

go-.

clas

eA

nd

esin

eM

agn

etit

eIl

men

ite

Bio

-.ti

te

Gre

en.

Hor

n-.

ble

nd

e

Bro

wn

.H

orn

-.b

len

de

Hyp

er-.

sth

ene

Ap

atit

eZ

irco

n

Rhy

olit

icm

am

md

md

—f

fa

md

—f

fa

Dac

ito-

L

ipar

itic

ma

md

fm

—m

mm

mf

md

fm

Youn

gD

acit

icm

mf

—m

md

aa

md

am

dm

fm

d

Old

D

acit

icm

md

f—

mm

mm

ma

fa

md

md

And

esit

o-

Dac

itic

mf

——

aa

mm

mm

md

af

f

Not

es:a

=a

bund

ant(

++

++

);m

=m

any

(++

+);

md

=m

oder

ate

(++

);f=

few

(+);

–=

rar

eor

trac

e.So

urce

:See

als

oTa

n,K

.H.a

ndV

anS

chuy

lenb

orgh

,J.(

1961

).

69071.indb 180 4/25/08 10:42:18 AM


Serpong,andTangeranginBantam,WestJava,iscov-ered by this dacitic volcanic tuff. It originated fromeruptionsofthenowextinctDanauvolcanoofthePleis-toceneera,locatedintheextremenorthwesternpartofWestJava.Thelatesteruptionwassocatastrophicthatit destroyed the mountain from the Earth’s surface.PartofthetuffalsocoverslargeareasofneighboringLampungs, located across the Sunda Strait in SouthSumatra.AnotherpartwasdepositedintheJavaSeaandtheSundaStraitandmixedtosomeextentwithtertiarysediments.

IntheotherpartsofSumatra,theparentmaterialsofred-yellowpodzolicsoilsvaryinnortherndirectionoftheislandfromdacitictolipariticorrhyolitic.

InKalimantan,theparentmaterialsarealsoacidicinnature,butthedifferenceisthattheyarenotofrecentvolcanic origin. Here in Kalimantan, the materialsbelong to the oldest land surfaces present in Indone-sia(seeChapter2).Granites,tertiarycalcareousmate-rials, shales, sandstone, and other tertiary sedimentscontainingquartzcanbefoundandcontributetofor-mationofthered-yellowpodzolicsoilsinKalimantan(Supraptohardjo,1961).

�.�.� Climate

Intemperateregions,asintheUnitedStates,NewZea-land,andelsewhere, theclimateof thearea inwhichred-yellow podzolic soils occur may be classified asKöppen’sCworCsclimatetypes.Thesearetemperateregionclimates(C)withwetwinters(w)ortemperate

69071.indb 181 4/25/08 10:42:19 AM


regionclimateswithdrywinters(s),respectively.ThisisnotthecaseinIndonesia,wheretheclimateinwhichthesesoilsoccurislimitedtotheAfaclimatetypesorthehumidtropicalrainforestclimates(Table6.9).TheyareseldomfoundinAwaclimatesorinCtypesofcli-mate (Dudal and Supraptohardjo, 1957). In the coolerareasofthetropics(Köppen’sC-typeclimate),usuallythe brown podzolic soils, gray-brown podzolic soils,andpodzolsoccuronacidicparentmaterials.

Depending on altitudinal climatic differences, thedarker-coloredorreddermembersarelocatedatrela-tivelyhigherelevations,whereasthebrighter-coloredoryellowmembersarefoundmoreatlowerelevations.


The standard concept of red-yellow podzolic soilsin the United States is that they are well-developedand well-drained acid soils, having thin organic (O)and organomineral (A) horizons over light-coloredbleached (E) horizons. These surface horizons areunderlainbyred,yellowish-redtoyellow,more-clayey(Bt) horizons. Coarse reticulate streaks or mottles ofred, yellow-brown, and light gray are characteristicsof deeper horizons where parent materials are thick(FiskellandPerkins,1970;Perkinsetal.,1973;Simon-son,1949).Suchaconceptofred-yellowpodzolicsoilsisalsousedinIndonesia,withtheexceptionthatthesoilsoftenlacktheEhorizons.Itisoftenverydifficulttoidentifyableached(E)horizonbecauseoffrequentrejuvenationwithvolcanictuffs.Inthelattercase,the

69071.indb 182 4/25/08 10:42:19 AM


Rai

nfal

lA

ltitu

de<6

0 m

m

>100

mm

Mea

nA

nnua

lR

ainf

all

Typ

e of

Clim

atea

mm

S&F

Ban

tam

(Wes

t Jav

a)

Rang

kasb

itung

Jasin

ga

15 90

1.1

0.5

10.0

10.9

2379

3348

Afa

Afa

A A

RY P

odzo

lic

RY P

odzo

lic

Nor

th S

umat

ra

Paka

nbar

u

Pem

atan

g Si

anta

r

Para

pat

6

400

920

0.5

0.2

2.2

10.4

11.0 8.4

2870

3130

1921

Afa

Afa

Afa

Afa

A A B B

RY P

odzo

licBr

own

Podz

.

Kal

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tan

Tan

jung

Köp

pen

2509

9.3

1.6

36

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tion

Soil

mM

onth

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Tab

le.6

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The

Clim

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ed-Y

ello

wP

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licS

oil(

Ult

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aS&

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öppe

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69071.indb 183 4/25/08 10:42:20 AM


soilexhibitsanalmostsimilarmorphologyasredlato-sols.ThekeystotheU.S.SoilTaxonomyseemtosup-portthelatter,becausenoE(albic)horizonsarestatedascharacteristichorizonsofultisols(SoilSurveyStaff,2006a,p.33).Whenthetextisconsultedandafterwon-deringabouttheproperchoicesfollowingtheseveral“eithers” and many “ifs” and “ors,” the conclusioncanbemadethatonlyanargillic(Bt),akandic,andafragipanare the threemajorhorizonscharacterizinga profile of ultisols. No mention is made about basesaturations.Anexampleofaprofiledescriptionofared-yellowpodzolic soilof Indonesiafitting theU.S.Department of Agriculture (USDA) morphologicalconceptingeneralisasfollows:

Red-yellow podzolic soil, in the low-land(100mabovesealevel)ofBantam,West Java; topography: gently rollinghills;vegetation:densetropicallowlandforest with underbrush composed ofbushesandgrass.Theprofileislocatedonthetopofalowhill,withmoderatelywell-drainedconditions.

Horizon Depth.(cm) Description

A 0–10 10YR5/6 (fieldmoist),yellowish-brown,siltyclayloam,stronggran-ular to moderate fine subangularblocky,friable.

Bt1 10–40 7.5YR 5/6, strong brown, clay,moderate fine subangular blocky,faintclay/ironcoatings,friable.

69071.indb 184 4/25/08 10:42:20 AM


Another profile description, representing the red-yellowpodzolicsoilsofWestSumatra,isgivenbelow.ThisprofileislocatedintheexperimentalfieldsoftheFaculty of Agriculture, University of Andalas, LimauManisCampus,Padang,Indonesia.Theareaislocatedat350mabovesealevel.Thesoilisderivedfromdacitictuff, is well drained, and is located on the slope of asmallhill.Thehillyareaiscoveredbyvegetationcom-posedofbushes (forexample,Pandanus sp.,Diplaziumsp.,Pipersp.,andImperatasp.grasses).

A photograph, illustrating the soil profile above, ispresentedinFigure6.7.


Ap 0–15 10YR4/4,darkyellowish-brown,clay, weak fine blocky, friable,many macropores, lots of coarseand fine roots, diffuse wavyboundary.

Bt2 40–52 7.5YR4/6,yellowish-red,clay,mod-erate medium subangular blocky,friable,ironcoatings,somemottles.

Bt3 52–85 5YR4/8,yellowish-red,clay,mod-erate, medium subangular blocky,friable, clay and iron coatings,mottles.

Bt4 85–110 5YR 5/6, yellowish-red, clay,massive,slightlyfirm,mottles.

C +110 10YR 7/2, very pale brown, clay,massive,slightlyfirm,mottles.

69071.indb 185 4/25/08 10:42:20 AM



The taxonomic classification of red-yellow podzolicsoils isapparentlylessconfusingthanthatof latosols(oxisols). IntheU.S.SoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,2006a),thesoilsareplacedintheultisolsorder,whichisdefinedasagroupofsoilshavingargillic,Bt,horizons,

Bt1 15–29 10YR5/6,yellowish-brown,clay,weak medium blocky, friable,abundantmacro-andmicroporesand lotsofcoarseandfineroots,diffusewavyboundary.

Bt2 29–65 10YR5/8,yellowish-brown,clay,weak medium blocky, friable toslightlyfirm,coarseandfineroots,less macropores but abundantmicropores, diffuse, broken,boundary.

Bt3 65–116 10YR5/6,yellowish-brown,clay,weak medium blocky, friable toslightlyfirm,somefineroots,lessmacroporesbutabundantmicro-pores,diffusebrokenboundary.

C +116 5YR 5/8, yellowish-brown, clay,massivetoweakmediumblocky,friable, small amounts of roots,smallamountsofmacropores,lotsof micropores, diffuse, broken,boundary.

69071.indb 186 4/25/08 10:42:20 AM


andbasesaturations<35% in thecontrolzone.Thesesoils are formerly known in New Zealand as yellow-brownearths(TaylorandPohlen,1962)andareclassifiedasacrisolsintheFAO-UNsystem.(FAO-UNESCO,2006).In the Australian soil classification system, the clos-estfitisthekurosol,duetoadescriptionrequiringthepresenceofastronglyacidicBthorizon(CSIRO-ACLEP,

Figure 6.7 Red-yellow podzolic soil (ultisol) at the experi-mentalfieldsoftheUniversityofAndalas,Padang,WestSuma-tra,Indonesia.(CourtesyofIr.Burhanuddin,formerAssistantDeanFacultyofAgriculture,and Ir.DatukR. Imbang,SoilScientist,UniversityofAndalas.)

69071.indb 187 4/25/08 10:42:21 AM


2006).TheAustralianchromosol isdefinedashavingaBtthatisnotstronglyacidic.TheCanadiansystemdoesnotrecognizethisgroupofsoils,andthisisalsotruefortheothertemperateregioncountries,wheretropicalandsubtropicalconditionsarenotpresent.InIndonesia,someoftheproblems,asdiscussedearlier,arethefactthat often these soils are very difficult to distinguishfrom latosols. Because the E horizon is often obscureormissing,andduetoamorphologyalmostsimilartothatoflatosols,onlycarefullaboratoryanalysesmaybeabletosolvethisissuesatisfactorily.ThoughatexturalBcaneasilybedeterminedbyprofessionalsoilsurvey-ors, it shouldbe realized thatnoteverysoil surveyorinIndonesiahasathisorherdisposalawell-equippedlaboratoryforcheckingpercentagesofbasesaturation.Therefore,inthepast,thesesoilswereclassifiedinIndo-nesiaaslaterites,lateriticsoils,andthelike.Ascanbenoticedfromthesummaryofnamesused(Table6.10),the only distinction to make these “laterites” qualifybeingred-yellowpodzolicsoilsisthequartzcontent.

UnderIndonesianconditions,threesubgroupscanberecognizedonthebasisofcolorsanddrainagecondi-tions.Ingentlyrollingtopography,asreportedbyVanSchuylenborgh (1957), the soil drainage ranges fromrather well drained on top of the hills grading in tomoderately well-drained conditions on the slopes tobecomesomewhatpoorlydrainedinthevalleys.Thisleadstothedevelopmentofredpodzolicmembersonthe top of the hills, red-yellow podzolic members ontheslopes,andyellowpodzolicsoilsinthevalleys.Incontrast,theU.S.SoilTaxonomyrecognizesfivesubor-dersonthebasisofwetnessandcolor,organicmatter

69071.indb 188 4/25/08 10:42:21 AM


content,andsoilmoistureregimes(forexample,aquults,humults, udults, ustults, and xerults). In view of thesoils’ occurrence in Indonesia mainly in Afa climatetypes,mostoftheIndonesianred-yellowpodzolicsoilscanperhapsbecorrelatedwiththeudults.Asindicatedearlier,red-yellowpodzolicsoilsseldomoccurinAwaor dryer climates; hence, ustults and xerults are lesslikelytobefoundinIndonesia(DudalandSuprapto-hardjo,1957).TheyellowmembersasdescribedabovebyVanSchuylenborgh(1957)canbeplacedinthegroupof aquults. Some humults may perhaps be present athigherelevationsinthetensionzones.

Table.6.10. NamesUsedforRed-YellowPodzolicSoilsbyPreviousAuthorsinIndonesia

1916 Mohr Kwartshoudendelaterietgrond(Quartz-containinglaterite)

1932 TeRiele Rode kwarts gronden (Redquartzsoil)

1937 Idenburg Rode kwarts gronden (Redquartzsoil)

1939 Hardon Rode lateritische kwartz zand-grond(Redlateriticquartzsandsoil)

1950 VanderVoort Degradedlateriticsoil1955 Dames Podzolizedlateriticsoil1957 Dudaland

SupraptohardjoRed-yellowpodzolicsoil

1957 VanSchuylenborgh

Red-yellowpodzolicsoil

69071.indb 189 4/25/08 10:42:21 AM



�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionAscanbenoticedfromthedatainTable6.11,thetextureoftheultisols(red-yellowpodzolicsoils)ofIndonesiaisnotasheavyasthatoftheoxisols(latosols).However,theclaycontentinIndonesianultisolsissubstantiallyhigher than that of their counterparts in the UnitedStates.TheTiftonsoil(thermicplinthicKandiudults)inGeorgiaisreportedtohaveonly10to13%clayinAandBt1horizons,withamaximumof41.6%noticedintheBt2(FiskellandPerkins,1970).

In contrast to the relatively uniform distribution ofclaywithdepthintheprofilesofoxisols,theultisolsinIndonesiaarecharacterizedbyclayincreasesinBhori-zons(theBthorizons),indicatingthepresenceofpod-zolizationintheirformation.Aftercomparativestudieson the thicknessesofAandBhorizons ofultisols inIndonesia, Van Schuylenborgh (1957) tends to agreewiththeideaofSimonson(1950)thattheincreaseinclaycontentintheBhorizonhasnotbeencausedentirelybymechanicaltranslocationofclayfromAtoBhorizons.Suchanincreasecouldhavebeentheresultofclayfor-mationinsitufromhydrolyticbreakdownsubstancesofsoilmineralsproducedinAhorizons,suchassolubleSiandAlsubstances,whichare leacheddownintoBhorizons. Though the explanations given seem to bereasonableenough,notethatinallcasestheChorizonsare always heavy in texture. In many cases, the claycontentintheChorizonsis50to60%(seeTable6.11),exceedingdistinctlytheamountofclaypresentintheupperAhorizons.Thelatterissuggesting,infact,that

69071.indb 190 4/25/08 10:42:21 AM


theheavier textureof theBhorizonscouldhavealsobeentheinfluenceoftheparentmaterials,orinotherwordsisalithologiceffect,whichfindssupportbythefollowing.FiskellandPerkins(1970)havereportedthatextensive weathering of the parent materials of ulti-solsmayhavebeenthecauseforthepresenceofheavytexturesinsubsoils.Suchahighdegreeofweatheringdeepdowninthepedonisthenaformofgeochemicalweatheringincontrasttopedochemicalweathering,whichmostlyoccursinsurfacesoils.Anotherpossibilityworth

Particle Size Distr. Base Sat.

%

C %

N % Soil

>50 µ 50–2 <2 µpHH2O C/N

Red Podzolic (Kalimantan) Ap

Bt1

Bt2

Red-Yellow Podzolic (Bantam, West Java) A1

Bt1

Bt2

C

Red-Yellow Podzolic (West Sumatra) Ap

Bt1

Bt2

C

31.0

24.0

23.0

15.0

11.1

9.5

8.1

10.6

4.2

20.1

33.4

36.0

32.0

30.0

48.2

41.4

35.3

28.0

11.3

11.3

18.7

15.5

33.0

44.0

47.0

36.8

47.5

55.2

63.9

78.1

84.5

61.2

51.1

4.4

4.3

4.4

5.4

4.2

4.3

4.6

5.6

5.0

5.2

5.1

12.4

20.0

23.0

24.5

32.0

43.3

40.3

55.4

13.3

8.9

11.5

—

—

—

4.4

1.0

1.0

0.8

4.8

1.9

1.3

1.7

—

—

—

0.32

0.07

0.06

0.05

0.46

0.18

0.10

0.10

17

14

15

13

14

16

16

10

10

13

17

Table.6.11. PhysicochemicalCharacteristicsofRed-YellowPodzolicSoils(Ultisol)inIndonesia

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mentioningis that inIndonesiathecoarser textureofthe surface horizon could be due to it being youngerthan thehorizonsbelow.Smallamountsof freshvol-canicasharebeingdepositedfromtimetotimeduetovolcaniceruptions.

�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsThesoilsarestronglyacidic inreaction.WithpHval-uesvaryingfrom4.0inAhorizonsto5.0inthelowerBhorizons,theyareaunitmoreacidicthantheoxisols.Thebasesaturationof24to50%inAhorizonsissur-prisinglyhigh,butis,however,withinthelimits(<35%)inBthorizonsforqualifyingthemtobeplacedasulti-sols. The data in Table6.11 indicate that the ultisol ofJavaexhibitscomparativelythehighestpercentagebasesaturationthanthoseofthesoilsinNorthSumatraandKalimantan. This is to be expected because the soilshave been formed in Java on younger and less acidic(daciticversuslipariticinNorthSumatraandgraniteinKalimantan)parentmaterial.Thehighvalueof55.4%fortheAhorizonoftheSumatranultisolisattributedtothehighorganicmattercontent,becausesampleswerecollectedinvirginsoilscoveredbynativeforeststands.

OrganicmattercontentsinAhorizonsarealsosur-prisinglyhighwithvalues recordedashighas4% intermsoforganiccarbon.Organiccarbonof>0.9%intheBthorizonsofthered-yellowpodzolicsoilsofIndone-siamayperhapsqualifythemtobeplacedashumultsintheU.S.SoilTaxonomy.Eventheyellowpodzolicsoil(Table6.11)withaB2ghorizon,confirmingthepoorerdrainageintheirformationaspostulatedabove,exhibits

69071.indb 192 4/25/08 10:42:22 AM


organiccarboncontentsof>0.9%intheupper15cmoftheargillichorizon.

�.�.�.� ChargecharacteristicsTheultisols(red-yellowpodzolicsoils)inIndonesiaarecharacterizedbylowpermanentcharges(CECp)oftheorderof3to7me/100gor3to7cmol(+)/kg,withthelowervaluesexhibitedbythesoilsofKalimantan.ThesoilsareinvariablyhighinfreeorexchangeableAlcon-tents,butagainthered-yellowpodzolicsofKalimantanexhibit, comparatively, substantially lower exchange-ableAlpercentagesthanthesoilsinJavaandSumatra(Table6.12).

Thevariablecharges,asexpressedbyCECv,aresome-what higher, and their values vary only very slightlybetween the soils of Java, Kalimantan, or Sumatra.However, the CEC at pH 8.2 and the maximum CECarequitelarge,showingvaluestwiceashighasthoseoftheCECv.SeveraloftheexceptionallyhighvaluesofCEC8.2andCECmintheAhorizonsarecontributedbythehighorganicmattercontent.Thesamples,asindi-catedearlier,werecollectedfromvirginsoilsundertheoriginalvegetationcover.Theobservationsabovecon-firmtheopinionthatthesesoilsarevariable-chargedsoilsandhencemayexhibitachemicalbehavioruponuseand cultivation different from permanent-charged soils(Tan,2003b).Theconclusionforconsideringthesesoilsasvariablechargedissupportedbythepresenceofrel-ativelyhighpositivecharges,asexpressedintermsofAEC(anion-exchangecapacity)values,rangingfrom8to14me/100gor8to14cmol/kgsoil.TheexceptionisintheultisolsofKalimantan,derivedfromgranite,

69071.indb 193 4/25/08 10:42:23 AM


whereAECvaluesareintherangeof3to4me/100gor3to4cmol/kgsoil.

�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyDifferential thermal analysis (DTA) of the clay frac-tions shows a mixture of 1:1 type of clay minerals,gibbsite,andthedominantpresenceofamorphousornoncrystallineclays.Thisobservationisinsupportof

Soil A13+ CECp CECv CEC8.2 CECm AEC

HumidTropics cmo1(+)/kg

Red-Yellow Podzolic Soil, Bantam, West Java

A 4.6 5.45 7.75 13.20 16.24 8.42

E 4.3 5.60 7.85 13.45 15.30 9.28

Bt1 6.2 6.10 10.30 16.40 20.50 11.46

Bt2 6.2 6.00 9.00 15.00 19.13 10.60

Red-Yellow Podzolic Soil, Aceh, North Sumatra

A 2.8 7.06 7.26 14.32 19.20 3.94

Bt1 4.1 6.76 7.07 13.83 9.32 3.74

Bt2 5.8 5.36 13.57 18.39 7.38 3.33

Red Podzolic Soil, Kalimantan

A 1.3 3.85 17.02 20.87 28.82 12.53

E 0.7 3.13 9.25 12.38 21.94 12.35

Bt1 1.1 4.34 9.77 14.11 20.63 13.53

Table.6.12. ChargeCharacteristicsofUltisols

69071.indb 194 4/25/08 10:42:24 AM


consideringthesoilsasvariablecharged.Thepresenceof some 2:1 clays, as reported from x-ray diffractionanalysesbyVanSchuylenborgh(1957), is lessobviousbyDTA.Smectite,whenpresent,createsseriousissuesin the prevailing concepts of ultisols in the UnitedStates,wherekaoliniteisbelievedtobethecharacter-izingclaymineral(McCaleb,1959;RichandObenshain,1955).Simonson(1949)alsosuggestedtheuseofsmec-titeasthedistinctionbetweenultisols(red-yellowpod-zolic)andalfisols(gray-brownpodzolicsoils).Thesoilscontainingkaoliniticclaymineralsare,inhisopinion,ultisols,whereassoilswithsmectiteintheirclayfrac-tions should be called alfisols. The noncrystalline oramorphous claysare shown inDTA by the combina-tionofverysharplowendothermic(±200C)andverysharp high exothermic peaks between 900 and 1000C(Figure6.8).X-raydiffractionanalysesof theultisolclays,yieldingweakdiffractogramsorcurveswithveryweaklow-intensitypeaks(Figure6.9),supportthepres-ence of large amounts of amorphous, noncrystalline,or short-range-orderclayminerals (GoenadiandTan,1989).ThisisinsharpcontrastwiththeXRDcurvesoftheoxisols,showingsharphigh-intensitypeaksat0.712and0.359nmforthepresenceofcrystallineclays(e.g.,kaolinite).Thismineral is,however,alsoconsideredavariable-charged clay mineral. Its permanent chargeisrelativelysmallduetothesmallamountofisomor-phous substitution in the tetrahedral and octahedralpositions.Mostofthenegativechargeinkaoliniteorigi-natemorefromdissociationoftheH–ionsofexposedoctahedral-OHgroups,aprocesswhichisalsosoilpHdependent. Therefore, the electronegative charges of

69071.indb 195 4/25/08 10:42:24 AM


kaolinitewillalsoriseandfalldependingonsoilpHvalues.Nevertheless,someofthesoilscientistsdisagreewiththeaboveandareoftheopinionthatkaolinite,asisthecaseofsmectite,doesnotpossesspH-dependentcharges unless aluminous impurities are present (DeVilliersandJackson,1967;FiskellandPerkins,1970).

200

400

600

800

1000 °C

1

2

3

4

5

Figure 6.8 Differential thermal analysis (DTA) thermo-gramsofred-yellowpodzolicsoilclayfractions:(1)Aand(2)BtHorizon,Aceh,NorthSumatra; (3)BtHorizon,Kaliman-tan;(4)Btand(5)CHorizon,Bantam,WestJava.

69071.indb 196 4/25/08 10:42:24 AM



�.�.�.� EvaluationofanalyticalpropertiesAsindicatedearlier, theultisolsareperhapsthemostwidely distributed soils of Indonesia. The total areawithultisolsfarexceedsthetotalacreageoftheoxisolsinthearchipelago.ThesoilscovermostofthelowlandsinSumatra,Kalimantan,Maluku,andPapua. In Java,theultisolsoccurmostlyinBantamandperhapsalsoathigherelevationsinthetensionzones.

1.402 nm

ULTISOL0.369

0.359

0.444

0.444

0.719

0.712 nm

28 20 12 3

B

AOXISOL

B 11

2θ

A

Figure 6.9 X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrograms of A andB horizons of clay fractions of ultisols (Bantam, West Java)andoxisolsofIndonesia.(FromGoenadi,D.H.andTan,K.H.,[1989].)

69071.indb 197 4/25/08 10:42:25 AM


However,incontrasttooxisols,theultisolsinIndone-siagenerallyexhibitpoorphysicalandchemicalproper-ties.Mostofthesoilsarerelativelyheavy-texturedsoilsbutpossessalowdegreeofstableaggregation,whichoftenresultsinlowpermeability.Thesepropertiestendtomakethemverysensitivetosevereerosion.Drasticweathering and high leaching have also resulted instronglytoverystronglyacidconditions,withpHval-uesoftenexhibitedoneunitbelowthoseoftheoxisols.Most of the nutrients have also been transported todeeperlayers.However,becausethebasesaturationinthesubsoilislessthan35%,theamountofnutrientsheldismostlikelyinadequateforplantandcropgrowth.Inaddition,atadepthof1to2m,thenutrientsmayberelatively out of reach to shallow-rooted crops. Thesesoilsare,therefore,consideredtobepooragriculturalsoils. Similar characteristics have been reported fortemperateregionultisols(forinstance,inthesoutherncoastalplainof theUnitedStates),makingthesesoilsinfertileunlessproperlymanaged(FiskellandPerkins,1970;Perkinsetal.,1973).However,soilorganicmatter,nitrogen,availablephosphorus,calcium,andespeciallypotassium contents, though generally considered lowinsurfacesoils,showconsiderablevariationinIndone-sianultisols.Forinstance,theultisolsofWestJavaarecomparativelymore fertile than theircounterpartsonthe other islands. Due to their location in the moun-tainrangeofJava,theseultisolshaveexperiencedfromtimetotimesomekindofarejuvenationprocessintheformofnutrient-richandesiticashshowers.Worthmen-tioningare theultisols inSumatraand theMoluccas,which are rich in potassium. The ultisols in Sumatra

69071.indb 198 4/25/08 10:42:25 AM


aredevelopedmostlyfromliparitictuff,relativelyrichin feldspar, biotite, and muscovite (Van Dijk, 1952).Thesemineralsareimportantsourcesofpotassiumforperennialcrops,suchasrubberandoilpalm,whichareextensivelygrowninthelowlandsofSumatra.Thisisespecially true for theyoungermembersor soils thathave received rejuvenation in the recent past in theformofvolcanicashshowers.TheultisolsintheMoluc-casoriginatedfromschists,richinmicas,andarethere-forealsorichinpotassium.Nevertheless,theultisolsofbothSumatraandtheMoluccasmaystillhavethepoorphysicalpropertiesexhibitedbyultisolsingeneral(Tanetal.,1963,1965).

Totheaboveshouldperhapsbeaddedthatinvirginconditionswhere the vegetation cover is still present,theultisolsinIndonesiamaystillhavehighamountsoforganicmatterintheirsurfacelayers,ascanbenoticedfromthedatainTable6.11.Inaddition,thenutrientcon-tentofthesoilsurfaceisoftenmaintainedatadequatelevelsforproperplantgrowthbytheprocessofnutrientcycling.Butassoonastheareaisdeforestedandthesoilcultivated foras littleas1year, theavailablenutrientsupplyofthesoilsurfaceissoonexhausted.

�.�.�.� SignificanceofbasicsoilpropertiesThe properties related to low degree of aggregatestability and low pH have to be corrected when ero-sionhazardsaretobedecreased.Chemically,thiscanbe achieved by liming the soils properly, a processbywhichnotonly thesoilpHcanbeadjusted to thedesiredlevelforpropercropproductionbutwillalsoincreaseorenhanceaggregationofsoilparticles.Good

69071.indb 199 4/25/08 10:42:26 AM


aggregationofsoilparticles is requiredfor thedevel-opmentofsoilstructures,whichinturnpromotestheformationofporespaces,beneficial in improvingsoilpermeability. In addition, the application of organicmatter, compost,greenmanuring,andother typesofsoil-structure-enhancingprocessesmaybeperformedalone or in combination with the above. The applica-tionofsoilamendments,suchasphosphogypsumandother soil stabilizers, is consideredby somescientistsanalternativemethodtotraditionalproceduresforcon-troloferosion(Levy,1995).

AsthesoilpHisincreasedbylimingprocedures,thevariablecharges,arisingfromsoilorganicmatterandthehighlyweatheredclay,arealsoincreasedsubstan-tially. The latter, as reflected in higher CECv, CEC8.2,and CECm values (Table6.12), was discussed earlierfor enabling the soil to storemorenutrients forplantgrowth. Enlarging the soil CEC is very important, inviewoftheneedtoapplyfertilizersincontrollingthesoil’s inherent low nutrient content and in offsettingnutrientlossesbyleachingandplantuptake.However,asindicatedintheaforementionedsection,inthefer-tilizationprocedure,itshouldbekeptinmindthatsev-eraloftheultisolsarepotentiallyrichinpotassiumandmaynotneedlargeamountsofK-fertilizers.

�.�.�.� Agriculturaloperations�.�.�.�.� Shiftingcultivation Mostoftheareacov-

eredbyultisolsislocatedontheratherthinlypopulatedislandsofSumatra,Kalimantan,Sulawesi,andPapua.Becauseinthiscaselargeareasoflandsareavailable,shifting cultivation is often practiced. This method is

69071.indb 200 4/25/08 10:42:26 AM

Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia �0�

locally called the ladang or huma system and is oftenerroneously considered synonymous with the slash-and-burn method. By definition, shifting cultivationinvolves complexcyclesofprocesses thatallow landstoliefallowforsometimeaftercultivationandrecoverbeforeagainbeingslashed,burned,andcropped.Com-monly,afamilyorunitofsettlersfunctionscollectivelyinclearingtheforest.Theythenclaimcustomaryrightsover the particular stretch of territory that was culti-vated,oftenamountingto50km2ormore,whichwasreferredtoinChapter1astanahadat.

Thismethodofshiftingcultivation,practicedmostlyin the tropical rain forest, has attracted worldwideattention due to an allegedly massive deforestation.However, when conducted properly, it encourages attheendof thecycle thegrowthofasecondary forestand hence will result in minimal ecological damage.Slash-and-burnisonlypartofitandcanbepracticedon itsownwithout thenecessarycyclesof fallowfol-lowedbydevelopmentofasecondaryforeststand.ThemethodispracticedlatelyincloserelationtotheIndo-nesiangovernmenttransmigrationprogramforarapidclearing of the forest and production of enough foodforthemigrantsettlersduringtheirfirstyears,ensur-inginthiswaythesuccessorfailureoftheresettlementprogram.Duetoviolentconflictsinthe1990sbetweenthesettlersandindigenouspeople(seeChapter1),andbecause of the Asian financial crisis in August 2000,large-scale transmigration programs have now beencancelled.Slash-and-burnwas,infact,alsoconductedintemperate-regionforestsofNorthernEurope,whereitwasknownbydifferentnames(forexample,swidden,

69071.indb 201 4/25/08 10:42:26 AM


assarting,andsvedjebruk).Onitsown,itisaverycontro-versialmethod,andmanyscientistsconsideritharmfulto the ecology. The issue of slash-and-burn is exacer-batedwhen themethodcontributedsince1990 to thedeforestation of lands of more than 40,000 ha annu-allyinColombiaforthecultivationofcrops,producingillegaldrugs, suchasmarijuanaandcoca. Ithasalsoreceivedworldwideattentionwiththedisastrousflare-upsofwildfires,destroying in1997and1998partsofthepeatforestinsouthKalimantan.Thick,toxicsmokefrom these wildfires was also covering Medan andPalembanginNorthandSouthSumatra,respectively,and has even spread dangerously over neighboringSingaporeandMalaysia,forcingtemporaryclosuresoftheirairports.

In shifting cultivation, most of the trees and othertypesofvegetationarecutandlefttodry.Partsofthetimber are collected and used as building material,whereasanotherpartmaybeusedasfirewoodorformakingcharcoal.Assoonastheresidualvegetationisdry,itisburnedtoclearthesoilforcultivation.Inviewofthestronglyacidicreactionandlownutrientcontentsofultisols, theashprovestobetemporarilybeneficialinincreasingthesoilpHandsupplyingnutrients.Thecleared plots are usually cultivated with upland rice,maize, or root crops—for example, cassava (Manihotutilissima)andbanana (Musaparadisiaca)orother fruittrees.Recently,hotpepperplants(CapsicumannuumorCapsicumfrutescens)arebecomingverypopularashumacrops.MostIndonesianfoodisveryspicy,andhotpep-perisoneofthemainingredientsusedtomakeithotandspicy.The increasingdemandforhotpepperhas

69071.indb 202 4/25/08 10:42:26 AM


increaseditsmarketpriceoftentosuchalevelthatitismoreprofitablegrowinghotpepperthanuplandriceinthehumas.Intercroppingisoftenpracticed,andthreestoriesofcropsmaythenbepresent,withsweetpota-toes, hot peppers, and taro as the “ground-dwelling”crops, whereas cassava, banana, or papaya constitutethemiddlestory,andcoconut,jackfruit,andotherfruittreesaretheupper-levelcrops.Intheheydayofrubber,rubber treeswerealso favored intercrops.Whencropyields decrease after 1 to 3 years, due to a decline insoilfertility,thefieldsareleftfallow,allowingthemtoreturn into a secondary forest stand, a cycle vital forthis type of cultivation. The banana and other fruittreesarestillproducinginthesecondaryforestgrowth,whencultivationhastoshifttoanewplotthathasbeencleared also by the slash-and-burn method. The rub-bertreesarethenalsoreadytobe“tapped.”Alltheseprovideawelcomeadditioneithertothedietortothesettler’sincome.Ifthemethodiscarriedoutproperly,theold site canbeusedagain inabout8 to10years.The International Center for Soil Research and Agro-forestry (ICRAF, personal communications) at Bogorisevenoftheopinionthatideally20yearsareneededbeforereturningcroppingatthefirstsite.Theybelievethatbygiving the landenoughtimetorecover,shift-ingcultivationcanbeproductivewithfewerecologicalimplicationswhileprovidingamethodofsustainableagricultureinthelightlypopulatedregionsofIndone-sia. If and when the cycle is too short, this may pro-ducevastareasofwasteland invadedbycochongrass,locally called alang-alang (Imperata cylindrica). The lat-teristhecaseinmanyareasofSumatra,Kalimantan,

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andtheMoluccas.Settingfiretothedrygrassesduringthedryseasoninordertoproduceyoungshootsthatattractdeerandothergameanimalscontributestothefurtherimpoverishmentoftheultisols.Naturalrefores-tationneedsconsiderabletimeandmuchhelponsuchpoorsoils.Despite theuntidyandsloppyappearanceofthecultivatedplots,thelinkbetweentheprotectivevegetationandpreservationofafertilesoilisimplicitinshiftingcultivation,whereastheuseofashafterburn-ingasasourceofnutrientsupplyandavoidingexces-siveweedingandotherdrasticcultivationpracticesareconsidered by many people eminently sound (Fisher,1966).

�.�.�.�.� Rice cultivation. Because rice is a majorstaple food in Indonesia, growing rice has receivedmoreattention in theagriculturaloperationsof Indo-nesia than other crops. As discussed earlier with theoxisols,riceiscultivatedinIndonesiabytwomethods(forexample,inundatedpaddy-fieldanddrylandmeth-ods). The paddy-field (locally called sawah) method,bywhichlowlandriceisgrownindikedandinundatedplots of land, is the traditional method. This methodispracticedextensivelyinJavaandBali,wherepaddy-fieldsaredotting the landscape fromthe lowlands tothe mountain regions. In the less densely populatedareasofSumatra,Kalimantan,Sulawesi,andPapua,thepaddy-fieldsarelessnumerous,thoughstillconsideredthemostimportantmethodforgrowingrice.Therefore,relatively largeconcentrationsofpaddy-fieldsonulti-solsseemtobelocatedmorenearcentersofpopulatedareas in Sumatra (e.g., Banda-Aceh, Medan, Padang,

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Jambi,Benkulu,andLampung).Substantialareaswithlowland rice areas are also found in West Kaliman-tan,SoutheastSulawesi,Maluku,andnearMeraukeinSoutheastPapua. InthesurroundingareasofMedan,NorthSumatra,andinSolok,WestSumatra,thepaddy-fields produce the Medan and Solok rice, respectively,favoredforconsumptionbylocalpeopleinSumatra.

Undersawahculture,thesoilsneedfertilizationwithlargeamountsofnitrogen,phosphate,andinsomeulti-sols also with potassium. Heavy applications of limeandphosphate(e.g.,1to5tonsCaCO3and200to500kgtriplesuperphosphateperhectare)havebeenrecom-mendedbyGo(1961)toensureoptimumriceyields.Thenitrogenusedshouldbeappliedpreferablyintheformofurea,becauseitsacidityisonlyone-thirdthatofsul-fateofammonia.Intheabsenceofadditionalfertiliza-tion,riceyieldsmaybeashighas1700kg/haintermsof dry grain (Van der Giessen, 1949; Van Dijk, 1952).Withadequatelimingandfertilization,thericeyieldsareintherangeof4to5tons/ha,thoughinexperimen-tal fields using hybrid rice (for example, Batang SamoandBatangKampar)yieldsof8to10tons/hahavebeenreported(AARD,1986;Sujitno,2004).

Grownas ladangrice,alsocalledpadigogooruplandrice in shifting cultivation, a short-growing variety isrecommended that can produce within a period of 4monthswhenrainfallisrelativelythelargest.Theyieldsof this typeof riceareusually lower,butwithyieldsrecorded at 2 to 5 tons/ha with adequate liming andfertilizer applications, they are still good rice yields,thoughsomeofthepadigogovarieties(e.g.,PB-36andSingkarak)havebeenreportedinexperimentalfieldsto

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yield 3 to 5 tons/ha (Sujitno, 2004). The two varietiesareresistanttotheblastdisease,causedbythefungusPyriculariaoryzae,thatoftencreatesseriousproblemsinthecultivationofuplandrice(AARD,1986).

�.�.�.�.� Estate crops. A large variety of estatecrops were grown during the prewar Dutch colonialtimeontheultisolsofSumatra,includingrubber,sisal(Agave sisalana), cantala (Agave angustifolia), manilla-hemp(Musa textilis),andmanyothercrops that toler-atetheprevailingtropicalhumidclimate(Holthuisetal.,1950).Thefiberfromtheagaveandmusacropspro-videsimportantrawmaterialforthethrivingrope,cord,andstringfactory,locatedinLampung,SouthSumatra.Sometobaccoculturesandalittleteawerealsonotedin North Sumatra. Because of the need for intensivecare and heavy fertilization on the nutrient-deficientultisols, tobaccocultivationseemed later tobemovedto themore fertile lowlandandosolson the footslopeofMountSibayakinNorthSumatra.However,duringthattime,rubberwasstillconsideredthemajorestatecrop on ultisols. But due to the threat from syntheticrubberin1945andhencedecreasingworlddemandinnatural rubber, much attention has been given latelytoreplacing itwithoilpalm(Elaeisguineensis), locallyknownaskelapasawit. Itscultivationhassincegrownsubstantiallyinimportance,especiallywiththepoten-tial for use of its crude or residual oil as biodiesel, analternative fuel source for powering automobiles andthelike(Goenadi,2006).

Thecountryoforiginofoilpalmisstillabigissue,though a majority of scientists believe that it was

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introducedinIndonesiafromtropicalAfrica.However,others claim South America as the country of originbecausenotonlyE.guineensis(theonlyspeciesfoundinAfrica),butalsoE.MelanoccocaandmanyotherspecieswerefoundwildinSouthAmerica(VanHeurn,1950).TheoilpalmcameinIndonesialongbeforetherubber“crisis,”perhapsinthenineteenthcentury,andlikerub-beriswelladaptedforgrowinginthehumidtropicsofSumatra.BecausetheultisolsofSumatrawerereportedtovarywidelyfromrichtopoorin,especially,potas-siumcontent, such conditionswillbe reflected in thegrowthofthetrees.Apoorcropwillbefoundonthesoilslowinpotassium-bearingminerals(<0.100%K2Osoluble in25%HCl),whereas thesoilswithrelativelyhighercontentsofthepotassiumminerals(>0.100%K2Osolublein25%HCl)arenotedtosupportbettercrops(VanDijk,1952).Theaverageyieldin1940was3500kgoilperhectare.

Inthewild,theoilpalmgrowstoconsiderableheights,makingitverydifficulttoharvestthefruitsthatdevelopin clusters at the tops of the trees. Recently, dwarfedtrees(Figure6.10)havebeendevelopedbyproperbreed-ing to facilitate theharvestingof the fruitsbymeansofmanuallycuttingtheclustersfromthegroundwithaknifeperhapsattachedonlytoashortpole.Today’sbreedingprogramsinIndonesiaareaimedatproduc-ingveryshort,high-yieldingpalmswithlowcholesterolandhighvitaminAcontent.ThedwarfhybridscamefromthecrossingbetweentheDuras,descendantsfromapalmspecies inBogor,andtheDumpy,apalmspe-ciesfromSerdang,Malaysia.At6to9yearsofage,thecrossisreportedtoyieldarecord30tonsperhectare

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annuallyintermsoffreshfruitbunches(FFBs)(AARD,1986). The Indonesian Research Institute for EstateCropsconsidersthisyieldof30t/hatheattainableyieldandbelievesthatthegeneticalpotentialFFByieldisintherangeof35to40t/ha.Theoilisderivedfromboththe mesocarp around the kernel and from the kernelitself,andtheoilextractionrate(OER) isaround22%

Figure 6.10 Dwarf oil palm tree. (Courtesy of the Indone-sianResearch Institute forEstateCrops.PhotoprovidedbyDr.Ir.DidiekH.Goenadi,Director.)

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fromthemesocarpand6%fromthekernels.MostofthevitaminA,ifnotall,isinthemesocarpoil(personalcommunication,DidiekH.Goenadi).

�.� LowlandalfisolsThe name lowland alfisols was selected to represent agroupofreddish-coloredsoilsderivedfromcalcareousparentmaterial, formerlyknownas terra rossa soilsorredMediterraneansoils.ThesesoilsarecalledchromosolsintheAustralianSoilTaxonomy(Isbell,2002),andkas-tanozemsintheFAO-UNESCOSoilMapoftheWorld.TheclosestfitintheU.S.SoilTaxonomyisthealfisols,thoughthismaynotagreefullywiththeconceptofredMediterraneanorterrarossasoils,asdiscussedfurtherbelow.Therefore,thenamelowlandalfisolswillbeusedinthistextbecauseoftheirmainoccurrenceinthelow-landsofIndonesiaandinviewoftheircloseassociationwithoxisols.

RedMediterraneanor terra rossa soils,oftencalledterra rosa or terra roxa soils, are widely spread in theMediterraneanregions,fromPortugalandSpainoverItaly to theBalkanpeninsula.Theyarealso found inthenorthcoastofAfrica.Oftheseveralconceptspres-ent, the most popular is the concept as proposed byReifenberg (1929) and Blanck (1930), who define thesoilsas follows:RedMediterraneansoilsaremoreorless deep red loams, formed on limestone as a resultofspecificsoil-formationprocesses,dictatedbycondi-tionsofatypicalMediterraneanclimate,andgenerallycharacterizedbyrainywintersandhot,drysummers.The soil-forming processes may be a combination of

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lixiviation, calcification, and laterization or ferraliti-zation.Consequently, thesoilsshowenrichmentwithsesquioxidesandsomesilica.Thehighcontentofironwiththeusuallyloworganicmattercontentgivesrisetothedevelopmentofbrightredcolors,propertiesthatdistinguishthemfromastandardalfisolofthetemper-ate regions. Compared with other soils of the humidtropics(forexample,oxisolsandultisols),theypossessa higher content of alkali and alkaline earth and arealsoalkalineinreaction.Calciumandironconcretionsmay be present. Reifenberg (1929) was of the opinionthat the soils should be considered as a preliminarystageoflateriteformation.SuchanideawassupportedbyJoffe(1949),whoplacedthesoilsinthegroupofsoilsaffectedbylaterization.Healsosuggestedthatthesoilsmight have been formed in an earlier geologic timewhenintheMediterraneanregionahumidtropicalcli-mateprevailed.Thestressuponthecalcareousoriginisthesubjectofmanyarguments,andmanyItaliansoilscientistshaveproposedtheideaofaeolianorvolcanicorigin(Joffe,1949).

In Indonesia, this kind of soil is found in CentralandEastJava,Madura,andinNusaTenggara,overtheislandsofBali,LomboktoTimor.Ontheotherislandsofthearchipelagotheyareoflittleimportance.


As far as the author’s experiences are concerned, thered Mediterranean soils of Indonesia originate fromreef limestone parent materials. However, a numberof soil scientists in Indonesia have noticed that the

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soils can also be formed from calcareous sandstoneand basic volcanic materials (Dudal and Suprapto-hardjo, 1957).Theyhave found these soilsonbasalticashdeposits,locatedonthelowerslopesoftheBaluranvolcanointheeasterncornerofEastJava.Withrespecttotheabove,Wisaksono(1953)suggestedtodividethesoilsintotwogroups:pureredlimestonesoilsandfalseredlimestonesoils,respectively.Theformerhasdevel-opedonpure limestone rocks,whereas the latterhasbeen formed from calcareous materials, which havereceivedcontaminationintheformofvolcanicash.Thelattersoilsare,therefore,foundmoreintheneighbor-hoodofthevolcanicchain.Thesedifferencesinparentmaterialshavebeensubstantiatedbyresultsofminer-alogicalanalyses.Thepureredlimestonesoilspossesssand fractions, composed of iron oxides and the pri-maryminerals,zircon,tourmaline,epidote,andanda-lusite, considered typical minerals of old nonvolcanicsediments.Ontheotherhand,thesandfractionofthefalseredlimestonesoilistypifiedbyavolcanicmineralsuite,containingaugiteandhornblende,inadditiontomagnetite.Theironcontentinthefalseredlimestonesoiliscomparativelyalsomuchhigherthanthatofitspurecounterpart.

Thedifferencesinparentmaterialsareusuallycou-pledwiththetopographyandthephysicalconditionsofthesoils.Whenformedonreeflimestoneorcalcare-ousparentmaterials,reliefisundulating.Whenformedonvolcanicmaterials,reliefrangesfromhillytomoun-tainous.Thepureredlimestonesoilsarealsomoredif-ficulttocultivateandbehavemorelikeheavy-textured

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soilsthanthefalseredlimestonesoil.Inthedryseason,pureredlimestonesoilstendtoformwidecracks.

�.�.� Climate

Theoccurrenceofthesoilstendstobelimitedtothesoutheastern part of Indonesia, which is generallycharacterizedbythedriestclimateofthewholearchi-pelago. As can be noticed from Table6.13, the real(pure) terrarossasoilsare located inareaswithAsaorAma(Köppen)climatetypes.TheAsatypeofcli-mate ischaracterizedbya longdryseasonfromthemonths of May through September, where some ofthemonthsoftenreceivelessthan3to5mmrainfall/month.Thisdryseasonisalternatedbyarainyseason,whichclimaxesduringthemonthsofDecember,Janu-ary,andFebruary,wherethehighestaveragemonthlyrainfallsarerecordedbetween200and300mm.Sucha climatic pattern, common in the surroundings ofTuban,Madura,andKupang,resemblescloselythatofaMediterraneanclimate.However,ascanbenoticedfrom Table6.13, the soils can also develop in Ama(Köppen)climatictypes.Thoughthistypeofclimatewas defined earlier as a monsoon climate, the rela-tivelylongerwetseasonalsohasitsclimaxduringtheperiod of December through February. It has a verysharpdryseasonwithaveragerainfalloftenrecordedoflessthan5mm/month.

69071.indb 212 4/25/08 10:42:29 AM



The morphology of the soils is in fact not too com-plex.Liketheotherred-coloredsoilsdiscussedintheprecedingpages,theredMediterraneanorterrarossasoilshavealmostnodistincthorizondifferentiations.Dependingonthelocalconditions,thesoilprofilemaybeverydeep,butoftenitcanalsobethin.Anexampleofadeepprofileisgivenonthenextpage.Thevegeta-tioniscomposedofvillagegardencropswithlowlandfruit andkapok (Ceibapentandra) treesandgrassesasundergrowth.

Rainfall Altitude

<60 mm >100 mm

Mean Annual Rainfall

Type ofClimatea

East Java

Tuban

Bojonegoro

Cepu

Randublatung

0

15

30

55

5.6

4.0

3.9

3.1

5.2

7.3

7.2

7.7

1373

1872

1901

2312

Asa

Ama

Ama

Ama

E

C

C

C

Terra Rossa

Terra Rossa

Madura

Tanah Merah 47 4.1 6.9 2006 Asa C

Terra Rossa

Nusa Tenggara

Kupang 48 6.0 6.0 1687 Asa E

Location

m Months mm Köppen

Soil

S&F

Table.6.13. TheClimateofTerraRossaSoils(LowlandAlfisol)AreasinIndonesia

a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols:A = coldestmonth>18°C;a=warmestmonth>22°C;m=monsoon;s=sum-merdryseason.

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Incasesofratherthinorshallowprofiles,whicharemorecommoninMadura,theduskyredsurfacesoilisoften50to100cmthick,underlaindirectlybythepar-entrock,composedofCaCO3orcalcite.

Based on color differences, it appears that these redMediterranean soils can be distinguished into thefollowing:

1. Red Mediterranean soils with colors near 2.5YR3/2to3/6.

2. Brown Mediterranean soils with colors between7.5YR3/2and6YR3/4.

3. Red-yellow Mediterranean soil with colors near5YR4/4to6/8.


Ap 0–33 2.5YR 3/2, dusky red, clay, weakmedium crumb, friable, manyroots.

B1 33–69 2.5YR 3/4, dark reddish-brown,clay,weakfinecrumbtogranular,friable,fewCaCO3fragmentspres-ent,horizonismorecompactthantheA.

B3 69–95 2.5YR 3/4, dark reddish-brown,clay,weakfinecrumbtogranular,friable, some very faint claycoatings.

B3 95 2.5YR3/6darkred,clay,granular,friable,faintFecoatings,horizoniscomparatively more compact anddrier.

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This group of Mediterranean soils often occurs inassociation with other groups of soils according totopography. The red Mediterranean soils are locatedgenerallyontopofthehills,gradingintorendzinasontheslopesandintoblackmargaliticsoils(grumusols,ver-tisols)inthevalleyswheredrainageconditionsarethepoorest.SuchasequenceofsoilsisoftenfoundintheRembang-TubanhillsinCentral–EastJava.AdifferenttopographicalsequenceofsoilswasreportedbyDames(1955)inthesouthernmountainsofCentral–EastJava.Ontopofthehills,redlateriticsoils,withacidreactions,lowbasesaturation,andexchangecapacities,aregrad-ingintobrowntodarkbrownsoilsontheslopesandintomargaliticsoilsagainatlowerelevationsorinthevalleys.Soilaciditydecreases,whereasbasesaturation,cation-exchange capacity, calcium content, plasticity,andstickinessofthesoilsgraduallyincreasefromthetopofthemountainstothevalleysasnaturaldrainagegraduallybecomespoorer.


Asdiscussedearlier,thesoilswerefirstcalledterrarossaorredMediteraneansoilsandbytheAustralianSoilTax-onomylateridentifiedaschromosols(Fosteretal.,2004).The FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the World considersthemtoberelatedtokastanozems,thoughthedescrip-tionofrendzinasmayalsofitsomewhattheconceptofredMediterraneansoils.IntheEuropeanliterature,thesoilsaretypicalforregionshavingaclimateresemblingthatofaMediterraneanclimatewiththerainywinters

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anddrysummers(Blanck,1930;Reifenberg,1929).MostEuropeansoilscientistsconsiderthesoilstobelateriticinnature,whereassomebelievethattheyareintheini-tial stages of forming laterites, as indicated above. IntheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,thesesoilsaregroupedinthealfisols,asoilorderdefinedashavingargillic,kandic,or natric horizons, and base saturations >35% in thecontrolzone.Thesoilscanperhapsbeplacedasustalfs,underthegreatgroupnamerhodustalfs.Theusticmois-ture regime is correlated for tropical regions with amonsoonclimatethathasatleastonerainyseasonof3monthsormoreduringthe“winter”months.However,in the temperate regions of subhumid climates, therainyseasonsareoccurringinspringandsummerorinspringand fall.Suchaclimaticpattern,occurring,forexample,inthestateofGeorgia,doesnotagreewitha Mediterranean climate as described above. Never-theless, red-coloredsoils, similar inmorphologywithoxisolsorultisols,butpossessingbasesaturation>35%in the control zones, have been identified in Georgiaasalfisols(H.F.Perkins,personalcommunication)andelsewhereinthesouthernregionfromtheplainsoftheMississippitoTexasandOklahoma(SlusherandLytle,1973).Soils,identifiedasPleistoceneTerraRossas,do,infact,existincentralTexas,whichareconsideredmorepaleosols(Young,2006).Incontrast,Kubotaetal.(2005)classifiedterrarossasofParaguayaseitheroxisolsorultisols,whichseemedtohaveobtainedtacitapprovalforpublicationfromtheeditorsofSoilScienceSocietyofAmericaJournal.

InIndonesia,theseredsoilswereformerlyclassifiedaslateriticsoilsderivedfromlimestone(Table6.14),then

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renamed red-yellow Mediterranean soils in the 1960sbytheBogorSoilResearchInstitute(DudalandSupra-ptohardjo, 1957; Supraptohardjo, 1961). In analogy tored-yellowpodzolicsoils,usingthenameofred-yellowMediterranean soil then allows for subdividing the

Table.6.14. SummaryofNamesUsedbyPreviousAuthorsforRedMediterraneanSoilsinIndonesia

Year Author Name

1922 Mohr Roodaarde(redearth)1938 Mohr Lateritegroundvankalksteen1944 Mohr Lateritefromlimestone1932 TeRiele Kalkroodaarde(redlimestone

soil),Terrarossa1937 Idenburg1939 Hardon Rodekalkgrond(red

limestonesoil),Terrarossa1950 VanderVoort Redlateriticlimestonesoil1953 Wisaksono Tubuhtanahkapurmerah(red

limestonesoil)1953 VanRummelen Kalkroodaarde(redlimestone

soil,Terrarossa;classnotes,personalcommunication)

1955 Dames Redlimestonesoil,Terrarossa1957 Dudaland

SupraptohardjoRed-yellowMediterraneansoil,Terrarossa

1960 MohrandVanBaren Terrarossasoils

1962 Dudal RedMediterraneansoils1972 Mohr,Van

Baren,andVanSchuylenborgh RedMediterraneansoils

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groupintored,red-yellow,andbrownMediterraneansoils.Today,thesesoilsarerecognizedinIndonesiaasalfisols.BecausetheamountsoffreesesquioxidescanoftenreachhighvaluesinthisgroupofsoilsofIndone-sia,thequestionoftenarisesastowhytheycannotbedefinedashavingoxichorizonstoo.But,thehighper-centages of base saturation and higher soil alkalinitymayraiseadditionaldifficultiesforplacingthemintotheustoxgroup.


�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionThe data in Table6.15 indicate that the majority ofthesoilsarefine in texture.Theyarenot loamysoilsas defined by Reifenberg (1929) and Blanck (1930) fora modal concept of a red Mediterranean soil, but theIndonesian varieties are more clayey soils. They alsoshowasharpincreaseinclaycontentfromAtoBhori-zons.Althoughanargillichorizon(Bt)isthuspresent,duetotheirgranularandcrumbstructures,anexcel-lenttogoodsoilporosityismaintained,permittingthedevelopmentofexcellentinternaldrainageconditions.

�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsThesoilreactionisintheslightlyacidiccategory,withnearlyallpHvaluesabove6,whichisinsharpcontrastwiththeoxisolsandultisols.Thesameistrueforthesoilbasesaturation.Thisiscommonlyveryhigh,oftenreaching values of percentage base saturation ≈99%(Table6.15).Thehighbasestatusisperhapsoneofthereasons for the formationofa relativelystablecrumb

69071.indb 218 4/25/08 10:42:31 AM


togranularstructure.Asdiscussedinprecedingpages,the soils are found limited to areas with pronounceddryseasonsandwet“winters.”Theclimateisthusofthe type that permits an alternating downward andupwardmovementofsoilwater,asdiscussedinChap-ter3.Basesthatpercolatedownthepedonduringthewet season will most likely be moved or transportedupwardagaintothesurfacesoilduringthedryseason,a

Table.6.15. PhysiochemicalCharacteristicsofLowlandAlfisolsofIndonesia

Particle Size Distribution (%) Base

Sat. % C %

N %

Soil Profile

50–2 <2 µ

pHH2O

Ap

Bt

B2

B3

1.63

1.50

1.41

1.05

49.1

32.9

45.4

48.9

49.3

65.6

53.2

50.1

7.1

6.9

7.0

7.1

—

—

—

—

2.5

1.9

1.6

1.2

0.18

0.09

0.07

0.06

Ap

Bt

B2

41.0

20.0

15.0

32.0

22.0

11.0

27.0

58.0

74.0

7.7

7.2

6.8

99.0

99.0

82.0

1.0

0.9

—

0.12

0.12

— —

>50 µ

Red Mediterranean Soil (Tuban, East Java)

Red-Yellow Mediterranean Soil (Madura)

A

Bt1

Bt2

16.0

7.0

7.0

33.0

18.0

19.0

51.0

75.0

74.0

6.5

6.5

6.2

89.0

78.0

65.0

—

—

—

—

—

—

13.5

19.4

23.0

18.6

8.3

7.5

C/N

15.0

18.0

18.0

Brown Mediterranean Soil (Baluran Volcano, East Java)

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processpreviouslycalledcalcification.Thelatterprocesswill saturate the clay complex with bases and hencewill precipitate and aggregate the clay and other soilparticlestoformcrumbsorgranularstructuralunits.

�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyAccordingtoHardon(1939),theclayfractionofthered-yellow Mediterranean soil is characterized by halloy-site. This is substantiated by more recent analyses ofthepresentauthor,whoalsonoticedbyDTAanalysesthepresenceofadditionalclayminerals,suchasvary-ing amounts of sesquioxides in amorphous or parac-rystallineforms.Thered-yellowMediterraneansoilsoftheRembang-Tubanhills inEast Javaespeciallyseemto contain substantially high amounts of sesquiox-ides. The latter are also confirmed by total elementalanalyses,andspecificallybythedeterminationsofsili-con,aluminum,andironcontentsoftheclayfractions,showing the soils to have silica/sesquioxides {SiO2/(Al2O3+Fe2O3)}ratiosintherangeof0.9to1.1.Suchlowratios are generally exhibited by the amorphous clayfractions of Andosols. Consequently, these particularred Mediterranean soils of Indonesia have to be con-sideredmorealliticorferraliticinnaturethantheotherredsoilsinIndonesia.Crystallineclaysofthe1:1layertypesareusuallycharacterizedbyratios intherangeof2to3,asfrequentlyreportedforthekaoliniticclaysof oxisols, and ultisols (Mohr et al., 1972). Reifenberg(1929) and Joffe (1949) mentioned silica/sesquioxidesratiosof3andhigherfortheredearthsonlimestonein the Mediterranean regions. These high values aregenerallyindicativeforthepresenceof2:1layertypes

69071.indb 220 4/25/08 10:42:32 AM


ofclays,suchassmectitesormontmorillonites.SeveralscientistsinIndonesiaalsomentionedthepresenceofsmectiteminerals in the“pure”terrarossasoils fromlimestone rocks (Mohr et al., 1972; Wisaksono, 1953),becauseof thebasicenvironment favoringthe forma-tionof2:1clays.However,itisbelievedthathalloysiteandother1:1layertypesofmineralsaremoretypicaloftheclaysof“false”terrarossasoils,duetotheadmix-tureoftheparentmaterialswithvolcanicash.


�.�.�.� EvaluationofanalyticalpropertiesChemically,thesoilsarepoorinnitrogenandorganicmattercontents,andinmanycasesalsoinphosphateandpotassium.However,thesoilsdevelopedfromvol-canicashmayoftenshowatendencytocontainhigheramounts of phosphate and potassium. The calciumcontentintheseparticularsoilsisrelativelylowerthanthatofthesoilsformedonpurelimestonerocks(Dames,1955;Wisaksono,1953).Butasawhole,thered-yellowMediterraneanorlowlandalfisolscanbeconsideredashavingbetterbasesaturationconditions than the redlatosolsorred-yellowpodzolicsoils.

�.�.�.� SignificanceofbasicsoilpropertiesTheagriculturalpotentialitiesoftheselowlandalfisolsareforthegreaterpartdeterminedbythedistributionofrainfall,thedrainageconditions,andthegreatlocalvariationsofsoilswithregardtopedondepthandstoni-ness.Theprofiledepthmayvaryfromseveralcentime-terstoameter(ormore)thick.Theshallowsoilsareasa

69071.indb 221 4/25/08 10:42:32 AM


ruleratherstonyandcontainmanyrockoutcrops.Thephysicalsoilpropertiesareperhapsalmostcomparabletothoseoftheredlatosols.Theclaycontentsarealsovery high, which tend to cause the soils to becomeslightlyplasticandsticky.However,theextremelyhighbasesaturationisthereasonforthepresenceofstrongcrumb to granular soil structures, resulting in goodsoil permeability. On drying, the soils tend to crackintomedium-sizedblocksthatarefirstratherhard,butwhichusuallycrumbleafterprolongeddrying.

�.�.�.� Agriculturaloperations�.�.�.�.� Small landholders’ or farmers’ crops Asa

rule,agriculturaloperationsarelimitedtoplaceswithdeepersoils.Whereirrigationispossible,thesoilsareusedforricecrops,sugarcane,andtobacco.Thericeisoften grown as sawah culture. In areas where irriga-tionisnotpossibleandwherethewatersupplyhastodependonthelocalrainfall,cornisplantedinthebegin-ningofthewetseason,followedbytobacco,afterwhichthesoilsremainfallowduringthedriestperiodofthedryseason.Onveryshallowsoils,oneplantingseasonisusuallyfollowedbyfallowfor1or2years.Thefal-lowlands, locallycalled tegalans,areespecially foundin large acreages on the poorer soils in the parchedlimestoneregionsofthenortheasternpartofJavaandin Madura. However, the tegalans support goats andmany heads of cattle (Dames, 1955; Supraptohardjo,1961),raisedmainlyforpullingcartsordrawingloads,thoughsomemaybekilledfortheirmeat.

On deep soils, intercropping of cassava (Manihotutillissima) and upland-rice crops is common practice.

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Thisisconductedeveryyear,followedbyacropofcornandpeanutsorsoybeans.Kapok(Ceibapentandra)treestogetherwithbetel(Piperbetle)plants,fruittrees,andincertaincasesalsocotton,aregrownonlowlandalfisols.Thebetelplantisavineorclimbingpepper,whoseleavesareharvestedgreenandchewedwithbetelnutandlimeas stimulants. In addition, smallholder cultivation oftobaccohasbeenencouragedbytheIndonesiangovern-mentforexportandlocalconsumption.TheareaundertobaccoinEastandCentralJavaandMaduraisnowesti-matedtobe200,000haandgrowing,buttheyieldof300to650kg/haisstillconsideredlow(AARD,1986).Localvarieties of tobacco, such as the Madura type, JeponKenek,arecommonlygrownforthemanufactureofthenow famous kretek cigarettes. These cigarettes, spicedwithclovesandwhenburnedproduceaverypungentsmell,wereproducedfirst for localconsumptiononly.Recently,theyhavebeenexported,andthedemandforkretekallegedlycontinuestogrowrapidlybothlocallyand internationally.TheVirginia-type tobacco,mainlyforexport,isplantedinCentralandEastJavaonlandsordinarilyusedforuplandrice.Theyincludethevariet-iesofNorthCarolina,NC95andNC254.

�.�.�.�.� Estatecrops. Thetwomajorestatecropsarekapokandteak.KapokisplantedintheoldDutchplantationsasafibercrop,whereasteakisplantedfortimberbytheStateForestServiceasaforeststand.Bothplants,developingintohugetrees,areusuallygrowninthedriestregionsofIndonesia.Inthisrespect,thecli-mateofthelowlandalfisolsturnsouttobemostfavor-ableforcultivationofthesecrops.Along,dryseason

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withnomorethan4monthshaving60to100mmrain/monthismostsuitableforthecultivationofespeciallykapoktrees.

�.�.�.�.� Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) The kapoktreesarenotindigenoustoIndonesiaandarefoundwildinthesouthernpartofMexico,theWestIndies,andinSenegalandAngola,Africa.Twotypesofkapok—theCaribbeanandIndica—wereformerlyusedbytheDutchestates. The name implies that the Caribbean kapoktreeshouldhaveoriginatedfromtheCaribbeanIslands,WestIndies,butToxopeus(1950)indicatesthatitwasaCongovariety.Ontheotherhand,theindicakapokisnativeinSouthAsia.

Kapokisplantedasseedlings,cuttings,orbuddings,and in the former Dutch estates they were generallyneatly arranged in rows using a 10 × 10 m plant dis-tance.Insomeoftheestates,cacao(chocolate,Theobromacacao)isoftenusedastheintercrop.Incontrast,kapokisfrequentlyalsoplantedbylocalfarmers,calledtaniorpetani,inirregularpatternsintheyard,alongtheroads,oronareasseparatingthetegalansfromthepadi-sawahfields.InEastJavaandinSulawesi,anotherkapokarea,thetreesareoftenplantedtoformhedgessurroundingeachofthetani’sprivatelyownedtegalans.Thefiberisproducedinlargeelongatedfruitpods,likecottonpro-ducingitsfiberin“fruitballs.”Thefiberpodsareusu-ally harvested during October and November, whicharetheendofthedryseason,byclimbinginthetreeandshakingthemloosefromthebranches,inasimi-lar manner as harvesting pecan in the United States.Thecleanedandprocessedfiberisusedtodaymainly

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asmattressfiller,forfillingpillowsandcushions,andasthefiller-liningofjacketsandotherwinterclothing.Akapokmattressiscoolandfirm,easytorepair,andfarcheaperthanthespringmattressesoftoday;hence,kapokisasought-aftercommodityinIndonesia.IntheDutchcolonialtime,kapokwasalsousedasinsulationmaterial in refrigerators, walls, and ceilings, but thispractice was discontinued because of the firehazard.Unfortunately, thefiber isof suchquality that it can-not be spun into thread, like cotton. Research in thisrespectisstillongoing,andthreadsofkapokandcot-tonmixtureshavesuccessfullybeenproduced.

�.�.�.�.� Teak (Tectona grandis) Teak, the otherimportanttreecropforthesedryregions,isusuallycul-tivatedasaforeststandbytheForestServiceofIndone-sia.TheplantisnativetoIndiaandothercountriesinSouthAsia,wherethreemajorspeciesarerecognized:Tectonagrandis,thecommonteak,whichiswidelydis-tributed in India and Thailand; Tectona hamiltoniana,knownasdahatteak,isalocalspeciesofMyanmar;andTectonaphilippinensis,alsocalledphilippineteak,isnativetothePhilippines.Thenameteakallegedlycamefromthekku,atermfromthelanguageofthepeopleinKeralaofSouthIndia.

Becauseofitsexcellentwoodfortimber,teakplantsare today introduced in the West Indies, Belize, andPanamaand inZambia,Tanzania,Nigeria,andotherWestAfricancountries.

InIndonesia,thecommonteak,locallycalled jati,isplanted and historically cultivated mainly on JavabytheStateForestServiceusinganagroforestrysystem.

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The plants are especially adaptable to the areas withpoorsoilsonthetertiaryridgesofEastJava.Theydonot grow too well in the regions of the humid tropi-calrain forest.Theplantsareusuallycultivatedfromseedlingsandraisedonnurserybeds,andvegetativepropagation by means of using stem cuttings is stillunder investigation. Teak is known to be a difficultand very slow-growing plant. Given adequate time,theplantsmaygrowintoverylargetreesof30to40mtall.Theyaredeciduousinnature,becauseinIndone-siatheyshedtheirleavesinthedryseason.Thegreenleavesareoftenharvestedbylocalfarmersandusedasmaterialforwrappingmeatandproduce.Thetreescanbeharvestedaspolesandsmalltimberattheageof7to8yearsbutwillattainaheightof10mortallerandagirth≈60cmattheageof20years.Theageofthetreeisusuallyassessedfromtheannularringsformedinsidethetreetrunk.

Teakwoodisweather,seawater,andtermiteresistant;hence,it isverydesirableforbuildingqualityhouses,boats,andfurniture.Itisextensivelyusedforlayeringwoodenfurniture,asisthecasewiththeDanish-stylefurniture,andforproducingvariousgradesofplywood.Becauseoftheteakwood’ssuperiorquality,experimentsare conducted today in India and Thailand to raiseteakonsmalllocalfarmsasasustainableestatecrop.Many of the local teak farms often use annual cropsasintercrops(e.g.,mungbeans),providingtheneededcashincomeforthefirst6yearsofgrowth.InIndia,theyoungteakplantsareoftenirrigatedwhenneededandgiven100gofNPKfertilizersinthepitatthetimeofplanting.However,teakgrownunderirrigationisoften

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reportedtobepronetowinddamage,whereasblistersmaydevelopintheinnerheartwood.

�.� VertisolsThesearethedark-coloredsoilsthathavebeencalledgrumusols in many countries. A review is given byOakes and Thorp (1950), who mentioned the occur-renceofextensiveareasofgrumusolsinAfrica,India,thesouthernUnitedStates,SouthAmerica,Australia,thePhilippines,andvariousislandsintheSouthPacific.Hence,variousnamesareusedforthisgroupofsoils(e.g.,blackcottonandregursoilsinIndia,andblackturfsoilsinAfrica).Atonetime,thesoilswerealsoidenti-fiedasatropicalchernozem(Joffe,1949).InIndonesiathesoils were formerly called marl soils or margalitic soils(Dames, 1950; Mohr and Van Baren, 1960). Neverthe-less,thesoilsallhavecertainfundamentalcharacteris-ticsincommon.Theyareusuallyextremelyplasticandstickywhenwet,andwillshrinkupondrying,formingwideanddeepcracks.Whenwet,theywillswellagain,closing the cracks. The clay fraction is usually domi-natedbysmectiteorothermontmorilloniticor2:1layertypeofclay,whichisthemajorreasonforthesoil’shighshrink–swellcapacity.Becauseofthephysicalproper-ties above, the soils are often considered as black self-mulchingsoils.

InIndonesia,thesekindsofsoilsseemtocoverratherextensiveareasofthelowlandsofCentralandEastJava.TheyarefoundinparticularintheDemakplain,eastofSemarang,andalongthenorthcoastfromRembangtoMadura,wheretheyoftenoccurintoposequencewith

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thelowlandalfisolsorredMediterraneansoils,asdis-cussed in the preceding section. Grumusols are alsofoundtothewestofYocyakarta,inthelowlandstothenorthofSurakarta,intheregionsofMadiunandKediri,andintheareaoftheLusi-Randublatung-Soloriverval-leysofCentralJava.TheyaremajorsoilsoccupyingtheareasbetweenPasuruanandBangilandinthesouth-ernmountainsofEastJava.InWestJava,grumusolsarelimitedinoccurrenceandcanbefoundonlytoaverylimitedextentinthesurroundingsofCheribon,intheCimanukrivervalleynorthwestofBandung,intheval-leyofRajamandalabetweenBandungandCianjur,andin Jonggolnear Jakarta.Vertisolsappearnot tooccurextensively outside Java, because the parent materi-alsforsoilformationinSumatraandKalimantan,forexample, are mostly liparitic (or rhyolitic) tuffs andgranite, respectively. These types of parent materialsaretooacidicandhenceareunfavorableforformationofsmectiteclayminerals.


OakesandThorp(1950)indicateintheirreviewthatinthevariouscountrieswheregrumusolsoccur,thesoilshavebeenfoundmainlyonlimestone,clayeycalcareoussediments,orresiduumofbasicrocks,suchasbasalt,gneiss, and argillaceous limestone. In Indonesia, thesoilswerethoughtatfirsttobeconnectedwithmarls,andhencethenamemarlsoilswasusedinprewartimeby Dutch soil scientists for this group of soils. How-ever,thisnamewaslaterrevisedbyDames(1950)intomargalite from marga, the Latin word for marl. It was

69071.indb 228 4/25/08 10:42:33 AM


notedlaterthatthesoilscanalsodeveloponvolcanictuffs, claystone, and even on materials enriched withquartz,providedtheothersoil-formingfactorswillbesuchthattheytendtofavorthedevelopmentofanalka-lineenvironmentrichinsilica.Dames(1955)reportedgray margalitic soils derived from andesitic volcanicashatthefootoftheLawuVolcanointheeasternpartofCentralJava.Anotherareawithgrayish-blackmar-galitewas foundat the footof theBatuagungMoun-tainrangeat thesoutheasternsectionofCentral Java.Thesesoilswerecalledtheacidictypesofmargalites,duetothelowercalciumcontentsandlowerpH,whichisgenerallyintheslightlyacidrange.Margaliticsoilshavealsobeenfoundonalluvialplaindeposits,suchasintheLusiRivervalleys,butthesedepositsoriginatedfrommaterialserodedfromtheKendengandRembanghills,whichgenerallyarecomposedofreeflimestone.Tertiary marine volcanic tuffs and shales containinglittleorno limehavealsobeenrecognizedas impor-tantparentmaterials for formationofmargalitic soils(Dames,1955;Wisaksono,1953).Inthisrespectthetop-ographiclocationfavoringpoordrainageconditionsismost important.Detaileddiscussionof thegenesisofmargaliticsoilsfromnoncalcareousorlessbasicparentmaterialisgivenbyMohrandVanBaren(1960).Basedon differences in parent materials, Dames (1955) pro-posedadivisionofgrumusolsintothreegroups:

1. Grumusolsofthetertiaryhills,whichincludethesouthernmountainsofCentralandEastJava,theKendenghillsandtheRembanghills.

2. Grumusolsofthequaternaryvolcanoes.

69071.indb 229 4/25/08 10:42:34 AM


3. Grumusols of the alluvial plains, which includetheLusivalley,theDemakandRembangplains.

�.�.� Climate

Grumusolsoccurworldwide in coolandwarm temper-atezonesaswellasintropicalclimates.Nevertheless,theoccurrence of the soils has been found to be limited toregionswithawell-definedrainyseason,alternateddur-ingtheyearbyaverysharpanddryseason.OakesandThorp(1950)believethatthetotalannualrainfallshouldbelessthan1270mm(50inches).InIndonesia,theannualrainfalloftheareaswherethesoilsarelocatedmayexceedinmanycasesthelimitstatedabovebyOakesandThorp.However, according to Mohr and Van Baren (1960) thistotalannualrainfallmaynotexceed2400mm/year.Theregionswiththisrelativelyhighamountofprecipitationayeararethentheupperlimitsinwhichgrumusolscanoccur.ThetypicalclimateofvertisolsinIndonesiaissup-posedtobethedrymonsoonAwaclimatewithasharpandlongdryseason.However,asindicatedbythedatainTable6.16,thesoilsarealsocommonlyfoundinKöppen’sAmaclimatewithatotalannualrainfallofmorethan2000mm,suchasisthecaseinTasikmadu.Butinthisregion,othersoils (forexample, latosols) tendalsotobecomeofmoreimportanceinassociationwiththevertisols.

Grumusols have rarely been reported to occur in thehumidAfaorinthecoolmountain,CforCs,climatetypes.InWestJava,whichingeneralisconsideredahumidAfaarea, the regions with grumusols are also known to becharacterizedbyasharp,thoughshort,dryseasonduring

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theyear.Forinstance,theclimateofCheriboncanfallinthecategoryofanAmaclimate.However,morerecentlyblackmargaliticsoilshavebeenreportedbyVanLoenentobepresentnearLakeWisselinPapuainaperhumidregionwith5000mmannualrainfall(MohrandVanBaren,1960),thoughasstatedabove thesoil is seldomfoundoutsideJavaduetotheunfavorabletypeofparentmaterialforitsformation.Basedontopographicvariations,Dames(1955)suggestsdividingthesoilsintouplandmargaliticsoils,asfoundintheRembang-TubanhillsofCentralandEastJava,and lowlandmargaliticsoils,mostlylocatedintheplainsandrivervalleys.ItisnotclearwhetherDamesmeanttousethetermsaspopularterms,butthetwogroupsofsoilsinquestionseemtodifferinfertility.

Rainfall Altitude

<60 mm >100 mm


Type ofClimatea

East Java Tuban

Bojonegoro

Randublatung

Madiun

0

15

55

66

5.6

4.0

3.1

4.1

5.2

7.3

7.7

6.6

1375

1872

2312

1887

Awa

Ama

Ama

Ama

E

C

C

D

Grumusol

Tasikmadu 100 3.5 7.5 2265 Ama C Grum+Lat.

Location

m Months mm Köppen

Soil

S&F

Table.6.16. TheClimateofGrumusol(Vertisol)AreasinIndonesia

a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols:A = coldestmonth >18°C; a = warmest month >22°C; m = monsoon; w =sharpdryseason.

69071.indb 231 4/25/08 10:42:35 AM


�.�.� SoilmorphologyThe typical grumusols in Central and East Java areusuallydeep,dark,clayeysoils,containingsmectiteormontmorillonitic clays. In dry conditions, the surfacesoilgenerallyhasatypicalstronggranulartofinestruc-ture, which is designated by the Dutch soil scientistsasacauliflowersoilstructure,becauseofitsappearancesimilartoacauliflower(Wisaksono,1953).Anexampleofadeepgrumusolprofileisgivenbelow:

Grumusol of south Tuban (East Java).The area is characterized by a rollingtopograpyandtheprofileislocatedinavalley.Thevegetationisasecondaryteak (Tectona grandis) forest with grassandweedsasundergrowth.


A1 0–17 5Y 4/1–3/1 (field wet), dark grayto very dark gray, clay, crumb,friable,manyroots.

A2 17–27 5Y 4/1, dark gray, clay, friable toslightly sticky, crumb, few smallCaCO3fragments,roots.

A3 27–45 5Y5/1–4/1,graytodarkgray,clay,granular toweakmediumblocky,friabletosticky,moderateamountsofCaCO3 fragmentsorconcentra-tions,faintclaycoatings,roots.

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Thesolumofmargaliticsoilsisgenerallyconsideredrelatively thick.Soilswithveryshallowtopsoils, rest-ingdirectlyontheparentrock,areinfactnotconsid-eredmargalitesinIndonesia,butrendzinas.ThisgroupofsoilsisfoundintheRembang-Tubanhills,frequentlyoccurring in an irregular pattern in association withtheredMediterraneanorterrarossasoils.Anexampleofarendzinatypeofsoilisgivenbelow:

The soil is located in south Tuban inhilly topography. The profile is dugon a flat part of a slope in a coconut(Cocosnucifera)gardenwithgrassesasundergrowth.


A 0–14 2.56/2(fieldwet),lightbrownish-gray,siltloam,crumb,friable,fineCaCO3fragments.

D +14 Softlimestonerock.

AC 45–59 5Y5/1,gray,clay,granulartofinestrong blocky, friable to sticky,manyCaCO3fragmentsorconcre-tions,claycoatings,fineroots.

C 59–80 5Y4/2,olive-gray,clay,finestrongblocky, sticky, abundant CaCO3

fragmentsorconcretions.

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Undertheconceptofgrumusols,thistypeofrendzinabelongstothesamegroupofmargalitesandotherdarkclayeysmectiteormontmorilloniticsoilsasdefinedbyOakesandThorp(1950).

Asisthecaseinothercountries,thesoilsinIndonesiashowsomevariationsincolorandothersoilproperties.Inthesoildescriptionabove,onecannoticetheabsenceofdistincteluvialandilluvialhorizons.Insomecases,horizons of calcium concretions may develop to thatextent that they could then qualify to be B horizons.Dames(1955)hasreportedthatinwell-developedgru-musols,theparticularlimehorizonissometimes1mthick. In other cases, interbedding of limestone plateshasbeenobserved. In therelativelymoreacidicsoils,limeconcretionsareusuallyabsent.Coarseprismatictomassivesubsoilstructuresarecommonintheacidicmargalitic soils, and on Sumba Island with the moreextremedryseasons,gilgaiformationhasbeennoticed(Howard,1939).

Thecolorof the soils isoftendarkgray toblack inthe surface horizons and gray in the lower horizons.It ispossible that smectiteclay isnot theonly reasonfor thecolor,becausegraycolorsoftendevelopwhenpoor drainage conditions prevail. It is then used asan indication foradvancedgleization.Gleizationpro-cesseshavebeenreportedtoplayaroleintheforma-tion of grumusols. The presence of iron concretions,frequently reported, in grumusols supports the pres-enceofgleization.SuchacasehasbeennotedinthetirsofMorocco,andaccordingly,thesesoilsarecalledgleytirs(OakesandThorp,1950).Dames(1955)hasusedthecolordifferencesforsubdividingthesoilsofIndonesia

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intoblackmargalites,darkgraytobrownmargalites,andyellowmargalites.Hebelievesthatthehumusandcal-ciumcontentarepartlytoblameforthedevelopmentofdifferentcolors.Themargaliticsoilsrichinlimearemostlyblack,whereasthosecomparativelypoorinlimearemoregrayishtoyellowincolor.


Asmentionedearlier,thesoilswereknowninvariouscountries under different names. In India, they werecalled black cotton or regur soils, whereas in Morocconamessuchasgleytirs,deepandcrusttirswereused.AccordingtoMohrandVanBaren(1960),theblackturfsoils of South Africa belonged to this category. Othernames used in the past were tropical black soils andsmonitza(SoilSurveyStaff,1960).IntheolderU.S.soilclassificationsystemtheywereclassifiedasrendzinas.ThehoustonclaywasatypicalexampleusedbyOakesandThorp(1950).Thesesoilswereincludedintheclas-sification system of Thorp and Smith (1949) as intra-zonalsoilsandgiventheofficialnamerendzina.ThoughOakes and Thorp (1950) tended to agree somewhat,theyalsostatedthattheusageofthetermrendzina intheUnitedStatesmaybe inconflictwith theprevail-ingconceptsofrendzinaselsewhereintheworld.Theysuggestedtheuseofthetermgrumusol(grumusmeans“little heap, hillock, or crumb” in English) for all thedarkclayeysoilswiththestrikingphysicalandstruc-turalfeaturesaspreviouslystated.Thistermhassincebeen used worldwide. With the introduction of the

69071.indb 235 4/25/08 10:42:36 AM


U.S.SeventhApproximation(SoilSurveyStaff,1960),asecondattemptwasmadetogroupthesesoilstogetherundervertisols (fromtheLatinverto,meaning“invert,to turn”), which was chiefly based on the outstand-ingphysicalpropertiesofhighshrinkingandswellingdue to thedominating influenceofexpanding2:1 lat-ticetypesofclays.ThenamevertisolsismaintainedinthecurrentU.S.systemofsoil taxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,2006a)andalsousedintheFAO-UNworldsoilmap.Whythetermvertiischoseninsteadofverto(asisthecaseofandiinsteadofandowithrespecttoandisols)is still one of the many controversies of the U.S. SoilTaxonomy. The current Australian soil classificationsystemusesthenamevertosolsandseesnothingwrongwithusingverto,whichisinfacttherealLatintermforinvert(CSIRO-ACLEP,2006).

InIndonesia,thesoilswereformerlyclassifiedasmarlsoils (Dutch: mergelgrond), as indicated earlier, whichwas later revised by Dames (1950) into margalites. Inthisrespect,Dames(1955)wasoftheopinionthatmar-galitescorrelateswithrendzinas.Inthefollowingyears,DudalandSupraptohardjo(1957)proposedtheuseofthetermregursoilintheBogorSoilResearchInstitute’sprogramofthesystematicsoilsurveyofIndonesiawiththe cooperation of the FAO-UN. However, this namewasgraduallyphased out, andgrumusol wasat thattimewidelyacceptedinIndonesia,whichwaschangedagain recently into the name vertisols, the officiallyacceptednameusedtodayinIndonesia.

69071.indb 236 4/25/08 10:42:36 AM



�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionThedatainTable6.17indicatethatthegrumusols(ver-tisols)inIndonesiaaregenerallyheavy-texturedsoils,showingclaycontentsbetween49and80%.ThisagreeswithreportsbyDames(1955),whoclaimsthattheclaycontentsusuallyexceed50%,unlesstheparentmateri-alsarerichinfinequartz.Wisaksono(1953)alsonoticed

Particle Size Distribution (%)

Org. C %

N %

Profile Horizon

50–2 <2 µ

pHH2O

A1

A2

A3

AC

1.89

1.48

1.59

1.29

23.42

20.51

22.39

28.19

74.69

78.01

76.02

70.52

7.15

7.25

7.60

7.75

2.65

1.90

0.99

0.78

0.23

0.16

0.09

0.06

11

12

11

13

A

D

0.52

—

18.69

—

80.79

—

6.65

7.31

2.77

—

0.09

—

30

—

>50 µ

C N

Margalite (Tuban, East Java)

Rendzina Type (Tuban, East Java)

A

AC

C

9.0

9.0

10.0

39.0

39.0

41.0

52.0

52.0

49.0

6.8

7.0

7.0

1.0

0.6

—

0.10

0.08

—

10

8

—

Margalite (Tomo-Cheribon, West Java)

Table.6.17. PhysicochemicalCharacteristicsofMargaliticSoils(Vertisols)

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thatthesoilsdevelopedfromquartz-richparentmate-rialstendedtobelighterintexture,andfoundtheveryfinequartzcontenttobeashighas50%.Becausethisfinequartzis<2µm,itisbydefinitionclay.However,itmaynotexhibitthestickinessandplasticityofclays,andhence,thesoilcanfeelmorelikealoam-texturedsoil,thoughthismayhaveaffectedonlyslightly theothercharacteristic physical properties due to the presenceofthe2:1layerlattice-typeofclays.Similartovertisolsinothercountries,themargaliticsoilsofIndonesiaareextremelyplasticandstickywhenwet.Theyshrinkondrying,formingwideanddeepcracks.

Nomechanicaleluviationofclaycanbenoticed.Thesoilhasanalmostconstantoradecreasingclaycontentwithdepthinthepedon,becausethesurfacesoilmulchesitselfduringthedryseason,andconsiderableamountsofsoilmaterialsfromtheAhorizonareslougheddownintothebottomofthecracks.Thismaterialismovedup(coughedup)againduringthewetseason.

�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsThe soils vary in soil reactions, exhibiting pH valuesgenerallyfrom6.5to7.8.Thealkalinityincreaseswithdepthinthesoilprofile(Table6.17).Thecation-exchangecapacityisveryhighandisoftenreportedintherangeof50to100cmol/kg,whichismainlysaturatedbycal-ciumandmagnesium(Dames,1955).Someofthesoilsmayonlybepartlysaturatedwithcalciumandmagne-sium,andtheyarethencalledtheacidictypesofverti-sols.Invertisolsaffectedbyverydryconditions,mostofthecalciummayevenhavebeenreplacedbysodiumions.Insuchacase,asolonetzictypeofsoilmayoccur.

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Ironconcretionsarenoticedtobegenerallypresentinthepedonsandincreaseincontentswithdepthinthesoilprofile.This is in supportof thegeneralbeliefofsomeoftheDutchscientiststhatgleizationispresent.Inaddition,mostofthemargaliticsoils(vertisols)arelowinphosphateandpotassium.Perhaps,only thosethathavebeendevelopedfrombasalticvolcanicasharesomewhatricherinphosphateandpotassium.

Theorganicmattercontentisusuallylowforsuchdarkcolors. In termsoforganiccarbon, itmayrange from0.6 to 3.0% in the surface horizons. But Dames (1955)indicatesthatitmayincreaseto4or5%ifunderforest,andheisoftheopinionthattheamountofhumusandcalcium content determine the color of the soils. Thesoilsrichinlimeandhumusaremostlyblack,whereasthosethataremoreacidic(lesssaturatedwithcalciumandmagnesium)aremoregrayincolor.Adetaileddis-cussionisprovidedbyMohrandVanBaren(1960)ontheeffectoforganicmatteronthecolorproblem.Theseauthorsbelievethatnotonlytheorganicmattercontent,butalsothedegreeofhumificationandthenatureoftheclaymineralsareimportantfactorsaffectingthedevel-opmentoftheblackcolorsofthevertisolsofIndonesia.

�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyVertisolsingeneralarecharacterizedbyclayfractionscontainingsmectitesormontmorillonites,whichare2:1layerlattice-typeclays.ThevertisolsofIndonesiaarenodifferentinthisrespectandarecharacterizedbysmec-titeclaysashasbeendeterminedwithx-raydiffractionanalysesbyHardon(1939).Thisisalsosubstantiatedbythepresentauthorwithdifferential thermalanalyses.

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Wisaksono(1953)alsonoticedthedominatingpresenceofsmectitesinthegrumusols.Thesmectitecontentwasestimatedtovaryfrom75to100%intheclayfractionsofthesurfacehorizonsofblackmargaliticsoils.Intheyellow margalites, their clay fractions seemed to bemixturesofsmectiteandkaolinite,andinsomecases,bothmineralsmayamountto50%ofeach.

The silica/sesquioxide ratios are in support of thepresence of smectites. The values of the SiO2/R2O3ratiosareconsideredtobe1.0to2.0for1:1layertypesof clays (kaolinite and halloysite), but in the range of2.0to3.0for2:1layertypesofclays(smectites).AscanbenoticedfromthedatainTable6.18,thesilica/sesqui-oxide ratios of the clay fractions of oxisols are in therangeof1.0to2.0,whereasthoseoftheclaysofverti-solsarefrom2.0to4.0.ThesehighSiO2/R2O3ratiosareindicativeofanonlateritictypeofclayformationandsupportthepresenceof2:1layertypesofclays.Addi-tional support isprovidedby theextremelyhighcat-ion-exchangecapacity,whichcanevenreachvaluesof100cmol/kg,asindicatedinthesectionabove.Becausetheelectronegativechargesofsmectitesoriginatefromisomorphoussubstitution,thenegativechargesarecon-sideredpermanentorconstantcharges.Hence,thecation-exchangecapacitywillremainrelativelyconstantandmaynotchangesignificantlywithchangesinsoilpH.Thisgroupofsoilsisgenerallyclassifiedaspermanentchargedsoils,incontrasttotheoxisols,whichweredes-ignatedearlierasvariable-chargedsoils(Tan,2003b).

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Vertisol (Margalite)Tuban, East JavaA1A2A3

Oxisol (Red Latosol)Cibinong, West JavaApB1B2B3

Vertisol (Rendzina)Tuban, East JavaA

Andosol, Deli, NorthSumatra, 50 m absA1

AC

A2B

Andosol, BogorWest Java, 600 m absA1

2.883.072.93

1.701.901.801.90

4.44

1.38

1.191.05

2.52

1.54

1.511.22

4.243.873.94

————

10.06

8.59

8.729.19

3.52

4.86

4.805.27

12.2211.8511.52

————

44.70

11.8

10.29.5

8.85

7.45

7.246.42

2.332.442.331.97

1.401.601.401.60

4.04

1.25

1.060.96

1.27

1.251.03

A3B

SiO2R2O3

SiO2AI2O3

SiO2Fe2O3

Al2O3Fe2O3

Table.6.18. Silica/SesquioxideRatiosofClayFractions

Note: R2O3=Al2O3+Fe2O3;abs=abovesealevel.

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�.�.�.� EvaluationofanalyticalpropertiesChemically, the soils are rich in calcium and magne-sium, though these contents may vary in the severaltypesofmargalitesfromhighertolowerlevels,depend-ingonoriginandlocations.Themargaliticsoils,devel-oped from volcanic tuffs or limestone mixed withvolcanicash,aremorelikelytobelowerincalciumandmagnesiumcontents.Soilreactionsareintherangeofslightlyacidic toslightlybasic,andthesoilpHissel-domnoticedtodecreasebelow6.5.Atthisslightlyacidicreaction,thesoilsarecalledtheacidicmargaliticsoilsandoftenlackCaCO3concretionsintheAhorizons.Ontheotherhand,margaliticsoilsaregenerallydeficientinphosphatesandcanalsoberatherlowinpotassiumandinnitrogen.Inthiscase,itisnoticedthatthesoilsfromvolcanictuffsareapttocontainhigheramountsofphosphatesandpotassiumthanthosederivedfromlimestone.Thisisperhapsduetothephosphorus-andpotassium-bearingminerals in thevolcanicash.Nev-ertheless, Dutch scientists have reported citric acid-extractableP2O5andK2Ocontentsintherangeof0.002to0.040%and0.004to0.025%,respectively,whicharecommonlyconsideredtobelowforproperplantpro-duction.Thesoilsthathavebeencultivatedforalongtimemaybeextremelydeficientinphosphates(Dames,1955;VanDijk,1952).

�.�.�.� SignificanceofbasicsoilpropertiesThe most striking features of the soils are the swell-ing and shrinking properties according to moisture

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contents.Theshrinkingofthesoilsduringthedrysea-sonproduceswideanddeepcracks,whereasswellingofthesoilsduringtherainyseasontendstofavormassmovement. In this way, sheet and gully erosion areenhanced,anderosioncontrolmethodsareverydiffi-culttopractice.Thesoilsarealsoveryhardwhendryand very sticky and plastic when wet, making themverydifficulttoplow.Thesoilsarealsoveryheavyandimpermeable. Water movement and aeration are con-sideredverypoor.Duetotheshrinkingandcracking,watermayrunthroughthecrackstothesubsoil,satu-ratinginthiswaythedeepersoillayers,causingthemto stay moist for a long time. This perhaps enhancesgleizationprocesses,suspectedbyseveralDutchscien-tists to be an additional soil-forming process of mar-galiticsoils.

Becauseof thepoorphysicalcharacteristicsandthelownutrientcontents,asdiscussedabove,thesoilswillformingenerallypooragriculturallands.Developmentofrootstodeeperlayersisoftenimpeded,whereaswiththedevelopmentofcracks,manyoftherootsmayalsoberupturedortheirdevelopmentharmfullydecreased.Theunfavorablephysicalpropertiesmakeitveryhardtocultivatethesesoils;inthedryseasonitisstonehard,whereas in thewetseason it isslickandveryplastic.However,itisbelievedthattheycanbecultivatedeasieratamoisturecontentcalledfieldcapacity.Atthiscondi-tion,soilmoisturecontentisjustadequateforproduc-ing a friable soil consistence. The soil is then not toostickyortooplastictoworkwith,whereassoilstructureisexpectednottobecomedamageduponplowinganddigging. It is often suggested to keep the soils under

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greenmanures,orothertypesofvegetation,evenundergrasseswhenfallow,inordertoimprovesoilstructureand other physical properties. Due to the low nutri-entcontents,especiallyinphosphorusandpotassium,adequate fertilizer applications are needed to ensureproperplantgrowthandcropyieldsonmargaliticsoils.Thesearepermanent charged soils, and limingwillnotincrease theircation-exchangecapacities to theextentasisthecasewithoxisols.Moreover,theircalciumandmagnesiumcontentsareoftenadequate,andtheymayneedlimeonlytooffsetthelossofcalciumandmagne-siumduetoplantuptakeandleaching.

�.�.�.�AgriculturaloperationsWhere irrigationwater isavailable, thesoilsareusedforsawahorpaddy-fields.UsuallythewatersupplyisaformidablechallengeinthesedryregionsofIndonesia,andinmanyareasirrigationispossibleonlyintherainyseason.Ifnotusedforgrowinglowlandrice,thesoiliscultivatedwithsugarcane,corn,soybeans,peanuts,andVirginiatobacco.Inthedryseason,eventheriversmayrundry.Drought-resistantcropsarefavoredduringthistimeof“hardship,”calledlocallytheseasonofpaceklik.Thisistheregionwheremostofthepalawijaornonricecropisproduced.Onnonirrigatedfields,farmersdigalargehole,liftingandplacingasawholetheblockofsoilonthesideofthepittoletitgraduallycrumblebyitself.Cassava,corn,orotherpalawijacropsareplantedinthehole, which is then filled with compost, litter mixedwithmanureandthecrumbledsoilmaterialfromtheblock.Thismethod,knownlocallyasthegolanmethod,seemstobeadequateformanyfarmers(Dames,1955).

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Another frequently applied method is planting thecropsonraisednarrowbeds,whichmayimprovethedrainage, by rapid removal of stagnant water duringheavyrains.Theareasofvertisols ingeneralarealsothemainregionsforgrowingsugarcane.However, infact, it is not the soil but the climate that determinesthesugarcanecultureintheregion.Sugarplantsneedadryseasonfortheripeningprocess.Teakisanotherimportantcropcultivatedonmargaliticsoils.

�.�.�.�.� Small landholders’ or farmers’ crops. AsisthecaseelsewhereinIndonesia, inEastJavariceisalsothemostfavoredcrop,grownininundatedfieldsbylocal farmers.Themajorpaddy-fieldsor“sawahs,”where lowland rice is grown in the vertisol region,are present only in areas where irrigation is avail-able,suchasintheLusirivervalleyandintheDemakplain.Irrigatedlowlandriceisalsofoundintheplainsof Rembang, north of Demak. In sawah culture, thepoorphysicalpropertiesofthesoilsseemtobeoflittleproblem,becausethesoilmediumispuddled,whereasirrigation brings nutrients and silt, improving in thiswaythesoilconditionsforlowlandrice.Ingeneral,thericeyieldsareconsideredmoderatelygoodbytheuseof NPK fertilizers (Dames, 1955; Van Dijk, 1952). Thericecropisusuallyfollowedinthedryseasonbycropsof cassava, sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas), soybeans,greenbeans (Phaseolus radiatus), castoroilbeans (Rici-nus communis), an assortment of chili crops (Capsicumannuum),andsomecotton.

On the nonirrigated fields, where rain is the mainsupplierofwater,maize,cassava,andchiliesaregrown

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duringthewetseason,whichisfollowedinthedrysea-son by a second crop of corn, soybeans, mung beans(Phaseolus radiatus), and some watermelons (Citrullusvulgaris).

Fruittreesareoftengrownbythefarmersasbackyardgardening,suchascoconut(Cocosnucifera);severalvari-etiesofmangos(Mangiferaindica);sawo(Achrassapota);jackfruit,locallycallednangka(Artocarpusintegra);andkedondong (Spondias dulcis), a sweet–sour fruit with alarge,serratedpit.Anothercrop,welladaptedtothisdryregion, is thecashewnut (Anacardiumoccidentale).Thefruitisconsumedbylocalfarmers,whereasthedriednutsarecashcrops.LargeconcentrationsofcashewnutproductionarealsofoundintheMarosareaofSouth-ernSulawesi.

The fruit trees survive well during the dry season,becausetheycandrawmoisturefromthesubsoil,whichis wet most of the time, for reasons discussed above.Inaddition,somekapokandbambootreesaregrown.The bamboo is used mainly as material for buildinghouses,thoughexcessmaybesoldinthenearbyvillagemarket.Thisisalsothecasewiththeotheragriculturalproducts,whicharegrownmostlyforconsumptionbutmaybesoldascashcropswhenavailableinexcess.

�.�.�.�.� Estate crops Themajorestate cropsaresugarcane,coconut,andteak.Asstatedearlier,byvirtueofclimaticconditions,thisistheregionofsugarcane,asareSumatraandKalimantanthemainregionsofrub-berandoilpalmdue to theirhumidtropicalclimate,andtheMoluccastheregionforspices.Anotherprob-lemisthatthecultivationofsugarcaneisnotconducted

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onlandsownedbytheestates,butonlands,preferablysawahlands,rentedfromlocalfarmers.Afterthecaneharvest, the sawahs have to be returned to the localownersfortheirusualcultivationwithriceandotherfoodcrops.Severalpeople,especiallyBritishscientists,believe that the cane sugar plant (Saccharum officina-rum)findsitsorigininIndia,butKoningsberger(1950),aDutchscientist, indicates that thespeciesSaccharumspontaneum, locally called glagah, is found growing inthewildinJava.Becauseofitsstrongrootsystemandvigorousgrowth, it isused forbreedingat the SugarExperimentStationatPasuruan,EastJava.BycrossingitwiththeS.Officinarum,the2878-POJ(ProefstationOostJava=EastJavaExperimentStation)varietywasdevel-oped,atthattimefamousforitsresistanceagainstthesereh (witch-hazel) disease. This disease was detectedin1881andhasalmostdestroyedthesugarcanecultureinJavabetween1880and1900.Itwaspartofthereasonfortheestablishmentinrapidsuccessionofseveralsug-arcaneexperimentstations.Sugarcane, locallyknownas tebu, cultivation apparently started in the 1880s intheareasofCheribon,Pekalongan,andTegal,stretch-ingfromtheeasternpartofWestJavatothenorthwestof Central Java, where in 1885 the Sugarcane Experi-ment Station of West Java (Proefstation West Java) wasestablishedatKagok,SlawinearTegal,followedayearlaterby the Proefstation Central Java at Semarang, andfinallyin1887bytheProefstationOostJavaatPasuruan,EastJava.Thelattergraduallyassumedallmajoractivi-tiesinsugarcaneresearch,becausemostcanecultiva-tion was concentrated later in Central and especiallyin East Java, where the climate is most favorable for

69071.indb 247 4/25/08 10:42:40 AM


growingtebuorcane.However,plansareonthedraw-ingboardtocultivatesugarcaneinTelungBawangoftheLampungs,SouthSumatra,thoughthisregionis,infact,toohumidforaproductivesugaryieldofthecanecrops.

Stemcuttingsareplantedintheestatesusuallyatthestartofthedryseason,inAprilorMay,whenadvan-tagecanstillbetakenfromthelastshowersattheendoftherainyseason.Thecaneisusuallyreadyforhar-vestaround18monthsofage.Hence,inAugustofthefollowingyear,thelandusuallyhastobereturnedtothelocalfarmersfortheirfoodproduction.ThesuccessincaneproductionbytheDutchgrowerswastheappli-cationoftheReynososystem,sometimesknownastheJava method, a cultivation method using a trench sys-tem,developedbyaCubanscientist,AlvaroReynoso,in1865.ThismethodhasmadetheDutchinJavaalleg-edly the best producers of cane, and since then themethodwascopiedallovertheworld.Afterthelandhasbeenreturned,orevenbeforethat,thefarmermovesin quickly and starts planting his palawija crops, inthiswaytakingadvantageoftheresidualeffectofNPKfertilizationfromthepreviouscanecrop.Thesubsoil,whichisoftenmoistduringthisdryseasonforreasonsdiscussed earlier, will still provide enough water forplantgrowth(Koningsberger,1950).

ItisperhapsnecessarytoaddthattheproductionofsugarinIndonesiaisalsocarriedoutbylocalfarmers.However, incontrast to thewhiterefinedcrystallizedsugarproducedbytheDutchestates,thefarmer’ssugaris not produced from sugarcane only, but often fromcellsapofotherplantsproducingsugar—forexample,

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arenpalm(Arengasaccharifera),lontarpalm(Borassusfla-bellifer),andcoconutpalm(Figure6.11andFigure6.12).Thesapcollectedfromthearenpalmandthecoconutwaterareboiledtoevaporatetheexcesswater.Thethickbrownmasscollectedisthenpouredintoforms,usu-allybamboocups,toconsolidate,yieldingbrownsugar,calledgulaaren(gulameans“sugar”)andgulamangkok,respectively. The gula aren is favored by housewivesinIndonesiaforitsnicearoma.Thesapcollected,drip-pingfromanincisionatthebaseoftheflowerclusterofthearenpalm,isalsooftenmadeintopalmwine.

�.�.�.�.� Coconut(Cocosnucifera) Thisisanotherimportantcropnotonlyforsugarproduction,butalsofortheproductionofcopra,amajorexportproductof

Figure 6.11 Coconutsinacoconuttree.

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Indonesiaand inmanycasesalso for local consump-tion.Todaycoconutisnotconsideredanestatecropbythe Indonesian government but is grouped togetherwithtobacco,fiber,andspicecropsasindustrialcrops.Estatecropsarerubber,oilpalm,tea,cacao,andsugar-cane.Thedivisionbetweenindustrialandestatecropsisarbitraryandbasedonlyonthefactthattheplantsinthecoconutgrouparecultivatedmostlybylocalfarm-ers,whereasthesecondgroup(rubber,andsoforth)iscultivatedbylargeestates(AARD,1986).

A B

Figure 6.12 (A)Arenpalmwithfruitclusters.(B)Fruitsofthearenpalm,producedbycrackingandremoving(hulling)thehardfruitshells,areadelicacyasdessertiniceandsyrup.

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Incontrasttosugarcane,coconutisnotrestrictedtotheareaofvertisolsonly.Whereasclimaticrestrictionshaveconcentratedsugarcane inEast Java, rubberandoilpalminSumatraandKalimantan,thepalmtreeisfoundextensivelythroughouttheIndonesianarchipel-ago.TheyareoftenadorningthecoastsofmanyislandsfromSabang in thewest toMerauke in theeast,pro-viding theclassical imageofa tropical island.Atonetimeinthepast,coconutcultivationfortheproductionof copra seemed to be concentratedmore in theeast-ernhalfof the Indonesianarchipelago,andrubber inthewesternpart.Themajorcopra-producingareasarenoticedespeciallyinSulawesi,wheretheYayasanKelapaMinehassa (MinehassaCoconutFoundation) is locatedandintheDigulareanearMeraukeinPapua.However,today,importantsmallholderplantationsarefoundnotonly in Sulawesi, but also in Maluku; West, Central,andEastJava;Lampung(SouthSumatra);Aceh(NorthSumatra);andWestSumatra(AARD,1986).

The plant will grow on a variety of soils from theheavy vertisols, to oxisols, ultisols, and the light-tex-tured,sandyalluvialdepositsalongsidetheriversandoncoastalterrain.CoconuttreesarefoundtoflourishonthesandydunesinWestSumatra,WestKalimantan,and the southern coastal areas of Pangandaran, WestJava, and Merauke, Papua. The plants are even culti-vatedoncoralsandsinTalisseestate,aformerDutchestateinNorthSulawesi,locatedonthecoralislandofKinabohutan.Theplantsareusuallygrownbytrans-planting pregerminated coconuts from the nurseriesintothefields(Reyne,1950),andittakesanaverageof8to10yearsbeforethetreesreachtheirfullproductive

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capacity(AARD,1958).Thetallvarietiesmaythenreachheightsof20to30m,butdwarfvarietiesarealsoavail-ableandpreferredforeaseinharvesting.SeveralofthedwarfvarietiesareoftenusedinJavaandSumatraasbreedingmaterialsforcrossingwiththenormallytalltrees.Thetwocommonlyknowninthepastwerekelapagading(kelapameans“coconut”andgadingmeans“ivorycolor”)withivory-coloredfruitsandkelapapuyuh(puyuhmeans“dwarf”)distinguishedbygreen-coloredfruits(Reyne,1950).Today,theNiasYellowDwarfisusedforbreedingnewhigh-yieldinghybrids(AARD,1986).Forthe purpose of harvesting, mounting steps are oftencut in the tree trunks,whichapparentlydonotdam-age the tree. In certain cases, especially in Sumatra,thefarmercanrentaberuk(Macacusnemestrinus),abigape,trainedforharvestingcoconuts.Paymentisoftendone by sharing the coconut harvest with the trainerorowner.MostoftheplantsinIndonesiatodayare60yearsoldandconsideredbeyondtheirfullproductivecapacity.Theyneed tobe replacedbyyoungerplantsthataremorehardyandcanyield50to120fruits/treeperyear,whichaccordingtotheIndonesianAgencyforAgricultural Research and Development will meet aproductiontargetof2to4tonscopra/haperyear,withminimuminput(AARD,1986).Asstatedearlier,copraisamajorexportcommodity for Indonesia foruse intheoilandsoapindustries.

In addition to the importance of producing copra,coconut provides the farmer with a variety of homeapplications. The coconut juice, squeezed from thecoconut meat, yields cooking oil for frying, preferredlocallyoverpeanutoiloroil-palmoil.Coconutwater,

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ifnotusedfordrinking,isevaporatedtoproducethegulamangkok.Themeatissometimesusedforlocalcon-sumption,butitssqueezedjuice,whennotusedfortheproduction of cooking oil, finds extensive applicationin the preparation of the many local dishes (e.g., ren-dang,orIndonesianbeefstew).Acoconutvariety,pre-ferredforconsumptionofitsmeat,isthekelapakopiyor(Cocos nucifera var. pultaria). The coconut flesh is softandmushy,nothardasordinarycoconut,withatex-turebetweenthickyogurtandcottagecheese.Itcanbescoopedeasilywithaspoonandisverynicewithiceandsyruporusedinicecream.Thecoconuthuskfindsapplication for home and kitchen cleaning purposesandoftenalsoasamediumforgrowingorchids.Ontheotherhand,thecoconutshell,sometimesusedformakingcharcoal,isnowasought-aftermaterialforlin-ingsorinlaysoftabletopsandothertypesoffurniture.Polishedproperly,theshelltopsexhibitaperfectshinecompetingwiththatofturtleandotherseashells.Theleavescanbewovenintobasketsorroomdividersandwalls.Theycanalsobearrangedtoproduceroof-thatchforthefarmers’houses.

�.� HistosolsThis chapter is about the organic soils in Indonesia,locallycalledtanahgambut,orpeatsoil.TheuseofthenameHistosolsasthetitleofthischapterisonlyforcon-venience,becausetheorderhistosolsalsoincludesmin-eralsoilsthatarehighinorganicmattercontents.Manypeoplehavedefinedorganicsoilsindifferentways,andthenewerversionsareusuallyeitheranextensionora

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revisedversionoftheolderdefinition.Originally,soilscontainingmorethan20%organicmatterbyweight(or>50%organicmatterbyvolume)arecalledorganicsoils(Brady,1990).ThistraditionalconceptoforganicsoilistodayreflectedintheFAOdefinitionof folichorizon,ahorizonthatmusthave>20%Corgbyweight(Driessen,2001),andbytheU.S.SoilTaxonomydefinitionofhisticepipedon,wheretheminimumlimitsofCorgaresetat18%or16%,dependingonthecontentsofthesoilclayfractions (Soil Survey Staff, 2006a). The two horizonsaboveareconsidereddiagnostichorizonsforhistosols,anamechosenbyUSDAscientiststoreplacethenameorganic soils. From the above, it is perhaps clear thathistosolsarenotnecessarily tobepeatsoils,but theymayincludepeatsoils.

Peat has been studied by biologists and botanists,and its science has developed the most in countriespossessing huge areas of peat, such as in Russia andinFinland,wheretheheadquartersoftheInternationalPeat Society (IPS) is also located. This society in Fin-landcallstheareaswithpeatdepositspeatlands,whichincludewetlands,moor,bog,marshes,mires,andfens.Peat lands and mires are considered wetland ecosys-tems,containinglargeaccumulationsoforganicmatter,leadingtotheformationofpeat(IPS,2004).TheSwiss-basedRamsarConventiononWetlands,firstestablishedin1971 inIran,definespeat landasadepositofsemi-decayedplantmaterialaccumulatedover5000to8000years (Ramsar,2006).Otherscientistsarecallingpeatswampsandthevegetationabovepeatswampforest.Somepeoplealsoincludemangroveswampsandtidallowlandsinthiscategory(Driessen,2001;Kyuma,2003;

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VandenEelaart,2004),makingtheconceptofpeatandpeatswampsveryconfusing.

Most of the peat soils in the world are generallylocatedincoastalplains,deltas,andfluvialandlacus-trine areas. According to Driessen (2001), the type oforganicmaterialmayvaryintheworldfrompeatmossof the arctic and boreal regions, to sphagnum, reeds,andsedgesintemperateregions,andtreesofmangroveandpeatswampvegetationofthehumidtropics.Thesphagnumisamoss,growinginwetareas,whereasthesedgesaretuftedmarshplants,growingtogetherasabunchoffluffyplants.Theirremainswhencompactedor mixed with other plant debris form the temperateregionpeat.Accumulationofthedecomposedmaterialisconditionedormadepossibleworldwideeitherbylowtemperaturesorexcesswater(Brady,1990).Tothese,twomorefactorswereaddedbyDriessen(2001)forslowingthedecompositionoforganicresidues:extremeaciditypluslownutrientcontentandhighlevelsofelectrolytesplusorganictoxins.Otherscientistsconsiderthelattermoretheresultsratherthanthereasonsforpeatforma-tion,whichwillbeexplainedbelow.

Differenttypesofpeatshavebeenrecognizedintheworld,anddifferentnameshavebeenusedbydiffer-ent authors, aggravating the existing confusion aboutthe concept of peat as mentioned earlier. The oldest,andperhapsalsothesimplestconcept,wasthedivisionintotwomaintypesofpeats:basinpeat,developedindepressions or low-lying areas of marshes and bogs,andblanketpeat,whichformsinareaswithhighlevelsofrainfallandthatpracticallycoverstheareaasablan-ket.Lately,lowmoorpeatsarerecognizedincontrastto

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highmoorpeats(Driessen,1978,2001).Theformerisusu-ally foundmore indelta,marine,andfluvial regions,and is considered topogenous, which is explained byAndriesse(1998)aspeataffectedbyhydrotopographyorbytheactionofthegroundwaterlevel.Thesecondtype,calledhighmoorpeat,isombrogenousorpeatformedbytheactionofrainwateronly.Thistypeofpeatisfoundintheuplands,thoughDriessenaddedthatinlowlandareas the ombrogenous type could also form on topof topogenouspeat. It seems, therefore, that the lattertypeofpeat is related tobasinand theombrogenousone to blanket peat. The ombrogenous peat is calledombrophilouspeatbyAndriesse(1988),whoconsidersittobeoligotrophicoraveryacidicandnutrient-deficientpeat.Thetypeofwaterinvolvedintheformationofthistype ofpeat isnormally low in calcium, magnesium,andpotassiumcontents,whichproducespHvaluesof≤4.Thisisincontrasttotemperateregionpeats,calledreophilous peat by Andriesse, which is more eutrophic.For example, water entering peat swamps in Scandi-navia,ischaracterizedbypHvaluesbetween6and7becauseofenrichmentwithbasesandnutrientsleachedfromthesurroundinglands(MooreandBellamy,1974).Inbetweenrheophilousandombrophilous,Andriesserecognizestransitionalpeat,whichheconsidersmesotro-phic.Foramoredetaileddiscussionofthetypesofpeatabove,referenceismadetoMooreandBellamy(1974)andAndriesse(1988).

InIndonesia,peatsoilortanahgambutoccursexten-sively in thecoastal lowlands,andonly inPapuahassomehighlandormountainpeatbeendiscovered.Somebelievethatthepeatsoilisformedmoreinlandbehind

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themangrove swamps,butothershave reported thatpeat soil canexistnotonly in themangrovebutalsoin the coastal tidal swamps. The latter finds supportbytheexistenceinIndonesiaofpeatsoilswithoutandwithpyrite.Aswillbeexplainedinalatersection,thepyriteaswellasthetidaleffectoftheseacanproduceveryacidsoils.TheFAO-UN,bulletin59,placesthepeatsoilsofIndonesiainthegroupoftropicalpeats,definedasallorganicsoils in thewetlandsof the tropicsandsubtropicslyingwithinthenorthernandsouthernlati-tudesof35degrees, including thoseathighaltitudes(Andriesse, 1988).However, it shouldbe realized thatnot all the wetlands produce peat, since in Sumatra,West Kalimantan, and Indonesian Papua, large areasof freshwater wetlands are present in addition to thepeat-forming wetlands (Page, 2006). The use of theTropicalprefixintheterminologyofthisgroupofpeatsoil is deemed essential to distinguish Tropical peatfromTemperateRegionPeatbecauseofdifferencesinformationandcomposition.Theplantmaterialsinthetropical regions, and in particular in Indonesia, fromwhichthepeatsoilshaveoriginatedaremainlytrees.Intemperateregions,thevegetationforpeatformation,asindicatedearlier,ismainlysphagnum(Sphagnumsp.)andsedges(Cyperaceaesp.).

AccordingtotheSoilMapoftheSoilResearchInstituteof Indonesia (Figure1.2,page16), theacreageof tanahgambutis13,193,500ha,nexttooralmostequalingthe14millionhaofthelatosolsoroxisols.However,theFAO-UNBulletin59estimatedanacreageof17millionhaoftropicalpeatinIndonesia,secondtoCanadaandRussiawheretheextentisstatedtobe150millionhaineachof

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thecountries(Andriesse,1988).However,suchacompar-isonisperhapsinerror,becausetheverylargeacreagesinCanadaandRussiaaremostlikelycomposedofmix-turesoftemperateregionpeatsandothersoilshighinorganicmatter.Thetable,asamatteroffact,usesorganicsoilsasthetitle,whichhas,ofcourse,awidermeaningthantropicalpeatsoils.Thisgroupofpeatsoilswasrec-ognizedinIndonesiaonlyatthebeginningofthetwen-tiethcentury,afterthediscoverybyKoordersin1895ofextensivepeatareasinSumatra(Andriesse,1988;Polak,1950).ThegeneralconsensusbeforethattimewasthatpeatcannotexistorbeformedinthetropicalclimatesofIndonesia,favoringrapiddecompositionandminer-alizationoforganicmatter.Thisissuewillbeaddressedinmoredetailbelow.TodaythesoilshaveattractedalotofattentionforuseinincreasingcropproductionduetotheincreasingdemandforfoodtomeetthepopulationgrowthinIndonesia.


TanahgambutortropicalpeatofIndonesiaoriginatedfrom different kinds of materials than mineral soils(forexample,oxisols,ultisols,andthelike).Theparentmaterials are vegetative remains from the vegetationofthepeatswampforest.Thisvegetationthenequals,inessence,themeaningofa“parentrock”intermsofthegenesisofmineralsoil.Thedeadvegetativeresidue,definedaslitterinsoilsscience,isthentheparentmate-rialforpeatformation.Andriesse(1988)objectsinrelat-inglittertopeat,whichconfusestheconceptofpeatanditsformationevenfurther.Litterisindeednotequalto

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peat,butitistheparentmaterialforpeatformation,asindicatedabove.Thedecayedlitter,invariousdegreesofdecomposition,formsthepeatdeposits,whichdepend-ingonconditionscanbe50cmto1mthick.

Severalofthetheoriesindicatethatthepeatswampforest vegetation ordinarily develops on sedimentsdeposited at the inland edges of coastal mangroveswamps as rivers drain toward the coast (Andriesse,1988;Page,2006;Wikramanayakeetal.,2002).Theriversediments, trapped between the tangle of mangroveroots,areslowlybuildingup, formingapeat swamp.The latter is less subject to frequent flooding and isconsideredbymanyarain-fedswamp,whichisinsci-entific terms called ombrogenous. As indicated earlier,thevegetationofthepeatswampforestofIndonesiaiscomposedoftrees.Attheedgesofthepeatswampfor-est,thetreesareoftengrowingtall,withatreetrunkdiameterof50to80cmatheightsof1to2m.Movingtothecenteroftheswamp,theybecomegraduallysmallerandslender,usuallyexhibitingnarrowcrowns;hence,thenameofpoleforestisusedbyWikramanayakeetal.(2002)toidentifythispartoftheswampforest.Thesetrees often exhibit smaller trunks and basal areas,and because of these, the pole forest tends to have ahigherdensityoftrees.Itcoversthecentralpartoftheswampforestasadomeandisbelievedtofunctionasaspongeregulatingwaterinthepeatswamp.Mostofthetreesarenotendemic,andmanyoftheDipterocar-paceae plants from the neighboring tropical lowlandrainforestcanalsobefoundinthepeatswampforest.However,incomparisontothetropicalrainforest,thevarietyoftreespeciesisrelativelysmaller inthepeat

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swampforest(Wikramanayakeetal.,2002),whereasitscompositioninSumatraandKalimantanisreportedtobenotmuchdifferent.SomeofthemajorspeciesfoundinbothregionsarethetalltreesoftheShoreasp.,locallycalled pohon meranti (pohon means “tree”), Gonystylusbancanusorlocallyknownaspohongaru,andTristaniaobavataorsumatranaorpohonmulu.Thethreearecon-sideredasperhapsthemostvaluabletreesfortimber.Twopalm treeshavealsobeenmentioned (e.g.,Livis-tona hasseltii and Cyrtostachys lakka) as characterizingthepeatswampforestofIndonesiabyWikramanayakeand coworkers. In addition, the following trees havebeen reported growing in the peat regions: Plorariumalternifolium, belonging to the tea family and locallycalled pohon rengadean; Polyathia glauca or pohon karau;Stemonurus sp. or pohon batu item; and Radermacheragigantaeorpohontuwibatu.Allfourarefoundespeciallyon the east coast of Sumatra. From the swamp forestofKalimantan,thefollowingtreeshavebeenreported,although they may also grow in Sumatra: Cratoxylonglaucumorpohongeronggang;Calophyllumsp.,aferntree,calledpohonpaku;Combretocarpussp.orpohonteruntumbatu;Palaquiumsp.orpohonsemaram;andParastemonsp.orpohonmeriawak.

Destruction of the primary peat forest by natural,accidental,ordeliberatelysetforestfiresmaynotonlybeharmfultothelossofbiodiversityinplantandani-mal life, but may also result in regrowth with gelamvegetation, trees of the paper bark Melaleuca sp., orwithalang-alanggrass(Imperatacylindrical).Thesetypesof vegetation, often developing as monocultures, are

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difficult to control, and are considered to convert theareaspracticallyintowastelands.

�.�.�.� DecompositionoflitterandgenesisofpeatAccordingtoRussianauthoritiesinpeatformation,thelitterisgenerallysubjectedatfirsttodecompositionbyaerobicbiochemicalprocessesofmicroorganismspres-entinthesurfacelayersofthedepositsduringperiodsof lowsubsoilwater(Kurbatov,1968).Thedeeperlay-ersofthepeatformedbythis initialprocessarethenaffectedbyanaerobicprocesses.AccordingtoAndriesse(1988),thisformofpeatisaforestpeat,whichisessen-tiallynodifferentfromathicklitterdeposit.Incontrast,AndriessebelievesthatthetropicalpeatofIndonesia,mostly developing in swampy conditions, is affectedmorebyanaerobicprocesses,duetospecifichydroto-pographical conditions. This creates redox conditionswithasubstantialreductioninoxidationreactions,oftenreflectedbyhighsulfurandsodiumcontentsinthepeatdeposits.Thisprocessofpeatformationinwaterloggedor reduced conditions, called by Andriesse paludifica-tion, involvesaprimarypeat formationat thebottomofadepression,followedbyformationofasecondarypeatlayerontopofit,withatertiarypeatdepositabovethis.InthehumidtropicsandmonsoonregionsofIndo-nesia,withtheirhighevapotranspiration,formationofsecondary and tertiary layers of peats is consideredpossible only where the conditions are continuouslywet,suchasinthecoastallowlandsofSumatra,Kali-mantan,andWestPapua.Becausemanyscientistsalsoregardthepeatecosystemintheseregionsasombrog-enousorombrophilous,thewaterenteringthesystemis

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derived only from precipitation, as explained earlier.Andriesse(1988)believesthatthistypeofpeatiscom-parabletohighmoorpeat,whereastheeutrophiclowmoor peat is considered more uncommon for condi-tionsinIndonesia.

Peatswampsareconsideredbylocalpeatauthoritiesasgiantsponges,soakinguporadsorbinghugeamountsof water from rain or rivers to release it again partlyduringthedryseason.Inthisway,theyserveaswatercatchmentsthatareabletocontrolfloodsduringperi-odsofheavyrains.Theyalsoseemtoplayanimportantroleinbufferingcoastallandsfromtheharmfuleffectofsaltwaterfromthesea.Inaddition,thepeatswampsare believed to have a filtering effect, by which con-taminantsandpotentialpollutantsarefiltered,whichmaybeharmfulwhentheyreachthegroundwaterandwateroflakesandriversofthesurroundingareas.

�.�.� Climate

InthehumidtropicsandmonsoonregionsofIndone-sia,withtheirhightemperaturesandhighevapotrans-piration, formationofpeat ispossibleonlywhere theconditionsarecontinuouslywetduringtheyear.Suchconditionsappeartobepresentinthecoastallowlandsof Sumatra, Kalimantan, and West Papua. Togetherwiththetidaleffectofthesea,thiscombinationofcon-ditionsappearstobeidealforpromotingtheanaerobicecosystemneededintheaccumulationoflargedepositsofdecomposedandpartlydecomposedorganicmate-rial,calledtropicalpeat.ThedatainTable6.19,adaptedfrom rainfall data collected during a 30-year period

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Chaptersix: SoilsintheLowlandsofIndonesia ��Ta

ble

.6.1

9.T

heC

limat

eof

Tan

ahG

ambu

tor

Trop

ical

Pea

tAre

asin

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ones

iaA

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69071.indb 263 4/25/08 10:42:44 AM


from1971to2000fromrainstationslocatedclosetothepeatswampregions,areinsupportofthepresenceofyear-longwetconditions.Theonlyexceptionisperhapsthe area near Merauke, Papua, where a 6-month dryperiodhasbeenrecorded,alternatedbya6-monthwetseason.TheareasnearMedan,Pakanbaru,andPalem-banginSumatradonotexhibitmonthswithrainfalls>60 mm. Medan, located on the northeast coast ofSumatra,seemstobecharacterizedbyaclimatewith9rainymonthsof>100mmpermonth.Theremaining3monthsdonotqualifytobecalled“dry”(rainfall<60mm),becausetheamountofrainfallisbetween92and98mm/month, recorded inparticular for themonthsofFebruary,March,andApril,respectively.Thesameistrueforthe1monthof“drier”periodinPakanbaruandPalembang,respectively.Pakanbaru,situatedinthepeatareaofRiau(mideastcoastofSumatra),receivedon average 98 mm of rain during the month of June,whereasPalembang,inSouthSumatra,received81mmofraininthemonthofAugust.Therefore,theparticu-larmonthswith rainfalls<100mmcanpracticallybeconsideredaswetmonths.


AnexampleofatanahgambutprofileisprovidedbelowfromtheSilautpeatarea,locatedatthesouthernborderofWestSumatra,closetotheprovinceofBenkulu.Theareawas formerlyconsidered inhospitableandseem-ingly inaccessible, where health hazards discouragedlocal farmers from settling. However, the Silaut peat

69071.indb 264 4/25/08 10:42:44 AM


swamp was opened recently for the now terminatedtransmigration program of the Indonesian govern-mentinitsefforttorelievethestressinJava,duetoitsincreasinghighpopulationdensity,andalsotoincreasecropproductiontomeetthedemandformorefoodbythe growing population of Indonesia. The soil profiledescription was recorded by a team of scientists andprofessionalsfromtheUniversityofAndalas,Padang,underthe leadershipof Ir.DatukImban,pedologist-soilmorphologyandclassification.

ThepeatsoilintheSilautswampforestvariesfrom0.5to3mthick,whereasinsomeplacesitcanbemorethan3mthick.Thedeeperthepeatsoil,theless“attractive”orthemore“monotonous”thedescription,byshowingonlyOhorizons;hence,apeatprofileof1mthicknesswasselectedfortheexamplebelow,withthepurposetoalsoshowthemineralsoillayers.Inthecultivationofthesepeatsoils,itappearsthatthepresenceoradmix-ture with mineral soils proves to be of advantage bybeingmorefertilethanthepuredeeppeatdepositthatisoftenalsoveryacid.

ThepeatsoilprofileislocatedonflattopographyofthepeatswampofSilautatanelevationof3mabovesealevel.Theparentmaterialisdeadresiduefromthetreesgrowingintheswamp,showingcharacteristicsofapoleforest(seeFigure6.13).Theyarecomposedofthefollowingspecies:Parinariumsumatranum,locallycalledpohon batu or pohon kalek; Campnosperma microphyllumor auriculatum, locally called pohon terantang; and afewother trees thatwerenotdetermined.Theprofiledescriptionsareasfollows:

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Themineralpartsabove,C1,C2,andC3,areintegralpartsof thepeatsoilprofile.ThesymbolsCareusedinsteadofA,becausethesehorizonswereconsideredparentmaterials,thoughothersmayobjectandprefertheuseofthesymbolA.AccordingtoRussianconcepts,peat soils include thepeat layersand theupperhori-zonsofthemineralsoilunderneath.Theorganicandmineralhorizonsareconsideredtogetherasapedoge-netically homogenous soil profile, with a similar his-toryofdevelopment(Inisheva,2006).


Oa 0–74 10YR2/1,black,sapricpeat,satu-rated with water, nonsticky andnonplastic,abundantknee-roots.

Oe 74–87 10YR 3/2, very dark grayish-brown,hemicpeat,saturatedwithwater, nonsticky and nonplastic,noknee-roots.

C1 87–100 10YR5/4,yellowish-brown,sandyclayloam,massive,slightlysticky,nonplastic, saturated with water,noroots.

C2 100–132 5YR6/2,pinkish-gray,sandyclayloamtoclayloam,massive,slightlysticky, nonplastic, saturated withwater,noroots.

C3 132–169 10YR 4/3 dark brown to brown,sandy loam, massive, nonstickyand nonplastic, saturated withwater,noroots.

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Theclassificationofpeatsoilshasattractedspecialatten-tionincountriespossessinglargeareasofpeat lands,thoughmostofthemhaveplacedthesesoilstodayinthehistosolsorder.TheWorldReferenceBaseforSoilResources(WRB),developedbyaninternationaleffort

Figure 6.13 NativepeatswampforestatSilauttransmigra-tion area, showing the tall slender trees, characteristic of apoleforest.

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betweentheInternationalUnionofSoilScience(IUSS),theFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO),andtheInternational Soil Reference and Information Centre(ISRIC),hasclassifiedthemashistosols(FAO-UNESCO,1998).ThehistosolsorderwasintroducedbytheUSDA,SoilSurveydivisiontoreplacethenameoforganicsoilasdiscussedearlier.ThissoilorderwaslateradaptedbytheFAOsystem,which,incontrasttotheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,includesafolichorizonasdiagnosticforhis-tosols.FordefinitionsandcriteriaofboththeFAOandU.S.SoilTaxonomy,referenceismadetoFAO-UNESCO(1998),Driessen(2002),andSoilSurveyStaff(2006a).Asalwaysinscience,exceptionsseemtobepresenttotheabove.Forthepurposeofmakingtheissuesomewhatmorecomplete,butnottoolongwinded,twooftheclas-sificationsystemsonpeatsoilsdeviatingfromtheabovewillbementionedbelow.

TheCanadiansoilclassificationsystemhasprovideddifferentversionsofclassificationofpeatsoils,withoneplacingthemintheorderoforganicsoils,dividedintofibric,mesic,andhumicsuborders,whereasthesecondversionhasplacedpeatsoilsunderthewetlandsgroup.Thewetlandclasses,bogs,fens,swamps,marshes,andshallow waters all contain peat. However, the bogsandfensare, inessence,composedofdense layersofpeats.Thebogtypesofpeatsaretheoligotrophictypes,whereasthefentypesofpeatsarethemoreeutrophictypes (CWS,2006).Anotherexception is found in theAustralianSoilClassificationsystem,whichplacedpeatsoilsasorganosols(CSIRO-ACLEP,2006).

Andriesse (1988) made suggestions for a classifica-tion scheme of peat soils on the basis of topography,

69071.indb 268 4/25/08 10:42:46 AM


surface vegetation, chemical properties, botanical ori-gin, physical properties, and genetic properties. It isperhaps a grand idea, if more details have been pro-vided instead of only a very sketchy idea. Moreover,onlyplainnameshavebeenpresented—norealclassifi-cationsystemwasoutlined.Thesixbasicfactorsabovealsohave tobestreamlinedproperly,becausesurfacevegetation and botanical origin seem to be the same.Sedge,heath,andsphagnumaresurfacevegetationbutcanalsobeconsideredbotanicalorigin.TheexamplesofTemperateRegionandTropicalPeats for classifica-tion under genetic properties appear to indicate thatperhaps“geneticproperties”shouldbemoreappropri-atelychangedinto“climaticproperties.”

In Indonesia, the soils are called tanah gambut orpeatsoil,asstatedearlier.ButsincetheIndonesianSoilResearchInstitutehasadaptedtheU.S.SoilTaxonomyasthebasisforsoilclassification,thesesoilshavebeenplacedinthehistosolsorder.TheU.S.systemrecognizesfoursuborders—folists,fibrists,hemists,andsaprists—thoughnofolichorizonorfolicmaterialisrecognizedasisthecaseintheFAO-UNsystem.Thecharacteristicsofthefoursubordersemphasizethecontentsofsphag-numfibersonlyandtheirdegreeofdecomposition.Peatsoil in Indonesia has been derived from trees and isonereasonwhyAndriesse(1988)preferstocallittropi-calpeat,whichheconsidersdifferent fromtemperateregionpeatderivedfromsphagnum,hedges,andheathvegetation.Nevertheless,theauthoritiesattheUniver-sityofAndalas,Padang,placedthesoilprofiledescribedaboveasatroposaprist.Thetropiprefix,fromtropic,isperhapsmorewarrantedandwouldbeacceptedmore

69071.indb 269 4/25/08 10:42:46 AM


favorably by U.S. soil taxonomists due to their habitofusingthevowel“i”(forexample,andisolinsteadofandosol).JudgingfromtherapiddecompositionrateinthehumidtropicsofIndonesia,mostofthepeatsoilsinIndonesiaareexpectedtobetropisaprists.


�.�.�.� AcidityofpeatThedatainTable6.20showthetanahgambutortropi-calpeat soilofSilaut toexhibitpHvaluesof3.2,andsimilar pH values are detected in the mineral parts(C1,C2,andC3)of thesoilprofileunderneath.Thesestrongly acidic reactions have always been used byalmostallpeatauthoritiesforconsideringthistypeoftropicalpeatasoligotrophicorombrophilousinnature.Thescientistsbelievethatthepoorconditionwascre-atedbythewaterenteringthepeatdeposits.However,rainwater,thoughindeeddeficientinbases,exhibitspH


Org. C %

N %

Profile Horizon

50–2 <2 µ

pHH2O

Oa

Oe

C1

C2

C3

—

—

54.0

45.0

79.0

—

—

21.0

22.0

11.0

—

—

25.0

33.0

10.0

3.2

3.2

3.6

4.4

3.5

59.7

51.4

2.3

1.3

1.4

4.03

3.26

0.19

0.12

0.13

15

16

12

11

11

>50 µ

C N

Table.6.20. PhysiochemicalCharacteristicsoftheSilautTanahGambut

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valuesbetween6and7,andonlyinveryfewexceptions(e.g.,acidrain)willitspHbe≤4.Intheauthor’sopinion,humicacidsmayhavesomeeffect,butitistheanaero-bicdecompositionoforganicmatterandthepresenceofpyritethatproducetheextremelyacidicconditionsandpoornutrientstatus.Thesewillbeexplainedbelow.

Andriesse(1988)reportedthatmostpeatinIndone-siamaycontainhighamountsofsulfurbecauseofitsformation in anaerobic environments due to the spe-cific hydrotopographic conditions. In such anaerobicecosystems,sulfurbacteriaarecapableofusingoxygenfromsulfatesfordecompositionoforganicmatter.Theanaerobicreactioncanbeillustratedasfollows:

2CH2O+SO42–+2H+→H2S+2CO2+2H2O (6.1)

Formation of H2S is common in swamps and mayespeciallyoccurintidalswampareasaffectedbysea-water, such as in mangrove swamps. Seawater con-tainshighamountsofsulfates,whichareretainedbythecoastalsedimentsorthesoil.Duringitsformationonthefringesofmangroveswamps,theombrogenouspeatinIndonesiahasapparentlypushedthemangroveswampforesttomovemoretowardthecoast.Itwasthemangroveforestecosystemthatshiftedinthedirectionof thesea,butnot thesoil,whichwas, infact,gradu-allycoveredbyablanketofpeat.Thesulfatesfromthesea,originallyadsorbedbythesedimentsunderneaththepeat,arepermeatingupwardtobemixedwiththeOhorizonsabove.Theyareusedforbio-oxidationandconvertedintoH2SasshownbyEquation6.1.Whenthishydrogensulfideisallowedtoaccumulate,itisnotonly

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toxictomanysoilorganisms,butitalsocreatespollu-tionproblems.Fortunately,agroupofbacteria isalsopresent insoils thatarecapableofoxidizingH2Sintosulfurandthissulfurintosulfuricacid.Thereactionscanbewrittenasfollows:

2H2S+O2→2S+2H2O (6.2)

2S+2H2O+O2→2H2SO4 (6.3)

Thesulfuricacidformedisthenthereasonfordevelop-mentoftheextremelyacidicconditions.Thesoilswiththesestronglyacidreactionsaresometimescalledcat-claysoracidsulfatesoils.

Someof thepeatsoils in Indonesiaarealsoknowntocontainpyrite,especiallythosethathavedevelopedoverthemangrovesoils,whenthesetidalswampeco-systemsshiftedtowardthecoastduetoencroachmentofpeatasexplainedabove.Themineralsedimentsunder-neath thepeat contain thepyrites, andmanyauthorshaveconfusedthisbystatingthepresenceofpyritesinpeatorbyclaimingthattheombrogenouspeatinIndo-nesiawasalsoformedinmangroveswamps(Kyuma,2003;VandenEelaart,2004).Hence,shallow(thin)peatsoilsareexpectedtobecontaminatedmorewithpyritethanthethick,deep,peatsoils.Thelattermayperhapsbevirtuallyfreeofpyriteintheirupperorganichori-zons.Pyrite,Fe2S,isamineralthatuponbio-oxidationcanproducesulfuricacid,ascanbenoticedfromthereactionbelow:

Fe2S+2H2O+O2→2Fe2++4H++4SO42– (6.4)

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�.�.�.� NutrientstatusofpeatThelowpHvaluesoftheSilautpeatcorrespondcloselywiththelowbasesaturationandtheconcentrationofexchangeablebasesdetectedintheprofile(Table6.21).However,thenitrogencontentisrelativelyhigh.Percent-agesofnitrogen,intherangeof3.0to4.0%(Table6.20),arewithintherangeof0.3to4.0%asreportedfornitro-gencontentofpeatsoilsworldwide.Thecontentof4.0%NintheOahorizonoftheSilautprofileistwiceashighasthe1.98%NreportedbySuhardjoandWidjaja-Adhi(1977)fortheirtropicalpeatofRiau,EastSumatra.ThehighnitrogencontentoftheSilautpeatsoilisexpectedtobemorethanadequateforcropproductionandthe

Exchangeable Bases HClExtractableBase

Sat. CEC

P2O5 K2O

Bray P

Oa

Oe

C1

C2

C3

2.1

2.3

2.9

2.4

2.1

1.2

1.3

1.7

2.0

1.7

0.11

0.07

0.07

0.07

0.07

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

9.0

8.0

14.0

12.0

14.0

40.5

55.8

32.8

38.1

28.5

13.0

3.0

2.0

2.0

2.0

8.0

5.0

5.0

8.0

8.0

56.0

13.0

11.0

11.0

11.0

Ca Mg K Na

Table.6.21. ExchangeableBases,BaseSaturation,Cation-ExchangeCapacity(CEC),HCl-ExtractablePhosphorus(P)andPotassium(K),andBray-PContentsofSilautTanahGambut

Notes: Exchangebases,basesaturation,andCECincmol/kg;HClextractablesinmg/100g;BrayPinppm.

Source:ChemicalAnalysesbySoilsLaboratory,UniversityofAnda-las.(DataprovidedbyIr.DatukImbang.)

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growthofmostplants.Mollisols, thebestsoils in theworldforagriculture,exhibitnitrogencontents in therange of only 0.07 to 0.30% (Brady, 1990). Andriesse(1988)isoftheopinionthatsuchahighnitrogencontentisinconsistentwiththeoligotrophicnatureofIndone-sianpeatsoilsandsubmittedthetheoryofHardonandPolak(1941)asanexplanation.Thelatterauthorssug-gestedthatduringthedecompositionofcelluloseandlignin plus other nitrogen-containing substances, thecellulosepartisperhapsdestroyedveryrapidly,leavingtheotherorganicsandtheirnitrogentoaccumulate.

The phosphorus concentration, detected in the OahorizonoftheSilautpeat,intheamountof13mg/100g = 0.013% P2O5, compares favorably with the rangeofphosphorus concentration reported forpeatworld-wide.Totalphosphorus levelsofoligotrophicpeatsofSarawakwerealsointherangeof0.004to0.01%.Theavailable phosphorus content, extracted by the Bray-1method,of56ppmdetectedintheOahorizon,isveryhigh considering the fact that concentrations of ≥30ppmarehighbyBray-1soil-Ptestranking,whereasarangeof16 to30ppmis rankedmedium(Tan,2005).ThoughAndriesse(1988)claimsthatthehighphospho-rus levels canbeexplainedagain similarlyas for thehighnitrogencontentsabove,thisstilldoesnotexplainwhythehighnitrogenandphosphoruscontentsareatoddswiththeoligotrophicconcept.Thehighconcentra-tionscanindeedbeexplainedbythetheoryofHardonandPolak(1941),buttheystillsuggestamoreeutrophicnatureoftheseombrogenictropicalpeats.Thereasonforapoornutrientmediumofthistropicalpeatshouldbefoundsomewhereelse,perhapsintoxicityproblems,

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dueespeciallytohighaluminumcontents.Thiswillbethetopicofthenextsection.

�.�.�.� AluminumcontentsinpeatThe exchange acidity and aluminum concentrations,extractedby1NKC1,areveryhigh(datanotshown).Thealuminumcontentinparticular,determinedintheOahorizon,of448.2ppmisextremelyhigh.Thiscon-tentincreasesinOeandC1horizonsto494.1and666.9ppm,respectively,todecreaseagainsomewhatintheC2andC3horizonsto596.7and385.2ppm,respectively.However,thelatterfiguresarestilltoohighforgrow-ingcropsandplants.Evenwiththepresenceofhumicacidsinthepeat,theextremelyhighconcentrationsofaluminumareexpectedtobedeadlyfornormalplantgrowth.Aluminumtoxicityhasbeenreportedtooccuratconcentrationsaslowas50ppmAl(Foyetal.,1978;TanandBinger,1986).

�.�.�.� CarboncontentsandCorgsequestrationbypeat

TheorganiccarboncontentsoftheSilautpeatareveryhigh (Table6.20) and confirm the importance of peatdeposits in sequestration of organic carbon. Seques-trationoforganiccarbon isavery important issue inlightofmitigatingglobalwarmingbycontrolling theemissionofCO2intotheatmosphere.PeatbogsoftheCanadian Wetland Classification Center (CWS, 2006),fittingthedefinitionofoligotrophicpeatliketheSilautpeat,areconsideredtocontainmorecarbonthanalltheotherpeatlandsoftheworld.

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Andriesse (1988) believes that Corg is perhaps themost important property, due to the consideration inmanycountriesoftheuseofpeatasasourceoffuelandbecauseofproblemsarisingduetocultivation.Fibristwas reportedbyAndriesse tocontain48 to50%Corg,mesic peat (which corresponds to hemist) 53 to 54%,andsaprist58to60%organiccarbon.TheCorgcontentofthesapristofSilautis59.6%,whichisinagreementwithAndriesse’sdata.

�.�.�.�.� Redoxpotentialofpeat. Fororganiccarbontobeabletoaccumulateaspeatinthehumidtropics,where oxidation is generally the rule, the productionofbiomassmustbegreaterthanthedecompositionofthisorganicmatter,asindicatedbyAndriesse(1988).Inanaerobicsystems,thisbalancebetweenaccumulationanddecompositionisinfluencedbyacomplexsystemofredoxreactions.Sucharedoxsystemisusuallysim-plifiedinthefollowingequationbelow(Tan,1998):

Eh=E0+(RT/zF)ln(oxidation/reduction) (6.5)

inwhichEhistheredoxpotential,E0istheelectrochem-icalpotentialatstandardstate,Risthegasconstant,TisthetemperatureinKelvin,zisvalence,andFistheFaradayconstant.

Thevalueoftheredoxpotential,Eh,determinestheaccumulationordestructionoforganicmatterandtheformationofpeat.WhenEhincreasesinvalue,itisclearfromtheequationthatoxidationprocessesaregreaterthanreduction,andpeatwillbedestroyedbytheoxida-tionoftheorganicmatter.Thisgenerallyhappenswhen

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aerationisimproveduponcultivationofpeatlands,andtheenhancedlossoforganicmatterwillresultinwhatis called “subsidence.” The redox potential also con-trolsthesolubilityofmanynutrients.AtlowEhvalues,reductionprocessesprevail,andasarulemetalcations,such as the micronutrient elements, are then presentin their reducedstate inwhich theyaremoresolublethanintheiroxidizedstate.Forexample,Fe(II)orFe2+ismoresolublethanFe(III)orFe3+ions.Nitrogenwillalsobepresentintheammoniumform,NH4

+,ratherthaninthenitrateform,NO3

–.However,Andriesse(1988)indi-catesthatnexttoorganic-N,thenitrogenispresentasnitrate-N.BecauseNO3

–istheoxidizedformofN,thismayraisemanyquestionsduetotheanaerobic(reduc-tion)environmentandstronglyacidconditionsprevail-inginthepeatsoils.Theauthoraboveaddedthatwithincreasing age in development, the nitrogen contentincreasedinamounts,buthisexplanationsfailedtojus-tifyhiscontention,andhisexplanationsseemtoraisemorequestions.

�.�.�.� PhysicalpropertiesThemostimportantphysicalpropertiesrelatedtoissuesofwaterconditionsinanaerobicsystemsoftropicalpeatsoilsinIndonesiawillbediscussedbelow,forexample,bulkdensity,water-holdingcapacityormoisturereten-tion, and available water content. The others, texture,structure,porespaces,andswelling–shrinking,arealsoimportantparametersbutareratherdifficulttoassoci-atewithpeatsoils.Forexample,soiltexture,ofsignif-icance in mineral soils (oxisols and ultisols), is basedonthepresenceorrelativeconcentrationsofsand,silt,

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andclay,mineralparticles thatshouldnotbepresentinsubstantialamountsintruepeatsoils.Itseemsthatmostofthepeatscientistsconfusethiswithplasticity,which is also exhibited to some degree by peat soils.Theconceptsanddefinitionsofthephysicalpropertiesabove have been developed for mineral soils, whichare generally aerobic soil systems. Therefore, the useof physical properties for aerobic soil systems shouldbeusedwithcautioninanaerobicsoilsandhavetobeinterpretedverydifferently.

�.�.�.�.� Bulk density. In Basic Soil Science, abulk density value of ≤0.5 g/cc characterizes in gen-eral organic soils (Brady, 1990). The official unit forbulk density in the United States is Mg/m3, which isan awful unit, because in laboratory determinations,thesamplesaremeasuredingramsandcc,andnotinMg or tons and cubic meters (Tan, 2005). FortunatelyMg/m3=g/cc,andhencethelatterwillbeusedinthisbook.Bulkdensityvaluesoftropicalpeatarereportedtobeconsiderablysmallerthantheaboveandaregen-erallyintherangeof0.12to0.09g/cc(Andriesse,1974).Theavailabledataalsosuggestthatthesevaluestendtobehigherforthesurfaceandsomewhatlowerinthesublayersofthepeatprofile.Thismaywellindicatethatbulkdensity increaseswith increaseddecomposition,becausetheorganicmatterinthepeatsurfaceisusuallyinamoreadvancedstageofdecomposition than thatlocated in the deeper layers. This observation is sup-portedbyresultsofbulkdensityanalysesofKaliman-tantropicalpeatbyDriessenandRochimah(1976),whoreportedaKalimantanfibristtoexhibitabulkdensity

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of ≤0.1 g/cc, as opposed to 0.2 g/cc for a Kalimantansaprist. Inaddition to theabove, cultivationhasbeennotedtoincreasethebulkdensityofpeatsoils,provid-ing more support to the contention of decompositionraising the bulk density of peat soils. A bulk densityvalueof0.35g/ccwasreportedbyAndriesse(1988)forthe0-to15-cmlayerofcultivatedpeatsoilattheAgri-culturalResearchandEducationCenter,UniversityofFlorida,BelleGlade,whereasthisvaluewas0.18g/ccat45to60cmdepth.However,higherbulkdensityval-ues insurface layersare insharpcontrastwith thosenoted in mineral soils, where compaction of the sub-soilalwaysproducedhigherbulkdensityvaluesinthedeeperlayers.Thisraisesmanyquestions,becausethedeeperpeatlayersarealsosubjectedtogreatercompac-tionthanthoseonthesurface.

Theextremelylowbulkdensityvaluesarenotcom-parablewiththoseexhibitedbymineralsoils,andtheymust be interpreted in a different way. Bulk densityvaluesofmineralsoilsintherangeof1to1.5g/ccareindicativeofthepresenceoffavorable,ifnotexcellent,physical conditions, with lots of pore space, for plantgrowth.Higherbulkdensityvalues,1.8to2g/cc,indi-cate poor physical conditions and lower amounts ofporespaces.Generally,sandysoilsexhibithigherbulkdensitiesthanfiner-texturedsoils.Thecoarse-texturedsoilsarecomparativelylowerintotalporespacesthanthefine-texturedsoils.Bulkdensitygenerallyincreaseswithdepthinthesoilprofilebecauseoflowerorganicmattercontent,lessaggregation,andmorecompaction.Compaction destroys pore spaces, forcing solid parti-clesintothepores.Plowingandtillageoperationsare

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usually designed to restore and increase pore spacesanddecreasebulkdensity.However,thetractortracksproducecompactionandincreasebulkdensity.Becausethisconceptofbulkdensityanditsanalysishavebeendeveloped for mineral soils, perhaps new definitionsandnewmethodsareneededfororganicsoilsand,inparticular,forpeatsoils.

�.�.�.�.� Water retention. Theconcept inmineralsoilsisthatwaterisheldintheporespacesbydifferentforcesofattractionexertedbythesoilmatrix,theelectri-calchargesofions,andsurfacetensioninthecapillar-ies.Forspecificdetails,referenceismadetoTan(2000).This water held in soils constitutes the reserve watersupplyforplantusebetweenadditionsofwaterbyrainorirrigation.Theforces,expressedintermsofenergylevels, suchasmatric (ψm),osmotic (ψo), andpressure(ψp)potentials,arecollectivelycalledthewaterpotential(ψw),whichisusuallydefinedasfollows:

ψw=ψm+ψo+ψp (6.6)

Thewaterpotential(ψw)hasanegativevaluebecausethe matric and osmotic forces reduce the free energylevelsoilwater.Insimpleterms,soilwaterheldbythesoil matrix and solutes cannot move freely. Also, thelargerthenegativevalueofψw,thesmallertheamountofwaterpresentinsoils.However,thiswaterpotentialcanalsobeexpressedintermsofpositivevalues.Thelatterthenrepresenttheoppositeforce,orsuctionforce,which is referred to as soil moisture tension. The ten-sionforcecanbeexpressedinvariousways, interms

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ofpounds/squareinch,centimeters(cm)ofwater,cen-timeters (cm) of mercury (Hg), atmospheres, bars, orpF. The units cm of water, bars, and pF are the mostcommonunitsusedinsoilscience.Fordetails,seeTan(2000). Based on the relative degree of soil moisturetension,soilmoisturecanbeclassifiedphysicallyintofree water, water held between pF 0 and 2.64; capil-larywater,waterheldatpF2.45to4.5(orbetweenfieldcapacityandhygroscopiccoefficient);andhygroscopicwater,waterheldatpF≥4.5.

Andriesse (1988) distinguishes three types of waterto be present in peat soils: physically and chemicallybound water, capillary and film water, and immobi-lizedwater.Fromhisdescriptions,chemicallybound,capillary,andfilmwaterareapproximatelywaterheldby matric and osmotic forces, whereas his physicallyboundandimmobilizedwateraremorelikelythefreewaterheldatpF0 to2.64.Andriesseclaims that rawpeat may contain 200 to 500% of immobilized waterandperhaps250to400%ofcapillarywater.

According to the biological classification, that partof water available to plants, called traditionally avail-able water, is defined as water held between the fieldcapacityandwiltingpointorbetweenpF2.45andpF4.2.Unfortunately,thedefinitionandlimitsofpFval-uesabovehavebeendeveloped formineral soilsandappearnottoapplyforpeatsoils.Theconceptofavail-ablewatermustbeinterpretedorneedtoberedefineddifferently for tropical peats, because the amount ofwateratfieldcapacity (pF=2.45) isoften too lowforgrowingplants inpeat soils.Peat soilsareoftencon-sideredasgiantsponges,capableofsoakingupwater

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inamountsfargreaterthanoxisols,ultisols,andothermineralsoils(DriessenandRochimah,1976).Theyarepracticallystilldryforgrowingplantsatwaterlevels,heldbythesoilmoisturetensionsdesignedaboveformineralsoils.


�.�.�.� EvaluationofanalyticalpropertiesFromthediscussionsabove,itappearsthatthetropicalpeatsoilsofIndonesiaaremorethanadequatelysup-pliedwithnitrogenandphosphorus forcropproduc-tion.Asexplainedearlier,thenitrogencontents,intherangeof3to4%,areveryhighandcomparemorethanfavorablywiththoseinmollisolsandandosols,mineralsoilsoftenconsideredthemostfertilesoilsintheworld.Thephosphorusconcentration,asextractedbytheBraymethod,alsocomparesfavorablywiththatofmollisolsand andosols. A value of ≥50 ppm is well above thehighestlimitforsoil-Pcontent,asdeterminedbysoil-Ptestrankingforplantgrowth.

Thesoilreaction,aluminumcontent,waterretention,and several other physical properties make cultiva-tionofthetropicalpeatsofIndonesiaverydifficult,ifnota“nightmare.”Duetothefactthatthesesoilsareanaerobicsystems,largeamountsofH2Sandpyritecanbeproduced,whichuponoxidationareconvertedintosulfuric acid yielding the very low pH levels, almostprohibitiveforgrowingcrops.Thealuminumcontents,extractable by KCL, are so high that they will mostlikely prevent adequate crop production by creatingseverealuminumtoxicityproblems.Thewatercontent

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andproblemsofwaterretentioncompoundtheissuesabove by making the conditions far worse for grow-ing crops. The soils contain water in amounts morethanmineralsoilscanretain,butatfieldcapacity(pF=2.45),theamountofwaterthatbydefinitionispres-entinmaximumamountsforplantgrowthistoolow.Andriesse (1988) has reported that sprinkle irrigationisoftenrequiredtosupplyenoughadditionalwaterforvegetablegardeningonpeatsoilsinBrazil,thoughthegroundwaterlevelisonlyatadepthof30cm.Thisisalso thecase in theSilautpeat soils.Allof theabovesuggests the presence ofgreatdifferences in the con-ceptsofwaterretention,capillaryactions,andavailablewatercontentsbetweenmineralsoilsandpeatsoils.Theextremelylowbulkdensitymayalsocauseproblemsingrowing treecrops.Treesare topheavy,andbecausethebulkdensityofpeatsoilsistoolowforprovidingthem with adequate support, they tend to lodge. Thetreeswilleventuallytrygrowingupwardagain,creat-ingthecrookedtreesoftenseengrowingincultivatedpeatsoils.

�.�.�.� SignificanceofbasicpropertiesTocontrolthestronglyacidreactionsandthehighalu-minum contents, liming is one way, and perhaps theonly way, to create a suitable peat soil medium forcropproduction.However, theamountsof lime tobeapplieddependnotonlyonthecropstobegrownbutalsoonthetypeofpeat landandon,especially, localeconomicconsiderations.InIndonesiathelatterisoftenthedetermining,ifnotalimiting,factor,becauselimingmaterialsareexpensiveformostofthefarmers.Local

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experimentaltrialsaresuggestedtobeconductedfirstforthedeterminationofthecorrectlimerequirementsofeachpeatlandbeforecultivation,asalsopointedoutby Andriesse (1988). Andriesse believes that the lim-ingoftropicalpeattoapHof5.2isharmfulduetoadecrease in phosphorus and calcium uptake. Resultsfrom experiments on peat soils in Sarawak, whichneighbororextendtothepeatlandsofSouthwestKali-mantan, Indonesia,haveshownthat limingtopH4.6producedthebestresultsincorn,peanut,andcassavayields(TieandKueh,1979).TieandKuehindicatedthatwithsomecrops(e.g.,pineapples),nolimingisneces-saryifthepeatsoilhasapH=4.0orabove.OnlyatsoilpH≤3.5,aone-timeapplicationof5 t/haofdolomiticlimestone was suggested with an additional 1.3 t/haannuallyforthepurposeofmaintainingthesoilpHatthedesiredlevel.Thechoiceforusingdolomiticlime-stone,CaMg(CO3)2,raisesmanyquestions,becausethislimingmaterialisknownnottoaffectsoilpHbutwillinsteadsupplycalciumandmagnesium.AccordingtoBasicSoilScience,calciticlimestone,CaCO3,isthemate-rialthatgenerallywillraisethepHofacidsoils.

Excesswaterneedstoberemovedtoalevelsuitableforgrowingcrops,requiringaerobicsoilmedia.How-ever, draining the soils by building drainage canals,as is often done in most peat lands, may raise morequestionsratherthansolvetheproblem.IntheUnitedStates, the peat soils are drained at various depths,and for some crops these soils are even drained to adepth of 90 cm (Andriesse, 1988; Lucas, 1982). Drain-ing peat soils too deep (for example, by lowering thewater table to a depth of 60 cm) is a disadvantage to

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cropyields,andawatertabledepthof40cmisnotedtoproducethebestresultsintheyieldsofcorn,potatoes,andonioncrops(Lucas,1982).Deepdrainage,definedasdrainingtoadepthof60cm,mayencouragerapiddecompositionoforganicmatter,initiatingtheprocessofsubsidence.Moreover,thetoppeatlayercanbecometoo“dry”formostplantsthanwouldbeexpectedevenwithagroundwaterlevelatadepthof30cm,asnotedindrainedpeatsoilsatSilaut(Figure6.14).Asindicated

Gambut

––35

cm––

Figure 6.14 AwellintheSilautgambutortropicalpeatsoil,WestSumatra,showingagroundwaterlevelat30cmdepthbelowthesurface.

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earlier, Andriesse (1988) reported that in such cases,sprinklerirrigationwasneededtokeepthewatersup-plysufficientlyhighforvegetablecrops.

Thelowbulkdensityvaluesraisealotofproblemsinlodgingoftreecrops,becausealooseandfluffyphysi-calconditionfailstoprovideasturdyandsolidfounda-tionforrootstoanchorthetop-heavytree.Innature,thevegetationseems tocopewith thisphysicalconditionbygrowingintoa“polevegetation,”asexplainedear-lier.Perhapsthiscanbesimulatedincultivationoftreecropsbydecreasingtheplantspacings.Itistruethattheyieldmaybedecreased,butabalancecanbefoundbyexperimentationsbetweenthelowestdecreaseinyieldsanddecreasedplantspacings.Todecreasethehazardoflodgingevenfurther,themethodabovecanperhapsbecombined with the “hole-in-hole” cultivation methodoftendone in thepeat landsofSarawak,Malaysia.Alargeholeof1mdepthand40cmwideisdug,andatthebottomof thispitanother smallerhole isdug forplantingthetreecrop(e.g.,coconutoroilpalms).

�.�.�.� AgriculturaloperationsIntheUnitedStates,themajorpeatlandsarelocatedinFloridaandintheregionoftheGreatLakes.Duetodif-ferentclimaticconditions,differentagriculturalopera-tionsarenoticedbetweenthetworegions.InFlorida,whereitiswarmerandhumid,horticulturalcropsaregrown,suchastomatoes,beans,andcucumbers,mostlyduring the winter for supplying the northern stateswithneededvegetablesduringthecoldmonths.Inthenorthernregion,neartheGreatLakes,peatsoilsarecul-tivatedinthesummermainlyforcutflowersandbulbs

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(forexample,tulipsandnarcissusordaffodils)andforgrowingIrishpotatoes.Thestronglyacidconditionsofthepeatsoilsseemtobeverybeneficialincontrollingthepotatoscabdisease.

InIndonesia,thecultivationofpeatsoilsisquitedif-ferentandcontrastingthanthatintheUnitedStates.Thepeatforesthastobeclearedandmostofthevaluabletimberremovedfor localuseor forsale.Theremain-ingvegetativeresiduesareusuallyburnedtoclearthesoils for cultivation. When carelessly conducted, thisoftenresultsinforestwildfires,asexperiencedinIndo-nesiain1997untilthepresentday,explodingoftenintoreal infernos with thick black toxic smoke, hoveringdangerously over Indonesia to neighboring MalaysiaandwhichcanbefeltasfarasThailand.Whengrow-ing aerobic crops, excess water has to be drained, aprocess that also spellsdisaster.Asdiscussedearlier,peatsoilactslikeasponge,soakinguphugeamountsof water from rain and rivers. As a sponge, one justneedstosqueezeonepointofthespongetoforcealltheadsorbedwaterout,meaningthatasinglecanalhasthepotentialtodrainalargeareaofthepeatland.Oncethepeatsoilisdried,oxidationoforganicmatterstartsatarapidrate,causingsubsidenceorevendestructionofthepeatlands.However,duetothestresscausedbytheincreasingpopulationdensityandtheneedforincreas-ing foodproduction, thepeat lands in Indonesiawillbecultivated.AspointedoutbyVandenEelaart(2004),todayitisnotaquestionforarguingagainstreclama-tionofpeatsoils,butitisnowmoreanissueinprovid-ingtheknow-howformanagingwiselythesevaluablenaturalresources.

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PeatlandsinIndonesiaareusedforplantingoilpalmandrubberoften in the formofhugeplantationagri-culturaloperations.Thelocalfarmers,usuallysettlersfrom the transmigration programs of the Indonesiangovernment, are growing rice, corn, cassava, pepper,andotherfoodcrops.InRiau,EastSumatra,pineapplesare grown, whereas the peat soil in West Sumatra isoftencultivatedwithsmallbushytypesoffernplants,whoseyoungshootsareedibleandsoldtolocalrestau-rants intheregion. Itappearsthatsimilarediblefernshoots,fromfernplantsgrowingonAlaskapeat,havealsobeenservedbyrestaurantsinAlaskaashealthanddelicatessenfood.

�.�.�.�.� Rice cultivation. As usual, the farmersin Indonesia prefer growing rice whenever possible.Dependingonthewatersupply,twotypesofricecul-tivation are conducted: lowland rice and upland rice.Suchapreferenceandtypesofcultivarsavailabletodaywere addressed earlier in the sections of ultisols andoxisols.However,inthecaseofgrowingriceontropicalpeatsoils,thecultivationoflowlandriceseemstobethebest,duetotheinundationmethod,creatingorperpet-uatingtheanaerobicconditionsneededinthepaddy-sawahs.Accordingtobasicsoilchemistry,reclamationofpeatwillbemostsuccessfulwhen thebalancecanbemaintainedbetweendecompositionandaccumula-tionoforganicmatterunderanaerobicconditions,andbytheuseofcropstoleranttolowredoxpotentialsandstrongly acidic reactions. Lowland rice is expected todisturbthebalanceintheredoxreactionstheleast.How-ever,remediationofhighsoilacidityandtoxiclevelsof

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ironarenecessary,whichisoftensuggestedbylimingand by leaching and draining methods using pump-ing stations as applied in the Dutch polders systems.Alltheseare,ofcourse,verycostly.Ontheotherhand,growinguplandricewillincreasetheredoxpotential,whichmayacceleratedecompositionoforganicmatter.Inaddition,uplandriceismoresusceptibletothehighironcontentofmostpeatsoilsinIndonesia.AscanbenoticedinFigure6.15,padigogoorpadihuma(uplandrice)intheUniversityofAndalasexperimentalfieldofSilautpeatsoilfailedtoproduceduetoseverealumi-numtoxicityproblems.Althoughsagoplants(Metroxy-lonspp.)areknowntobeveryadaptabletogrowingatlowredoxpotentials,sagoasafoodcropseemsnottobeacceptedwellbymostpeopleinIndonesia.Asstatedabove,atypeofediblefernbushisplantedextensivelyinthepeatsoilsofWestSumatra.Fernplantsareveryadaptableforgrowinginreducedconditionsandwilltolerateverylowredoxpotentials,stronglyacidicreac-tions,andhighironcontents.Allothercropsrequiringaerobic conditions for growth will increase the redoxpotentialandwillaffectthedecompositionoforganicmatter,resultinginincreasedsubsidenceandthegrad-ualdegradationofthepeatsoil.

�.�.�.�.� Estate crops Today we have to distin-guish between large- and smallholders’ estates. ThelargeestatesbelongtolargecompaniesortotheIndone-siangovernment,whereasthesmallestatesareownedbylocalfarmers.Thelatterservesordinarilyasasup-plierbygrowingthecropwiththepurposeofsellingthe raw yields to the large estates. The major estate

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crops,cultivatedontropicalpeatsoils,arerubberandoilpalms.Withthedeclineintheworldrubberdemand,oilpalmcultivationistodayontherise,anissuediscussed

Padi gogo (kering)Gambut Silaut

Figure 6.15 Top: Upland rice (padi gogo), grown on Silautgamutortropicalpeatsoil intheexperimentalfieldsof theUniversityofAndalas,Padang,WestSumatra,showingsignsofirontoxicity.Bottom:Corn(Zeamays)isdoingbetter.

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inmoredetailinthesectiononagriculturaloperationsofultisols(Section6.3.6.3.3).However,growingtreesinsoilswithextremely lowbulkdensityvalues,suchasintropicalpeats,hascreatedalotofproblems.Asindi-catedabove, thehazardsof lodgingandformationofcrooked trees isgreatly increased.Todealwith theseproblems,dwarfvarietiesofoilpalmtreeshavebeendeveloped,whichwerediscussedinmoredetailinSec-tion6.3.Theyoungplantsaretobeplantedinshallowpeatsoilswheneveravailable,wherethesurfaceOhori-zonislessthan1mthick.Thehole-in-holemethodofplantingmaybeanadvantage,becausethemineralsoil,closetothesurface,mayprovideopportunitiesforrootdevelopmentinamediumofhigherbulkdensity,andhencecansturdilyanchorthetreeabove.

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��

chapterseven

SoilsintheuplandsofIndonesia

�.� IntroductionThe uplands are the regions where rapid and drasticweatheringprocessesarenolongerthedominantpro-cessesinsoilformation.Duetoacoolerclimate,humi-ficationinsteadofmineralizationofsoilorganicmatterbecomes of importance. These are the regions, earliercalledthetensionzones,definedinChapter6astheareaswheretheclimatefacilitatesbothlaterizationandpod-zolizationprocesses,suchasare likelytooccurinthesouthernregionoftheUnitedStatesandperhapsalsointhelowlandsofNewZealand.Assuchtheycanbecon-sidered transitionzonesbetween the lowlands,wheremineralization isaprominentsoil-formingfactor,andthe mountains where humification is more importantthan mineralization processes of soil organic matter.ThisissuehasbeenaddressedindetailinChapter3.Thesoils formedmay thenalsobeconsidered transitionalbetween the lowlandsoils formedby laterizationandthemountainsoilsformedbypodzolizationprocesses.

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SeveralmajorgroupsofsoilswererecognizedintheuplandbyVanSchuylenborgh(1958),viz.podzoliclato-sols,usuallyoccupyingthelowestpartsoftheuplandregion, and next to this group a region of brown for-est soils, currently classified as inceptisols. The lattersoilsareusuallyfoundatthehighestelevationsoftheuplandareasborderingthemountainregions.Forrea-sons explained below, the podzolic latosols will notbediscussedindetail,thoughtheywillbeaddressedappropriatelyforcompletenesssothatduplications indiscussionscanbeavoided.Thebrownforestsoilsarearecognizedgroupofsoils,andinEuropewerewell-knownunderthenameofbraunerde.

�.� PodzoliclatosolsThenamepodzoliclatosolsisusedhereduetotheinflu-enceofpodzolizationintheformationoftheselatosolsintheuplands.Itiscustomaryinmanyothercountriestoapplythetermpodzolicasaprefixtonamesofsoilsshowingsomecharacteristicsofpodzolsbuthavenotdevelopedyet intotruepodzols.Detaileddiscussionsonthevalidityorsignificanceforusingthetermspod-zolic,podzolized,podzolization,andlessivageareprovidedbyDudal(1965)andPetersen(1976).

The podzolic latosols are rarely mentioned in thesoilsoftheUnitedStates,WesternEurope,andRussia,because they do not occur in many temperate-regioncountries.InIndonesia,thepodzoliclatosolsareadis-tinctlyzonalgroupofsoils,locatedtransitorybetweenthe latosols (oxisols) of the lowlands and the brownforestsoils(inceptisols)oftheuplands.Theyareoften

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Chapterseven: SoilsintheUplandsofIndonesia ��

foundincloseassociationmorewithacidbrownforestsoilsthanwithothermembersofthebrownforestsoilgroup.VanderVoort(1950)consideredthesoilstobedegradedlateriticsoils,butthepresentauthorbelievesthatthesepodzolic latosolsareperhapsrelatedtothelateriticsoilsofthetemperateregions.ThesoilsoccurmostlyinthecooltropicalrainforestclimateoftheAftypebutcanalsobefoundinthecoolerlimitsofanAfaclimate.Becauseof thiscoolerclimate, thesoilsshowcharacteristicsduetolaterizationprocesseswithadis-tinctshadeofpodzolization.Inthisrespect,theymayperhapsbecomparabletosoilscalledtheDavidsonsoil(ThermicRhodicKandiudults)ofthesouthernregionsof theUnitedStates,whichatonetimewasclassifiedas reddish-brown lateritic soil (England and Perkins,1959). Inviewof theabove, thepodzolic latosolsmaywell be a tropical version of rhodic kandiudults. Theareaoftheupland,inwhichpodzoliclatosolsdevelop,lies between the principal regions of laterization ofthe lowlands and podzolization of the highlands ormountains.Itisatruezonalregion,wheretheforma-tionofthisgroupofsoilsisdictatedbysimilarclimaticfactorsasthoseof thesouthernregions intheUnitedStates. Therefore, these podzolic latosols are presum-ablythetruered-yellowpodzolicsoils,formedbylat-erizationandpodzolizationfromweatheringproductsof acidic, intermediate as well as basic volcanic tuffs.VanSchuylenborgh(1957)andDames(1955)earliersus-pectedthatthepodzoliclatosolsoftheuplandmayberelatedtothered-yellowpodzolicsoilsofthelowland.However,theclimaticconditionsandothergeneticfac-tors for theuplandsoilsaresomewhatdifferent from

69071.indb 295 4/25/08 10:42:55 AM


thoseof the red-yellowpodzolic soilsof the lowland,whereacidicparentmaterialsandquartzcontentshavebeenusedasdeterminingfactorsintheirformation,asdiscussedinChapter6,Section6.3.Forthesakeofdif-ferentiatingthemfromthemoreorlesslithologicgroupoflowlandultisols,theauthorproposesherewithtocallthe zonal upland variety upland ultisols. They do notcontainquartzinappreciableamountsasthelowlandultisols,buttheirotherdiagnosticproperties,however,asdefinedintheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,arenotdifferentfromthoseofthelowlandultisols(VanSchuylenborgh,1958).Therefore,becauseultisolshavebeenaddressedinChapter6,Section6.3,itisdeemedredundanttodis-cussagaintheseuplandultisols.

�.� InceptisolsThese are the brown-colored soils in Indonesia, simi-lartosoilsformerlyknownasbrownforestsoils intheUnitedStatesandtodaycalledcambisolsbytheFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO)oftheUnitedNationsandtheWorldReferenceBaseforSoilResources(WRB)systems.TheyarethesolsbrunsinFrance.Inthetem-perate regions, this group of soils is mostly formedunderabroad-leafdeciduousforestinahumidclimate,characterizedbyanannualrainfallof≤750mmandatemperaturerangeof4°Cinwinterto18°Cduringthesummermonths.TheseconditionscanoccurinIndone-siaonlyintheuplandandmountainregions.However,theamountofrainfallisheresubstantiallyhigherthanthatstatedaboveforthetemperateregions.

69071.indb 296 4/25/08 10:42:56 AM


The brown forest soils are perhaps the most inves-tigatedbutalsothemostdebatedsoilsinEuropeandothercountriesoftheworld.ThehistoryofthesesoilsstartedwhenRamannintroduceditin1905underthenameofBraunerde, forbrownearthorbrown-coloredsoils, developed under the influence of a temperateclimate, with a moderate amount of leaching in theprofile. Worldwide, such conditions usually occur inregionsbetween30°and55°northoftheequator,butinIndonesiatheyarefoundintheuplands.Ramann’sconceptisbasedonthegeographicaldistributionandon the presumed soil-forming processes that mighthavetakenplace(TavernierandSmith,1957).Sinceitsintroduction,thenamebraunerdeorbrownforestsoilbecamemorepopularthananyothername(e.g.,brownearth,brownsoils,brunizem,phaeozems,andcastano-zems)andwassoonusedwidelyforthegroupofsoilswithbrowncolors,developedundertheinfluenceofadeciduousforestinatemperateclimate.

TheRussianideaatthattimeshowedonlylittledif-ferences with regard to the soil-forming processes.GlinkastatedthatbrownearthsofWesternEuroperep-resentedthefirststagesofapodzoltypeofweathering(Joffe,1949).ThesoilswereconsideredtobetransitorybetweenthepodzolinthenorthtotheyellowandredearthsinsouthernRussia.Thisideawassuggestedear-lierbyStebutt(1930),whobelievedthatthebrownforestsoilshavebeeninfluencedbybothpodzolizationandredearth formationprocesses.Thebrownforestsoilswerenotedtobemoreadaptedtothewarmerclimateof theredearths than to thecolderhumidclimateofthepodzols.Itseemsthattheoldconcepthasremained

69071.indb 297 4/25/08 10:42:56 AM


unchanged today, because the brown forest soils arestillconsideredastheirsouthernvariantsofpodzolsofthetaigaorborealforest(Karpachevskiyetal.,2006).

This relationship between brown forest and pod-zolicsoilsisalsodistinguishedinWesternEuropeandAmerica.Thesoilsarebelievedtoexistmoreincloseassociationwithpodzolicsoilsandareclassifiedinthepodzolicsoilgroup(Joffe,1949;Robinson,1951).BrownforestsoilsareevenreportedtohavebeenrecognizedasfarnorthasSweden.Thismaybeoneofthereasonswhy gray-brown podzolic and brown podzolic soilswere previously included under the name braunerde.However, theconceptabovewas laterchangedsome-whatintoonewithamoresharperdelineationofbrownforestsoils,inwhichtheothertwosoilsareexcluded.According to the newer ideas ofWesternEurope, thedefinitionmostlyfollowedisthatbrownforestsoilsaredevelopedfromcalcareousorbasicparentmaterialsinatemperateclimateundertheinfluenceofadeciduousforest(TavernierandSmith,1957).Thesoilusuallypos-sessesahighdegreeofbasesaturation.Thetopsoilisgenerally dark brown due to a high content in mull-humus.ThesoilbecomesgraduallylighterincolorwithdepthintheprofileandgradesintheparentmaterialwithoutpassingoverintoanilluvialBhorizon.TheBhorizonhaschangedjustenoughtoliberateironoxides,whosebrowntoreddishcolorswerepartofthereasonsfor naming the soil brown forest soil. This idea of a Bhorizonistheoriginforthedevelopmentofaconceptofcolor-BhorizonbyLaatsch,which in1960wasusedfor thedefinitionofacambichorizonof theU.S.SoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,1960,2006a).

69071.indb 298 4/25/08 10:42:56 AM


The brown forest soils can be found in Indonesia,mostlyinJavaandontheotherislandsofthearchipel-ago,wherebasicparentmaterialsare located.Tomeettheclimaticrequirementsforformation,thesoilsusuallyoccurintheuplands,ortheiroccurrencemayextendtoplaces≥600mabovesealevel.Attheselevelsandhigher,theclimateresemblesahumidtemperateclimate.


IntheUnitedStates,brownforestsoilsoccuronlyonbasicandstronglycalcareousmaterials.Fromacidicormore siliceous parent materials, gray-brown podzolicsoils, or alfisols, tend to be formed under similar cli-maticconditions(Cline,1949).ThisisalsotrueinIndo-nesia.Asindicatedabove,thesoilsdeveloponlyonthecomparativelymorebasictointermediateparentmate-rials—that is, basalto-andesitic to andesitic tuffs (TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1959;VanSchuylenborgh,1957;VanSchuylenborghandVanRummelen,1955).

Themineralogicaldata(Table7.1)confirmthatbrownforestsoilsofIndonesiaoriginatefromintermediatetobasicvolcanicmaterial.TheparentmaterialofthesoilinEastJavaiscomparativelythemostbasicandisclassifiedasbasalto-andesitictufffromeruptionsoftheArjunaVol-cano.Thesoilislocatedatapproximately1200mabovesealevel,anditssandfractiondoesnotcontainquartz,amineraloftenmarkingthepresenceofacidicmateri-als,suchasrhyolites, liparites,andgranites.Themin-eralcountsindicatethepresenceofmoderateamountsofvolcanicglassandalotofandesine-oligoclaseminer-als.Thelatterareplagioclasefeldspars,oftenpresentin

69071.indb 299 4/25/08 10:42:56 AM

�00 SoilsintheHumidTropicsandMonsoonRegionofIndonesiaTa

ble

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69071.indb 300 4/25/08 10:42:57 AM

Chapterseven: SoilsintheUplandsofIndonesia �0�

intermediatetobasicvolcanictuffs.Basedontheheavymineral counts, the mineral suite appears to be of ahypersthene-augiteassociation.AsdiscussedearlierinSection6.2.1onparentmaterialsofoxisols,hypersthenemineralsareoftenusedasmarkersforidentificationofintermediateandaugiteofintermediatetobasicvolca-nicmaterials(e.g.,andesiteandbasalt)(MohrandVanBaren,1960).Hence, todifferentiatetheArjunaparentmaterialfromtheothertwoparentmaterials,itisgiventhenamebasalto-andesitictuff,whichindicatesitsmorebasicnature.ThebrownforestsoilinCentralJava,alsolocatedatapproximately1200mabovesealevel,origi-natesfromandesitictuffoftheLawuvolcano.Thistypeofvolcanicmaterialislessbasicthanthebasalto-andesitictuffabove.Itdoesnotcontainquartzandhassubstantialamountsofandesine-oligoclase,butsignificantlymorevolcanicglass than theArjuna tuff. Itsheavymineralfractionexhibitsahypersthene-augiteassociation.ThebrownforestsoilofWestJavaisfoundat600mabovesealevelandhasbeenformedfromandesitictuffoftheSalakvolcano,whichiscomparativelytheleastbasicofthethree,asindicatedbythepresenceofsmallamountsofquartz.Itexhibitsaslightlyhighersanidine-oligolaseconcentrationbutisthelowestinvolcanicglasscontent,whereastheheavymineralfractionischaracterizedbyahyperstheneassociation.Thelowaugiteconcentrationprovidesadditionalsupportforthelessbasicnatureofthe Salak volcano andesitic tuff. Therefore, the namedacito-andesitictuffisgiventoindicateitsmoresiliceousnature.

69071.indb 301 4/25/08 10:42:57 AM


�.�.� Climate

Theoriginalconceptofthebrownforestsoilsconsidersthe soilsasbeingdevelopedunder the influenceofatemperateregionclimate,characterizedbyalternatingrainyanddryseasonsduringtheyear (Blanck,1930).Thesoilsarethussubjectedtosevere leachinginoneseasonandnoorlittleleachingintheotherseason.InIndonesia,suchaclimateispresentintheuplandsandhighlandsormountainregions,asshowninTable7.2.The data indicate that the areas of brown forest soilsarelocatedmostlyinKöppen’sAftoAmclimatictypes.However,thesoilshavealsobeenoftenfoundateleva-tionsof≥1000m,wheretheclimateisclassifiedasacoolmountainCficlimate.Ordinarily, thistypeofclimatefavorspodzolization,idealforformationofgray-brownpodzolicsoilsandpodzols.Brownforestsoilshavenotbeen located in lowland climates, such as the Afa orAmaclimatictypes.ThedatainTable7.2indicatethatthesearethetypicaltypesofclimateforformationoflatosolsoroxisolsandsuchconditionsaretoohotforthedevelopmentofbrownforestsoils.ThesoilshavealsonotbeenfoundinIndonesiainregionswithAwaclimates,duetothedesertorsavannahtypeofclimatebeingtoodryandtoohot.

The climatic variations present in the brown forestsoilregionsseemtohavesomeinfluenceonthetypeofbrownforestsoilsformed.Undertheinfluenceofamorehumidclimate,suchastheAfclimateinthemountainsofWestJava,leachingofthesoiliscomparativelymorepronouncedthanforthatofthesoilslocatedinAmcli-mates.Thelatterarethemonsoonclimatesprevalentin

69071.indb 302 4/25/08 10:42:57 AM


themountainsofCentralandEastJava.Consequently,brown forest soils with acidic reactions tend to beformedinWestJava,whicharecalledacidbrownforestsoils(TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1959;VanSchuylen-borgh,1957).On theotherhand, themore traditionalbrownforestsoils,asdefinedintheUnitedStates,havebeendevelopedmoreinthemonsoonalAmclimateofthe mountains in Central and East Java. The issue offorming different soils due to variation in climate is

Rainfall Altitude

<60 mm >100 mm


Type ofClimatea

West Java

Bogor

Ciapus

Pondok Gedeh

Mandalawangi

Salak Volcano

266

540

900

1800

2211

0.3

0.1

0.4

0.6

0.0

11.5

11.8

10.1

10.6

11.1

4230

4880

3644

4201

5467

Afa

Afa

Af

Cfi

Cfi

A

A

A

A

A

Latosol

Brown Forest

Brown Forest

Gray-Brown Podzolic

East–Central Java

Tasikmadu

Karangpandan

Tawangmanggu

100

600

950

3.5

3.7

3.1

7.5

7.6

8.0

2265

2776

3194

Ama

Ama

Am

C

C

C

Latosol

Brown Forest

Gray-Brown

Sarangan 1290 3.4 7.7 2533 Cfhi C Podzolic

Location

m Months mm Köppen

Soil

S&F

Table.7.2. TheClimateofBrownForestSoilsinIndonesia

a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols:A = coldestmonth>18°C;a=warmestmonth>22°C;f=humid;i=hotsum-mer;m=monsoon;C=warmestmonth>10°Candcoldestmonthbetween18°Cand−3°C.

69071.indb 303 4/25/08 10:42:58 AM


perhaps related to the climatic concept in Sweden ofTamm(1930),whoproposedadivisioninclimaticandaclimaticbrownforestsoils.Theclimatictypesofbrownforestsoilsareformedonparentmaterialspoorincal-cium,underabeechandoak forest.Theyarereadilypodzolized whenever the vegetation changes into aheathorconiferousforest.Theaclimatictypeofbrownforest soil is formedoncalcareousparentmaterialoronparentmaterialenrichedwithcalciumfromseepagewater.Thiskindofbrownforestsoilismorestableandallegedlywillnotbeinfluencedbyaheavystandofaconiferforest.


AccordingtotheoriginalconceptasproposedbyBlanck(1930), the braunerde or brown forest soil is character-izedbyadark-coloredtopsoil,richinmull-typehumusand possessing a crumb structure. Underneath thetopsoil liesabrownhorizon,consideredthe“proper”braunerde,andoneormoreotherB-typesofhorizons.Theymayhavevaryingdegreesofrustymottlingsandvaryingamountsofsesquioxidesorclays.ThestructureoftheBhorizonsismostlyangularblockytogranular,whereasthestructuralunitsareoftenporous.Tothisdescription the following was recently added by theU.S. Seventh Approximation (Soil Survey Staff, 1960)and the more recent U.S. Soil Taxonomy (Soil SurveyStaff,2006a).Thesoilsshouldnothaveableached(albic)EhorizonandanilluvialBthorizon.

Followingthedefinitionsabove,twotypesofmodalprofilescanberecognizedinIndonesia.Basedoncolor

69071.indb 304 4/25/08 10:42:58 AM


differences,a light-coloredandadark-coloredvarietyhavebeennoticedinIndonesia.Asanexample,oneofa lighter-coloredprofiles ispresentedbelow(TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1959):

Brown Forest soil at Tawang Manggu(East–Central Java). The profile islocated in an area at an elevation of1250mabovesealevel.Thevegetationisatropicalrainforest.Colornotationreferstoair-dryandfield-wetsamples,respectively.


0 1–0 Litterlayer.

Al 0–15 10YR 5/2 to 10YR 3/2, brown tovery dark gray-brown, strongmediumgranular,siltloam,friable,composedofpredominantlyearth-wormcast.

A2 15–34 10YR4/1to10YR2/2,darkgraytoverydarkbrown,strongfinecrumb,siltloam,veryfriable,manyroots.

B1 34–45 10YR 5/3 to 7.5YR 3/2, brown todark brown, weak fine crumb, siltloam,friable,manyroots.

B2 45–75 10YR6/3to7.5YR4/4,palebrownto brown, strong fine subangularblocky,siltloam,friable,fewroots.

69071.indb 305 4/25/08 10:42:59 AM


As can be noticed, the color is brown throughoutthe profile and especially in the deeper horizons. Nomechanicalilluviationofclayisnoticed,whereasbleach-inginthesubsurfacehorizonisabsent.Duetotheverydarkgrayish-brown(10YR3/2)colorofthetopsoil,thissoilisoftenmistakenforandosols.


ThesoilswereclassifiedintheUSDAsystemasintrazonalsoils(ThorpandSmith,1949),buttheyaregroupedaszonalsoilsinWesternEuropeandstillaretodayinEast-ernEurope(Karpachevskyetal.,2006).TheyarecalledbrownforestsoilsbytheMacaulayLandUseResearchInstitute, Kelso, England, braunerde in Germany, solbrun inFrance,andbyothernames inHungaryandRussia,suchasbrownearth,luvisols,planosols,areno-sols,andalisols(Karpachevskiyetal.,2006).Inthepast,thenamebrownearthwasoftenusedinpartsofWesternEurope,whereasatone time, thesoilswereclassifiedas phaeozems and castanozems by the older FAO-UNsystem.IntheWRB,brownearthsaremappedasluvisols,whereasseveralBritishandFrenchscientistscall the lattersolbrun lessivé,due to thepresenceofa

B3 75–114 10YR 6/6 to 10YR 5/4, brownish-yellow to yellowish-brown, weakmedium subangular blocky, siltloam,friable,fewroots.

C +114 10YR 7/3 to 10YR 5/3, very palebrowntobrown,massive,siltloam,noroots.

69071.indb 306 4/25/08 10:42:59 AM


weaklyargillichorizon.Thelatterisoftennotapparenttoacasualsoilsurveyor.WiththeintroductionoftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,severalofthesoilscientistsintheUnited States tried earlier to place brown forest soilsinthealfisolsandmollisolsorders.Buttodaytheyarerecognizedasinceptisols.

Thebrownforestsoilsareconsideredingeneraltheearly stages in development of podzolic soils. This isperhapsonereasonwhyagroupofsoilscientiststriedtoclassifythemasbrownpodzolicsoils,whichaccordingtoseveralotherscientistsmayberelatedtothesolbrunacidesofFrance.Thoughsomegroupedthemintothealfisols,mostsoilscientists,however,considerthemtobesoilsinatransitorystateofformationfromayoungtoamaturesoil.Therefore,thenamescambisols(fromtheLatincambiare=tochange)andinceptisols(fromLatininceptum=beginning)aregivenbytheFAO,WRB,andU.S. Soil Taxonomy, respectively. Classifying brownforestsoilsascambisolsorinceptisolsmayraisealotofarguments,becausemanysoilscientistsbelievethatthesoilsarenotinthebeginningphaseofformationasthekeyterms“cambiare”and“inceptum”wanttoconvey.Brownforestsoilshavewell-definedA,B,andChori-zons,whereas theBhorizons, though lackingargillicfeatures,areasmatureasanyotherBhorizons.IntheGerman literature, the termpodzol-braunerdehasbeenusedfrequently,whichwasbelievedtobesimilartoabrownpodzolicsoil.ThedescriptionpresentedbyAlte-müller (1962) for a podzol-braunerde approaches theconceptofthebrownpodzolicsoilsintheUnitedStates.KrebsandTedrow(1957)havereportedtheoccurrenceofacidbrownforestsoilsinnorthernNewJerseyand

69071.indb 307 4/25/08 10:42:59 AM


northernNewYork,whichat the timewereofficiallyclassifiedasbrownpodzolicsoils.Theopinionthatthesoilsareinatransformationstageofbecomingbrownpodzolic soils remains a speculation. None of thisgroupofsoilshasbeennoticedtoconvertintobrownpodzolicsoils.TheCanadiansoiltaxonomyusedatonetimethenamebrunisols,replacingthenamebrunizems,whichwouldhaveplacedbrownforestsoilsasasubor-derofmollisols.Thishasbeenphasedoutandisnownolongerinuse.

In Indonesia, little attention is given to brown for-est soils, and their classification is therefore oftenneglected. In the Dutch colonial time, the soils weregrouped together under the name of mountain soils.However,duringthepost-WorldWarIIperiod,thefewremainingDutchsoilscientists reported thatsomeofthese mountain soils should, in fact, be classified asbrownforestsoils.VanSchuylenborgh(1958)andVanSchuylenborgh and Van Rummelen (1955) describedtheoccurrenceofbrownforestsoilsintheuplandsandespeciallyinthemountainsofIndonesia.BasedonsoilpHandsoilgeneticprocesses,theybelievethatthesoilscanbeclassifiedintothreedifferentkindsofbrownfor-estsoils:

1. Brown forest soils, characterized by moderatelyacid reactions, and formed by a combination ofpodzolization and calcification processes. Suchsoil-formation processes are possible only athigherelevationswithacoolerandmonsoon,Am,climate.

69071.indb 308 4/25/08 10:42:59 AM


2. Acidbrownforestsoils,characterizedbystronglyacidicreactions,andformedbypodzolizationpro-cesses.The latteroccurmainly in thecoolerandhumidconditionsofanAfclimate.Thesearethesoilsthathavebeenarguedtobebrownpodzolicsoils.

3. Latosolicbrownforestsoils,characterizedbyneu-tral to slightly acidic reactions, and formed by acombinationofpodzolizationandlaterizationpro-cesses.Thesearetheuplandsoilsbelievedbytheauthortoborderthezonesofthelatosols.

During the same period above, the Soil ResearchInstituteofIndonesiabegantoclassifyallsoilsinthemountainsasandosols,althoughnomentionismadeofandosolsintheircurrentexploratorysoilmap(Figure1.2,page16,Chapter1).SincetheInstitutehasadaptedtheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,thebrownforestsoilsareper-hapsplacedtodayintheinceptisolsorder.


�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionThedatainTable7.3indicatethatbrownforestsoilsaremedium-toheavy-texturedsoils.Thetextureismostlysiltloam,andtheexampleofsiltyclaysisfromanacidbrown forest soil.The latter is locatedat lowereleva-tions of West Java in regions, formerly called tensionzones,definedearlierasregionswherelateriticweath-eringandpodzolizationarebothimportantprocessesinformationofthesoils.Thelaterizationprocessandresulting higher clay content are the reasons for Van

69071.indb 309 4/25/08 10:42:59 AM


Schuylenborgh(1957)tocallthisparticularsoilLatosolicBrownForestSoil.Thetwoothersoilsarelocatedathigherelevations,wheretherateoflaterizationislessthanthat


Org. C %

N %

Profile Horizon

50–2 <2 µ

pHH2O

A1

A2

B

28.3

34.7

38.3

60.4

55.5

53.4

11.3

9.8

8.3

5.69

5.74

5.77

10.0

7.5

2.8

—

—

—

—

—

—

A1

A2

B1

B2

B3

12.0

16.1

18.5

17.3

15.9

79.1

71.5

69.0

71.7

74.6

8.9

12.4

12.5

11.0

9.5

7.08

7.15

6.94

6.66

6.53

20.0

15.8

9.9

8.3

5.7

0.86

0.62

0.55

0.48

0.33

23

25

18

17

17

C 29.9 51.1 19.0 6.18 3.1 0.13 23

A1

A2

B1

B2

C

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

40.3

42.1

39.2

28.3

8.3

4.52

4.62

4.24

4.72

4.82

3.0

2.3

0.9

0.7

0.3

0.25

0.19

0.08

0.08

0.04

12

12

11

8

8

>50 µ

C N

Brown Forest Soil, Arjuna Volcano, East Java

Brown Forest Soil, Lawu Volcano, Central Java

Acid Brown Forest Soil, Salak Volcano, West Java

Table.7.3. PhysicochemicalCharacteristicsofBrownForestSoils

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ofpodzolization.Thetrendinclaycontentswithdepthinthetwoprofilesisalwaysindecreasingorder,whichis in support of the concept of brown forest soils. Asindicated earlier, one of the general requirements forbrownforestsoilsisalackofmechanicalilluviationofclays.Thedecreaseinclaycontentswithdepthinthesoilsuggeststhattheclayfractionofbrownforestsoilsisinanimmobilestate.Thiswillbediscussedinmoredetailinthenextsection.

�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsThepHofthebrownforestsoilsisintherangeof4.5to 7.2 (Table7.3). On the basis of variation in soil pH,thesoilscanbedividedintotwogroups:brownforestsoilswithslightlyacidictomoderatelyacidicreactions(pH7to5)andbrownforestsoilswithstronglyacidicreactions (pH5 to4).The stronglyacidic condition isthereasonforcallingthelatteracidbrownforestsoil,thoughVanSchuylenborgh(1957)preferstonameitlat-osolicbrownforestsoils.Thissoilisperhapsequivalentto theacidbrownearthsorsolbrunacidsasdefinedbyCline(1955).

ApHrangeof4.5to7.2suggestsgenerallythepres-ence of a moderately to high base status—in otherwords, the clay fraction ismore likely saturatedwithbases,promotingflocculationofclayparticles.Inafloc-culated state, the clays are prevented from migrationfromAtoBhorizons.Mostoftheclaysarethenaccu-mulatedintheAhorizons,whichisthereasonforthedecreasingclaycontentwithdepthintheprofile.Thisisdirectlyoppositetothetrendfoundinlatosolsandinpodzolicsoils.Especiallyinthelatter,podzolization

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facilitatesmobilizationofclays fromAtoBhorizons,givingrisetoformationofargillicorBthorizons.

Thehighorganicmattercontents,especiallyintheAhorizonsofthesoilsoftheArjunaandLawuvolcanoes,givethesoilthedarkcolors,usuallyseeninandosols.Thisisthenthereason,asstatedbefore,whythesoilsareoftenconfusedforandosols.

�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyAccording toVanSchuylenborgh (1958), theclay frac-tionsofbrownforestsoilsarecomposedofamorphousminerals,todaycalledparacrystallineclays(forexample,allophane), with admixtures of kaolinite, some smec-tite, hydrargillite, and α-crystoballite. Hydrargilliteis theEuropeannameforgibbsite,anditsoccurrenceisusuallyusedtoindicatethepresenceofhighlyoxi-dizedsoilsorpedogeneticallyoldersoils.Ontheotherhand,thepresenceofα-crystoballiteisusedtoindicatethepresenceofsoilsofrelativelyyoungageandvolca-nicoforigin.VanSchuylenborghalsoreportedthatthehydrargillitecontentincreasedwithdepthinthesoilsathigheraltitudesascomparedwiththesoils locatedatlowerelevations.However,themineralogicaldataofthesoilsandfractions,aspresentedinTable7.1,showadifferenttrendinthehydrargilliteconcentrations.Itistruethatthepresenceofclayminerals(particles<2mm) does not necessarily need to correlate with theiroccurrenceinthesandfractions(particles>50mm),butitisinterestingtonotethecontrastingdifferences.Themineral countsof the sand fractions indicate that thebrownforestsoilsinEastandCentralJava,bothlocatedat1200mabovesealevel,donotcontainhydrargillite.

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The hydrargillite concentrations of the sand fractionsarezerofromAtoChorizons.Thisisincontrastwiththeacidbrown forest soil locatedat600mabovesealevel, which exhibits fair amounts of hydrargillite. Itsconcentration appears to increase with depth in theprofile. Results of differential thermal analysis (DTA)ofabrownforestsoilatPasirMadang(WestJava),alsolocatedatapproximately600mabovesea level, seemtosupporttheabove.TheDTAthermogram(Figure7.1)exhibits a strong endothermic peak at 300°C, indica-tive of the presence of large amounts of gibbsite orhydrargillite. The very strong endothermic peaks at200and550°Carepresumablycausedbythepresenceofhalloysite,a“relative”ofkaolinite(MacKenzie,1956).Alltheaboveconfirmtheideathatoxidation,andhencelaterization, ismoreprevalent inbrownforestsoilsatlower(PasirMadang)thanathigheraltitudes.


�.�.�.� EvaluationofanalyticalpropertiesTheslightlyacidtoneutralreactionsexhibitedbymostofthebrownforestsoilsarewellwithinsuitablelimitsforgrowingavarietyofcrops.Judgingfromtheimmo-bilityoftheclayfractions,thebasesaturationofthesoilsisexpectedtobehigh,asexplainedearlier.InviewofthepHrangefrom5.7to7.2,thebasesaremorelikelytobecalciumandmagnesium.Onlytheacidbrownfor-est soil variety is characterized by strongly acid con-ditions,whichmaysuggestthepresenceofsubstantialamounts of aluminum ions, saturating the clay com-plex. The soils are extremely high in organic matter,

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whichisexpectedtoaffectfavorablythephysicalandchemicalconditions forplantgrowth.Thevegetation,which is the tropicalbroad-leafrain forest,composedoftrees,suchastheQuercussp.(oak)andCastaneasp.(chestnut), is the main source for the bases.As is thecase with a broad-leaf deciduous forest of temperate

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900 °C

(2)

(1)

Figure 7.1 Differential thermal analyses (DTA) curves ofclayfractionsfrom(1)B1horizonofanacidbrownforestsoil,PasirMadang,andA1horizonofagray-brownpodzolicsoil,TangkubanPrahuVolcano,WestJava.

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regions,thelitteraccumulatedunderthistropicalfor-est isnotasacidicas thatunderaconifer forest. It isrichinbasesthatwillbereleasedintothesoilbytheconstantdecompositionprocesses.As longasaforestcoverispresent, thetreeswillmaintainthethicknessofthelittercoveringtheground.Thislitterisalsoanimportantfactorfornutrientcyclingthatcanmaintainthefertilitylevelofthesesoilsforyearstocome.

�.�.�.� SignificanceofbasicsoilpropertiesThe analytical properties show the soils to exhibit awiderangeoffertilitylevels.Theyaregenerallyfertilesoils,butinsomeinstancestheycanbeverypoorsoils,asisthecasewiththeacidbrownforestsoils.Duetotheirlocationintheuplands,characterizedoftenbyastrongreliefandclimaticconditionsfavorableforcreat-ingheavyshowers, thepoorer soilsaremoresuscep-tibletoerosionthanarethemorefertilesoils.Forgoodcropproduction,theacidbrownforestsoilsneedtobelimedheavilyinadditiontotreatmentswithfertilizers(Masseyetal.,1963).However,thestronglyacidicreac-tionmayprovetobebeneficialforgrowingpotatocrops,because acid conditions are known to control potato-scabdisease,increasingthequalityofthecrops.Whenlimingisnecessary,dolomiticlimestone,CaMg(CO3)2,orgypsum,CaSO4,shouldbeused,whichareneutrallim-ingmaterialsandexpectednottoraisesoilpH.Judgingfrom the pH levels, the other brown forest soils withslightlyacidtoneutralreactionsmaynotneedlimingatall,butincaselimeisneeded,similarneutrallimingmaterialsshouldalsobeapplied,assuggestedfortheacid brown forest soils. The pH of these more fertile

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soils isalreadyin theproperrangeforgrowingmostcrops.Thehighorganicmattercontentsfavordevelop-mentofbulkdensity,soilconsistence,andpermeabil-ityofwaterandairsuitableforplantgrowth.Thesoilis generally porous and very friable, factors ensuringexcellentconditionsforgoodrootgrowth.

Theclimateinwhichthesoilsoccurisalsocoolerthaninthelowlands.Suchaconditionenablesthecultivationoftropicalaswellastemperateregioncrops,henceprovid-ingfarmerswithalargerchoiceinthevarietyofcrops.

�.�.�.� AgriculturaloperationsWhenever possible and where water is available forirrigation, farmers in Indonesia prefer using the landfor cultivation of lowland rice in inundated fields,calledsawahs.Becausethishasbeendiscussedinpre-vious sections on oxisols, ultisols, red Mediterraneansoils, and vertisols, paddy-rice cultivation will not beaddressed here, rather attention will be given belowonotherequallyimportantcrops,suchashorticulturalcropsandfruittrees,thoughthelatterareoftenplantedinbackyardorchards.Tea(Theasinensis)alsostartstogrowinuplandconditions,thoughthelargerandbestteaplantationsareusuallylocatedathigherelevationsinthemountainregionsofIndonesia.Anotherimpor-tantcropdoingwellontheseuplandsoils is thenut-megtree,producingtheimportantnutmegandmace,spicessoughtaftersince1500andbeforebyPortugueseandDutchmerchants.Theseregionswithbrownfor-estsoilsalsosupportmanystandsofforest,exploitedbycivilandgovernmentalenterprises for timberandfirewoodproduction.InWestJava,attentionhasbeen

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giventogrowingAlbizia trees,afast-growinglegumetreewithrathersoftwoodforlumberandasafuelcrop.Thetreesareproventobeveryvaluableforsoilconser-vationpracticesofuplandsoilswiththeirstrongrelief(Agus,2001).Finally,conditionsintheuplandscanbefavorable for dairy farming; however, the best dairyfarmsarestilllocatedinthemorecoolerhighlandsormountainregions.

�.�.�.�.� Horticultural crops. The upland is theregion for the startofgrowing temperate regionveg-etables. Because of a cooler climate, mountain crops,such as cabbages (Brassica oleracea), potatoes (Solanumtuberosum),lettuce(Lactucasativa),greenonions(Alliumfistulosum), carrots (Daucus carota), tomatoes (Solanumlycopersicum),andothercoolregioncropsstarttoflour-ish. Because they bring in top prices, the crops arefavorednexttogrowingrice.

�.�.�.�.�.� Cabbages Inthepast,mostcabbagesweregrowninmountainregions,oftenatadistancetoofarfrombigtownswherethemajormarketplaceswerelocated. Today, new improved hybrid varieties havebeen developed that will produce at lower altitudes,suchasintheuplandsofIndonesia,whichareclosertoavailablemarkets.Pestsanddiseasesthatmayincreaseat lower elevations are controlled by the Indonesianprogramcalledintegratedpestcontrol.Thismethodhasallegedlyreducedtheuseofinsecticidesby30to50%,which means a substantial savings for the farmersconsideringthehighcostofthesechemicals.Atloweraltitudes, cabbages seem to be prone to the club-root

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disease by Plasmodiaphora brassicae that can decreasecabbageyieldsallegedlyby80%oralmosttotally.For-tunately, the disease can be controlled effectively bytreatingthesoilwiththefungicidebenomyle-50%andbysterilizingthenurserysoil.

ThecabbageyieldsinWestJavavaryfrom23to20tons/haperyear,asreportedbytheBadanPusatStatistikorBureauofStatisticsofIndonesiafortheperiodof2000to2004.Sellingat1000to1500rupiahs/kg(=$0.10to$0.15perkg),thewholesalepriceofferedbythemiddleman,itisprovidingfarmerswithahandsomeincomebyIndo-nesian standards. The retail price housewives have topayataJakartamarketplaceis,however,Rp.6000/kg.

Forlong-distancetransportofthecabbagestomarket-places,properpostharvesthandling,suchasapplyingsilica-gelpasteora30%alumsolutiontothecabbagebase, has proven to cut substantially the amount ofdamagesandlossesduetobase-rotandleaf-trimmingsduringstorageandshipping(AARD,1986).Suchpost-harvesttreatmentisoftenappliedfortheexportofcab-bagesoverseas,whenshippingbyairfreightisrequiredtoreach,forexample,marketplacesinSingapore.Thishappenswhencabbages,growninBrastagiontheslopeof Mount Sibayak, are transported to Medan, NorthSumatra,tocatchtheplaneforSingapore.However,inlocal transportation from the mountainside to majorpopulationcentersonthefootofthemountains,farm-ersseldompayattentiontothesetreatments.Thepro-duceistransportedintheweehoursofthemorningbysmalltrucks,oftendangerouslyoverloaded,toarelaystationclose to thebordersof towns,wherea secondtierofmiddlemenandvendorsarevyingat5:00a.m.

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tobringthefreshproducetotheirfinaldestinationsatseveralmarketplacesintown.

�.�.�.�.�.� Potatoes The cultivation of pota-toes is traditionally conducted only higher up in themountain regions. However, with the cooperation oftheSoutheastAsianProgramforPotatoResearchandDevelopment(SAPPRAD)andtheCentroInternacionaldelaPapa(CIP),potato-growingareasaremovedfromthehighlandstotheuplandregions.Properselectionofpotatoeshasproducedvarietiesthatarewelladaptedforgrowingreadilyatlowerelevationsandproducinggood yields. Due to the extremely high organic mat-tercontent,theensuingfriablesoilcondition,lowbulkdensity, and other favorable soil physical propertieslendthemselvesverywelltopropertubergrowthanddevelopment.Bygrowingthepotatoesatlowereleva-tions, intercropping with sugarcane was made possi-ble(AARD,1986).Athigherelevations,theweatheristoocoldforsugarcane.Suchanintercroppingmethodproves to be a great success by providing a welcomeadditional benefit to the farmer’s income. The potatoyieldisreportedtobe22tons/ha,inadditiontoayieldincrease of 13 tons/ha of sugarcane when grown asintercrops(AARD,1986).Apparently,thefertilizerappli-cationstothepotatoplantsalsobenefitthesugarcanecrops.Thepotatoyieldaboveisonthehighsidewhencomparedtoyieldsof16to20tons/ha,asrecordedinWestJavabytheIndonesianBureauofStatisticsfortheperiodof2000to2004.Nevertheless,judgingfromtheyieldandthemiddlemanwholesalepriceofRp.4000to5000/kg,thesepotatoesarebringinginarespectable

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incomeformanyfarmers.Theretailpriceatlocalmar-ketplaces in Jakarta is 7000 rupiahs/kg (or $0.70/kg),whichdiffersslightlyfrompricesatU.S.supermarkets,whereIdahoRussetpotatoesaresellingatpresentfor$1.00to$2.00/kg.

�.�.�.�.�.� Tomatoes Theclimateof theuplandis apparently just right for the cultivation of tomatoplants,thoughtheamountsofrainarereportedlycre-ating problems. The weather is not too cold, but cooland still warm enough for growing tomatoes. Culti-vationbydirectseedingoflocalvarieties(e.g.,berlian)in the field results in plants producing 15 tons/ha oftomato fruits (AARD, 1986). By germinating seeds innurseries and transplanting 20-day-old seedlings, theyieldoftomatoeswasreportedtoincreaseto20tons/ha.Apparently,yieldsoftomatoeshavebeenimprovedsincethen,becausetheIndonesianBureauofStatisticsrecordedtomatoyieldsof21to28tons/hainWestJavafortheperiodof2000to2004.

Whentomatoesareplantedduringtherainyseason,mostoftheplantsseemtobeaffectedbyfailureinset-tingfruitsandbyprematurelyabortingtheirfruits.Inadditiontobreedingnewresistantvarietiesforcontrol-lingtheharmfuleffectofheavyrains,plantsarenowsuggested to be grown in DIY (Do-It-Yourself) plas-tic greenhouses, the size of small tents. Not only arethe tomato yields increased, but the DIY greenhousemethod has practically controlled all fruit damage(AARD,1986).Byreusing theplasticgreenhouses thefollowing seasons, which relates to a substantial sav-ingsinproductioncost,farmersarereportedlyableto

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sell their products at relatively profitable prices. ThetomatoesarecurrentlysellingatRp.1700to3500/kg,asacceptedbymiddlemeninthefield.AtthemarketsinJakarta,consumersarepayingaround8000rupiahs/kgorapproximately$0.80/kg.ComparedtopricesatU.S.supermarkets,wheretomatoesaresellingnowfor$4.00to$6.00/kg,tomatoesareinexpensiveinIndonesia.

�.�.�.�.�.� Fruitcrops Amongthefruitsgrown,usually as backyard gardening, only those that canadapttothecoolerclimatewillthriveintheuplands.Forexample,coconuttreesaredoingpoorlyathighereleva-tionsasdootherlowlandfruitcrops,suchasmangoesandguavas.However,different typesofbananascanbegrownintheuplands.Thelowlandbananas,calledpisangambon,andanothervarietycalledpisangraja,tendtostrugglegrowinginthecoolerclimateoftheuplandsbutmayeventuallybecomeadaptedtothecoolercon-ditions. Nevertheless, they find strong competitionfromamountainvariety,knownlocallyaspisangambonlumut.Thisvarietyismostadaptedfortheuplandandmountainregionsandwillnotdowellinthelowlands.Thepisangambon(pisangmeans“banana”)istheslen-deryellowtypeofbanana,similartothatfoundinU.S.supermarkets. It isnotknownby theauthorwhetherthe name ambon has any relationship with the islandAmbon in the Moluccas. The pisang raja (raja means“king”)ismoreofa“chubby”-typebananawithorangeflesh,presumablyrichincarotine.Ontheotherhand,thepisangambonlumut(lumutmeans“mold,algae”)hasagreenskinthat,whenripe, isdottedbybrown-ish-blackspots.Thespotsareapparentlyagenetically

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inheritedcharacteristicofthebananaandarenotasignof being overripe. They give the illusion of molds oralgaegrowingontheskin,andhencethenamelumutisgivenby the localpeople.Thespotscouldperhapsbemoldsgrowingontheskinsurface,butnoinvesti-gationshavebeenconductedtoconfirmthis,becausetheyareharmlessandthepisangtastesasgoodasanybanana.

�.�.�.�.�.� Estate crops The estate crops culti-vatedonthebrownforestsoilsoftheuplandarethoseadaptedforgrowingwellincool,humidregionclimates.Tea(Theasinensis),traditionallyamountaincrop,isoneofthecropsthatstartstobecomeofimportanceattheelevationoftheupland.Itiscultivatedhereinrelativelysmallplantations,whereasamongtheindustrialcrops,albiziatrees(Albiziachinensisorfalcata)areplantedforfirewoodandcheaptimberorforsoilconservationonsteepterrain.Rubberandoilpalmwillnotgrowandproducepoorlyinuplandclimates.Theyarethecropsadapted to the warm humid lowlands. Another cropstated earlier as being ideal for cultivation in uplandconditionsisthenutmeg.

�.�.�.�.�.� Teacrops Mostofthelargeandbetterteaplantationsarestillfoundhigherupinthemoun-tainregions(Figure7.2).Intheuplands,theestatesarerelativelysmallerandarefrequentlyfoundintheformoflocallyownedsmallteafarms.Thesesmallholderteaestateswerecalledbevolkingsthee(forDutch:teagrownbythepeople)intheDutchcolonialtime.Itstartedin1880 in the regions of Cicurug and Cibadak, on the

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hillsof theGedeh-Pangrangovolcanoes inWest Java,wherethefewlargeteaplantationspresent,ownedbyDutchcompanies,wereprovidingfreeteaseedstosur-rounding local farmers. The conditions were that theteashootsproducedbythelocalfolksmustbesoldtotheDutchestatesthatgavethemtheseeds.Itappearedto be a great success, because these small tea enter-priseshavesincethenspreadoutoverthewholePrian-gantearegioninWestJava,andthemethodseemstobecopiedbyotherenterprises,suchasintheproduc-tionofoilpalm,coffee,andotherestatecrops.MostoftheteagrownonthesmallestatesisAssam-tea,orteathatoriginatedfromAssam,India.Manyoftheolderteaplantationsownedtodaybysmallholdersoriginate

Figure 7.2 OneofthebetterteaestatesinthePengalenganHighlands, often used to showcase a well-maintained teaplantation.

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from these old stock and are, therefore, composed ofveryoldteabushes.Thoughcross-breedingattheGam-bungTeaResearch Institute nearBandung inWest Javahasproducednewcloneswithhigheryieldpotentials,replantingisgenerallyaverybigchoreforlocalfarm-ers.Italsomeansadecreasedorlossofincomeforthesmallfarmersforatleastacoupleofyears.Theyieldsofreplantedteafarmsremainsmallforayearortwoandwillreachmaximumproductiononlyafter6to8years.OnelocallyownedteafarminSukanegara,southofCianjur,West Java,visited in2005and2007by thepresentauthor,stillregisteredsatisfactoryyieldsofteashootsfromhismorethan25-year-oldteabushes.Thetotalmonthlyyieldoffreshtealeavesamountingto937kg/ha,asreportedattheteafarmatSukanegara,givesanannualaverageyieldoffreshshootsof11,250kg/ha.Atasellingpriceof900rupiahsperkg,theaboveyieldprovidestheownerwithacoolannualincomeof10.125millionrupiahs,whichtranslatesonlyto$1,012.50(atarateof$1.00toRp.10,000).Thoughitseemslikeawholelotofmoney,amiddle-incomefamilyoffour(withtwochildren)needsapproximately40to50millionrupiahsforlivingcomfortablyinIndonesia.

The harvest of fresh young shoots is either sold tolargerestatesforprocessinginthefactoryintomainlyblacktea,orusedbythefarmersfortheproductionofgreentea.Ineithercase,thefreshleaveswillyieldontheaverage22to25%factory-processeddrytea.Blackteawasandtodaystillisproducedforexportonlyinthelargeteaestates,suchasthefamousorangepekoetea.Someofthishigh-qualityteahastodayfounditswayforsaleatlocalstoresforuseindomesticconsumption.

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On the other hand, green tea is produced mostly forlocaltradeandconsumption.Themethodofprocessingintogreenteahasbeencarriedover,allegedly,fromtheChinesepeople(VanHall,1950),sinceintheDutchpre-WorldWarIIperiod,norelationshipwasestablishedyetwithJapan,wheregreenteaisaveryimportantprod-uct. The Japanese influence started with the JapaneseoccupationofIndonesiaduringthestartofWorldWarII.Greenteaistraditionallymixedwithculanflowers(Aglaia odorata) or jasmine (Jasminum sambac or Garde-niaaugusta)togivethefinalproductthecharacteristicaromawhenmixedwithboilingwater.Itissoldunderthenameofjasmineteaatnearbymarketplaces.

�.�.�.�.�.� Albizia crops This is a tree crop ofthelegumeorMimosaceae family,knownscientificallyasAlbiziafalcataorA.falcataria.Thetermfalcata(mean-ing“sickle-like”)referstothecurvedleaflets.Thetreeis a native of the Moluccas and is often also calledAlbiziamoluccana.Locally, it is called jeungjing, albesia,kayu sengon, or jati putih. The latter means white teak,thoughitdoesnotcarrythestronghardwoodfeaturesofteak,ratheralbiziawoodismoreatypeofsoftwood.Theplantisgrownmoreonsmallholders’estatesandonlysporadicallyonestatesownedbythegovernmentor industries. In a move to stimulate the Indonesiangovernment’s Regreening and Reforestation progam, theBogorSoilResearchInstitutetriedtoencouragesmallfarmerstogrowalbizia.Thetreesaresuggestedtobeplantedonfarmswithsteepterrain,whereslopesare>40%(Agus,2001).

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AlbiziaisatfirstperhapstransplantedfromitsnativeenvironmentintheMoluccasandPapuaforuseasshadetrees and for several other soil conservation featuresintheDutchtea,coffee,andcacaoplantationsinJavaandSumatra.Becauseitisalegume,theDutchplantersbelievethatasnitrogenfixers,albiziatreesmayenrichthesoilswithnitrogentothebenefitoftheteaorcof-feebushes.Theyconsiderthetreesnottocompeteforthisandothernutrientswith the teaor coffeeplants,becauseoftheirabilitytodevelopdeeperrootsystems.The roots are nodulated by Rhizobia and Bradhirizobiabacteriaandreportedtohostatypeofvasicular-arbus-cularmycorrhizae(VAM).Therateofnitrogenfixedperyearisestimatedtoamountto65to140kg/ha(Reshetal.,2002).

Albiziatreesareplantedfromseeds,harvestedfromseedpodsgrowingonthetrees.Duetothehardshell,germinationoftheseedisoftenratherdifficult.How-ever, once germinated, the plants are well known fortheirveryrapidgrowth,reachingheightsof6m(18.3ft)andatrunkdiameterof±5to10cmatthebaseinjust1year.Leftundisturbed,theycangrowto25to30mtallandupto1mindiameteratthebasetrunk.Theplants have the capacity to coppice, and sporadically,they canbeharvested in4- to5-year cycles from theregrowthofsuckersornewshoots.Asindicatedabove,cultivation of albizia trees is conducted more on pri-vatelyownedlandsbysmallfarmersandoccasionallyin industry-owned tree estates. Government-ownedestates,ontheotherhand,aremoreinterestedingrow-ingvaluablehigh-pricedhardwoodtrees,suchasteak,whosegrowthislimitedtothemonsoonregionsofthe

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lowlands. In the local smallholderplantations,albiziaisalsopopularasan intercrop.Thealbizia farmsareconsidered by many Indonesians as well as Japanesescientists to be eco-friendly or environmentally friendly,because trees are harvested from planted farms andnotcutfromnaturalforeststands(Akihito,2003).Ifthisisthedefinitionofeco-friendly,thenplantationsculti-vatedwithpinetreesbythepulpandpapercompaniesintheUnitedStatesandEuropemustalsofallintothecategoryofbeingenvironmentalfriendly.

Thealbiziawoodiswhiteandsoftandbecamepopu-larbecauseofprovidingcheap,affordable lumber forbuilding huts in the villages, and all kinds of cheapfurniture,boxes,andlightconstructions.However,thewooddeterioratesrapidlyandisverysensitivetoinfes-tationbytermites.InHawaii,itisusedfortheproduc-tionofmatchesandmatchboxes(Duke,1983).Albiziahasalsoattractedworldwideattentionasa fuel crop.It isarenewableresourcefortheproductionofcheapcharcoal,thoughthelatterisonlyoflowcaloricvalue.Whenburned, itonlyprovidesenergy to theamountof5000 to7000kcal/kg.Today, thewood isalsocon-sideredusefulforthepaperandpulpindustryandhasthepotentialof replacingpinewoodas the source forpulp(Duke,1983).TheDepartmentofForestryinIndo-nesiatriedrecentlytopromoteplantingalbiziaontheeastcoastofSumatrainconnectionwithitsPamusiranproject(VandenEelaart,2004).Inanefforttointegratethisprojectwiththegovernmentreclamationprogramsof peat areas, reforestation of abandoned peat areaswithalbiziatreeswassuggested.AhugepulpfactorywasestablishedinJambi,capableofusingalotofraw

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materialfromalbiziatrees,plantedinthesurroundingareas of reclaimed peat lands that have deterioratedandbeenabandonedbythetransmigrationsettlers.

�.�.�.�.�.� Nutmeg Thisisoneofthecropsthathas made Indonesia famous in the past as the SpiceIslands. The nutmeg (Myristica fragans) trees, locallycalledpohonpala,arenativeoftheMoluccas.OriginallyfoundbyPortuguesesailorsandmerchantsin1511ontheBandaislandsgroup,theircultivationlaterspreadduring the time of the Dutch East Indian Companyinthe1600stoMenado,NorthMinehassa,Sangi,andTalaud islands, and Bengkulu, Southwest Sumatra.Many other nutmeg varieties have been reported togrowwildinotherpartsoftheMoluccasislands.Forexample,theMyristicaargenteaisfoundintheBirdHeadofWestPapua,whereitislocallyknownaspapua-nut,theMyristicasuccedaneaofHalmahera,calledhalmaheranutmeg,theMyristicaspeciosaofBacanIsland,southofHalmahera,locallycalledbacannut,andseveralothers.TodaythecropisalsogrowninMauritius,EastAfrica,andGrenada,intheCaribbeanIslands.

Thecropiscultivatedmainlybysmallholderestates,ownedbylocalfarmers,whichisconductedbyplant-ingseedlings.Itis,therefore,notatrueestatecrop,andIndonesianauthoritiesconsideritmoreasanindustrialcrop. Though the trees will grow in the lowlands totheuplands,theygrowapparentlybestonsoilsrichinhumusatelevationsbetween400and700mabovesealevel,wheretheclimateissomewhatcoolerbutstillsuf-ficientlyhumidthroughthewholeyear.Thetreewillmatureandstarttoyieldat6to7yearsofage,andwill

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reachmaximumproductionwhenitis25yearsold(Dei-num,1950a).Withpropermaintenanceitmaycontinuetogivehighyieldsforatleast50moreyears.In1930to1940,yieldsof300nuts(=2to3kgdry)andanaddi-tional600gmacepertreewereconsideredhigh,thoughtodayyieldsof20to30timesthatmucharecalledhigh.Withthenewgenerationofpalatrees,yieldsof6000to7000nuts/tree/yearareperhapsmorecommontoday.

Theplantsaredioecious, requiring thecultivationofmaletreesforproperfruitsettingbythefemaleplants.Inthepastitwascustomarytoalsoplantwindbreak-ersforcontrollingprematurefruitfallsbythefrequentstormsoccurringduringthechangeofwettoslightlydry seasons, especially on the Banda islands. TheDutchscientistssuggestedtheuseofthetall-growingCanariumtrees(Canariumcommuneorindicum),knownlocally as pohon kenari, because albizia trees, used inteaestates,provide toomuchshade,whichshouldbeavoidedinnutmegfarms.Someshadeisstillnecessary,whichisprovidedbythekenaritreesthatcangrow40to50mtallandproduce,asasidebenefit,edible,deli-ciouskenarinuts.Thoughthehullsofthenutsarestonehard,thesoftwhitenutsinsideareconsumednotonlybyhumansbutallegedlyalsobylemursintheMada-gascarrainforest.

Thepalaornutmegfruitsareovaloroblonginshape,likea small lemon.When ripe, theyhaveayellowishcolor and will split open naturally, exposing a brownnutinside,thenutmeg,covered(coated)byared-coloredaril-likemembrane,calledmace(Figure7.3).Thenutmeg,called locallybijipala,andthemaceor fuli (inDutch),locally known as kembang pala, are the most valuable

69071.indb 329 4/25/08 10:43:05 AM


partsasspices.Themeatofthefruit(pericarp)isverysourand tangyandconsumedby localpeople in theformofcandy,calledmanisanpala(candiednutmeg).

The nutmeg farms are surprisingly less subject toattack by plant pests and diseases than are the otherestatecrops,perhapsduetoavarietyofnaturalchemi-calscontainedby theplants.Nutmegoil isknowntohave hallucinogenic properties and is also used eventoday for the treatment of toothaches and rheumaticpain. The only serious disease, known locally as theclamdiseaseorwhite-splitdisease,istheprematuresplit-tingoffruitpodsthatcanruintheyieldby50%ormore,becauseofseriousdamagetothenutsandmace.

�.�.�.�.�.� Dairyfarming Thiskindofoperationstarts to become important in the upland, due to theclimate becoming favorable for dairy farming. Somedairy farms can, however, be occasionally found in

A B

Figure 7.3 (A) Ripe nutmeg fruit at almost actual size. (B)Openednutmegfruitshowingtheseed(thenutmeg),coveredbyred-coloredmace.

69071.indb 330 4/25/08 10:43:06 AM


thelowlands.Inthiscase,theyarelocatedclosetotheproximityoflargetowns,wheremarketsandconsum-ers are available for milk and dairy products. How-ever,thebetterandmoreproductivefarmsarelocatedathigheraltitudes,especiallyinthemountains,whereconditionsarethemostsuitableforthiskindofopera-tion. Milk production is generally lowest in lowlandfarms,somewhathigher inuplandfarms,buthighestin highland farms. The cows, mostly imported fromtheNetherlands,havebeenreportedtoyield3098kgofmilk(perlactationandperheadofcattle)onmountainfarms, almost twice that produced on upland farms(AARD, 1986). More details on dairy farming will begiveninthesectiononthesoilsofthemountains.

69071.indb 331 4/25/08 10:43:06 AM

69071.indb 332 4/25/08 10:43:06 AM

��

chaptereight

SoilsinthemountainsofIndonesia

�.� IntroductionThe discussion in this chapter focuses on the soilslocatedinthehighlandsormountainregionsofIndone-siaatelevationsof≥1000mabovesealevel.Thisregionextends to an altitude of approximately 2400 m or tothesummitofavolcanoandincludesahigh-mountainregion(seeChapter3,Table3.3).Theycoverasubstan-tialpartof thesurfaceof the Indonesianarchipelago.In Javaalone, theyareestimated tocover21,950km2,or17%oftheentireareaoftheisland.Thetopographyin themountainregions issteepandveryroughandwill obviously promote erosion, whereas the cool cli-mate may slow rapid weathering processes. The con-ditions are very favorable for humification, and thehigh amounts of humic substances accumulating inthesoilsplayadominantroleinsoilformation.Hence,podzolization is more prominent, bringing about thecharacteristic pattern of mobilization of aluminum,

69071.indb 333 4/25/08 10:43:07 AM


iron, and clays due to chelation by humic and fulvicacids. The processes are called cheluviation and chillu-viation for mobilization of aluminum and iron in theformofhumometalchelates.Cheluviationreplacestheterm eluviation, whereas chilluviation is used for theprocessof illuviationor thesubsequentaccumulationof humo-Al and humo-Fe chelates in spodic horizons.Thesoilsalsoexhibitcharacteristicstructures formedbymountaingranulation,atermusedbyMohr(1944),fortheirpeculiarattributes.Itdifferssomewhatfromthegranular structures of the soils in the lowlands (viz.,oxisols), though some similarities with respect to theeffectofironcanalsobenoticed.Thestructuralunitsareveryresistanttotheimpactofraindropsandhavebeen designated as pseudosand (Mohr andVanBaren,1960).Mostprobablythehighcontentoforganicmat-terissuspectedtoplayanimportantroleascementingmaterialintheformationofthesestablestructures,inadditiontopeptizedironsubstances.Theinteractionoforganic matter in particular with paracrystalline clayandotherinorganicsoilmaterialsisthebigdifferenceherefromformationofsoilstructuresexhibitedbyoxi-sols.Anexampleofmountaingranulationisshownbymicropedological studies in Figure8.1. The soil thinsectionalsoindicatesthepresenceofabraunlehmforma-tion,similartothatdefinedbyKubiena(1962)inmostofthesesoils.

Theregionscoveredbythemountainsoilshaveveryimportant economic and social functions, becausemostofthemountainestatesorplantationsarelocatedhere. Tea, coffee, cinchona (quinine), and other cropsaregrownwithsuccess,bringinginthedesiredcash.

69071.indb 334 4/25/08 10:43:07 AM

Chaptereight: SoilsintheMountainsofIndonesia ��

Despite this fact, relatively little is known about thesoils, and they were formerly grouped together onlyundertheverybroadandmeaninglessnameMountainSoils.Inaddition,severalofthesesoilswereinthe1960s

Figure 8.1 Soil thin section of an A horizon of a tropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoilattheslopeofthePangrango-Gedevolcanoescomplex(1100m),showingaloose,friable,darkyel-lowish-brown(10YR4/4)matrix,duetothepresenceofamor-phous ironoxides.Largeamountsofprimarymineralscanalsobeseenimbeddedinthesoilfabricasuncoatedgrains.

69071.indb 335 4/25/08 10:43:07 AM


mistakenlyrecognizedasandosolsbyDudalandSupra-ptohardjo(1961).

Themountainsoilswereknownandinvestigatedinpre-WorldWarIItimeperhapsonlybySenstius(1930).The investigations by Senstius were limited to a fewsoil profiles only, of the Lawu volcano, East Java, theMalabar volcano, West Java, and that of the Banahaomountain in Luzon, the Philippines. The soil profileswere all located at elevations of more than 2000 mabove sea level, and Senstius arrived at a conclusionthatthesoilswereaffectedbyatypeofpodzolicweath-eringprocess;inotherwords,podzolizationisinvolvedin the formation of these soils. However, in the post-World War II period, several Dutch scientists startedreinvestigating the mountain soils in more detail,andmanydifferentsoilgroupswererecognized.VanSchuylenborghandVanRummelen(1955),TanandVanSchuylenborgh (1961a), and Tan (1965) have been ableto distinguish andosols, gray-brown podzolic soils,brownpodzolicsoils,andpodzols.TheandosolswerelaternotedtoalsooccurintheuplandsandlowlandsofIndonesia.Thebrownpodzolicsoilswereconsideredby the authors above as a transitional group, formedjustabovethezonesofgray-brownpodzolicsoilsandextendingtothezonesofpodzolslocatedathigherele-vations.AsdiscussedinChapter7,theirexistenceasadistinctsoilgrouphasbeenquestionedinsomepartsof the world. The soils are not well known by manyscientistsinWesternEurope,ortheyareperhapscon-sideredasabrownforesttypeofsoil.Thischapterwilldiscussthegray-brownpodzolicsoils,brownpodzolicsoils,andpodzols, thesoilsaffectedbypodzolization

69071.indb 336 4/25/08 10:43:08 AM


processes. The andosols will be addressed separatelyinChapter9becauseoftheirdifferenttypeofforma-tionandbecausetheymayoccurintheuplandsaswellasinthelowlands.Mostoftheandosols,however,arelocatedinthemountainregionsofIndonesia.

�.� HighlandalfisolsHighlandalfisolswerewidelyrecognizedinthepastasthegray-brownpodzolicsoilsofNorthAmericaandEurope(Cline, 1949; Tavernier and Mückenhausen, 1960), buttheyarenowcalledalfisolsforreasonsdescribedbelow.Theyareapparently importantsoilsunderdeciduousandmixed forestsof coolhumidregionsandbyU.S.foresters still identified as gray-brown podzolic soils(Stearns, 1997). The soils are rather weakly podzol-ized and in the United States are generally found tothe south of the podzols and brown podzolic zones.TheyaregenerallycharacterizedbydistinctA,B,andCprofiles, inwhichtheAhorizonsshowthedistincteffectofcheluviation,whereastheBhorizonscontainmoreclaythaneitherAorChorizons.Theseeffectsofcheluviationandchilluviationseemtobetheoutstand-ingcharacteristicsofthisgroupofsoils.Basedontheseprocesses,thesoilsarealsoknownasgrayluvisolicorgray-brownluvisolicsoilinCanada(Arocenaetal.,2006)andassoil brun lessivé in theFrench-speakingpartofWesternEurope.IntheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,thesoilsareplacedinthealfisolsorder,asindicatedearlier,becauseofthepresenceofargillic-Bhorizonsandbasesatura-tions of ≥35% in the control zones (Soil Survey Staff,1960, 1975), features resulting from the soil-forming

69071.indb 337 4/25/08 10:43:08 AM


processesstatedabove.Thebasesaturationof≥35%wasadiagnosticcriteriontodistinguishalfisolsfromulti-sols,untilthiswaschangedinthecurrentU.S.versions(SoilSurveyStaff,1990,2006a).InIndonesia,thegray-brownpodzolicsoilsaretypicalmountainorhighlandsoils.Todistinguishthisgroupofzonalsoilsfromthemorelithologicallylowlandalfisols,discussedinChap-ter6,thenamehighlandalfisolsisusedinthetitleabove.Amoredetailedreasoningwillbeprovidedinthesec-tionsbelow.


InNorthAmerica,gray-brownpodzolicsoilsarederivedfromcalcareousparentmaterials(Cline,1949).However,in Indonesia they are foundon intermediate volcanicmaterials.ThemineralogicaldatainTable8.1showtheparent materials to vary somewhat from andesitic tobasalto-andesiticvolcanictuff.ThematerialsfromtheKendengmountain,WestJava,lackquartzand,hence,aremorebasicthantheothertwoandmayqualifytobecalledbasalto-andesitictuffwithahyperstheneassocia-tion.IthasmoderateamountsofgibbsiteindicatingtheeffectofoxidationprocessesincontrasttotheothertwomaterialsfromtheWayangandLawuvolcanoes.Thisrelativelymoreintenseweatheringistobeexpectedinviewof its locationat lowerelevations thantheothertwo.Thematerials fromtheWayangvolcanopossesssmallamountsofquartzandcanbeconsideredandes-iticwithanolivineassociation.Largeamountsofironconcretionsweredetected,butnogibbsitewasfoundinAandBhorizons.TheparentmaterialfromtheLawu

69071.indb 338 4/25/08 10:43:08 AM

Chaptereight: SoilsintheMountainsofIndonesia ��Ta

ble

.8.1

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69071.indb 339 4/25/08 10:43:09 AM


volcanoisalsoandesitictuffwithahypersthene-augiteassociation.Nogibbsitewasdetected,andtheamountsof iron concretions were substantially smaller thanthoseoftheWayangvolcano.

�.�.� Climate

Gray-brownpodzolicsoilsare,ingeneral,soilsbelong-ing to the cool humid regions of the United States,normallyundera forestcoverconsistingofhemlock–northernhardwoodsassociation.Theyaremajorforestsoils and extend south to the forests of the SouthernPiedmont and Blue Ridge Mountains in Georgia. InMaryland, the trees are oaks, maples, hickories, andsometimessouthernwhitepinesmixedwithbeeches.

InIndonesia,theclimaticregionsofgray-brownpod-zolicsoilsvaryaccordingtolocalconditions.Thedatain Table8.2 indicate that in West Java, characterizedby a continuously humid condition (f), gray-brownpodzolicsoilsaremainlydevelopedinthetemperatetocoolmountainclimates(C),butinveryfewexcep-tionsthesoil’soccurrencemayextendtotherelativelywarmerAfclimatetypesofKöppen’ssystem.Ontheotherhand,inthemonsoonregions(m)ofCentralandEastJava, thesoilsareusuallyformedathigheralti-tudesascomparedtothosefoundinWestJava.Inthemonsoonregions,thegray-brownpodzolicsoilsoccurmoreinthecoolmountainCficlimates,andtheyhavenot been detected in Köppen’s Af or Am types ofclimates.

69071.indb 340 4/25/08 10:43:09 AM



Cline(1949)definesgray-brownpodzolicsoilsofNewYorkashavingthinAhorizonsoverlyingEhorizons.Inalmostallcases,thisEhorizoncanbedividedintotwosections:anupperpartthatisyellowish-brownincolor and an underlying part usually pale brown orgrayish-brownincolor.TheBhorizonspossessdefinitehigherclaycontentsthantheAorChorizon,andarecalledtodayargillic,textural,orBthorizons.Inregions

Rainfall Altitude

<60 mm >100 mm


Type ofClimatea

West Java (Humid)

Cigombong

Podok Gedeh

Cipanas

Salak Volcano

307

900

1070

2211

1.6

0.4

0.9

0.0

9.0

10.1

9.3

11.1

2417

3644

2817

5467

Afa

Afa

Af

Cfi

B

A

A

A

Latosol

Podz. Latosol

Gray Br. Podz.

Gray Br. Podz.

East–Central Java (Monsoon)

Karangpandan

Tawangmanggu

Sarangan

Tamansari

307

900

1290

2480

3.7

3.1

3.4

—

7.6

8.0

7.7

—

2776

3194

2533

—

Ama

Am

Cfhi

Cs

C

C

C

—

Latosol

Brown Forest

Gray Br. Podz.

Location

m Months mm Köppen

Soil

S&F

Table.8.2. TheClimateofGray-BrownPodzolicSoilsinIndonesia

a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols: A = coldestmonth >18°C; a = warmest month >22°C; f = humid; i = hotsummer;m=monsoon;C=warmestmonth>10°Candcoldestmonthbetween18°Cand−3°C;h=coldestmonth>0°C;s=drysummer.

69071.indb 341 4/25/08 10:43:10 AM


farthertothesouth,Cline(1949)noticedthatthesecondEhorizonismissing,verythin,orcompletelymaskedby organic matter, which is supported by Krebs andTedrow (1957), who also reported the occurrence ofgray-brownpodzolicsoilsinNewJerseywithonlyonebrownEhorizon.

InIndonesia,gray-brownpodzolicsoilshavesimilarmorphological characteristics as indicated above. Thefollowingsoilprofileispresentedasanexample:

Gray-brown podzolic soil, Lawu vol-cano,Central–EastJava,atanelevationof1600mabovesealevel(TanandVanSchuylenborgh, 1959). The forest veg-etationiscomposedofAcaciadecurrens,andtheparentmaterialisandesitictuff.Drainageisnoticedtobeperfect.Colornotations below refer to air-dry andfield-moistconditions,respectively.


O 3–0 Litter,mulltype.

A1 3–16 2.5Y4/2to10YR2/1,darkgrayish-brown toblack, strong fine suban-gularblockytogranular,loam,veryfriable,abundanceofroots.

E 16–34 10YR6/3to10YR3/4,palebrowntoverydarkgray-brown, irregularplaty,siltloam,friable,manyroots.

69071.indb 342 4/25/08 10:43:10 AM


DuetolocalconditionsinIndonesia,variationsoccurfromthesoilprofileabove.Theorganicmattercontentisveryhighinmostgray-brownpodzolicsoilsinIndo-nesia,ascanbenoticedfromtheblackcolornotationabove for the A horizon. The name humic gray-brownpodzolicsoil isproposedforthismountainsoilvarietytodistinguishitfromthatlocatedatlowerelevations.This is the soil that is also frequently confused forandosols.TheAhorizonsofgray-brownpodzolicsoilslocatedatloweraltitudesareonlydarkbrowntodarkgrayish-brownincolor,thoughitsorganicmattercon-tentremainsrelativelyonthehighside.TheEhorizonsarealsonoticednottoexhibitplatystructures,whereastheir colors may vary from light to dark yellowish-brown. Van Schuylenborgh (1959) suggests using thenameoftropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoilforthisvarietyformedatlowerelevations.

Bt1 34–50 10YR5/4 to7.5YR3/2,yellowish-dark brown to dark brown, weak,fine subangular blocky, loam, fria-ble,manyroots.

Bt2 50–91 10YR6/4to5YR4/4,lightyellow-ish-browntoreddish-brown,weak,mediumsubangularblocktocrumb,silt loam, very friable, very fewroots.

C +91 10YR 5/8 to 6/8, brownish-yellowandesitictuff.

69071.indb 343 4/25/08 10:43:10 AM



Aspreviouslydiscussed, thesoilswerewidelyrecog-nized in the world as gray-brown podzolic soils andmapped as such in the Food and Agriculture Orga-nization–United Nations Educational, Scientific, andCultural Organization (FAO-UNESCO) soils map ofWesternEurope(TavernierandMückenhausen,1960).InFrench-speakingcountries,thesoilsareadditionallyknownunderthenamesolbrunlessivé,whereasintheGermanliteraturethetermsparabraunerdeandgebleichteparabraunerde can be found (Altemüller, 1962; Manil,1962). In Russia, the soils are recognized under quitedifferentnames.Heretheyareclassifiedassod-podzolicsoilsandderno-palepodzolicsoils(Tiurinetal.,1960).Itisapparentfromthevariousnamesabovethat thesoilsareconsideredinEuropeasweaklypodzolizedsoils.

IntheUnitedStates,theclassificationofsoilsonthebasis of soil-formation processes has unfortunatelybeenabandoned.With the introductionofanewU.S.soilclassificationsystem(SoilSurveyStaff,1960,1975),soilsareclassifiedmainlyontheirmorphologicalfea-tures.Becauseofthepresenceofprimarilyargillichori-zonsandabasesaturationof≥35%inthecontrolzone,gray-brown podzolic soils were grouped at that timetogetherwithothersoils(forexample,graywoodedsoilsandnoncalcicbrownsoils)intoonegroupandwellintothealfisolsorder.Graywoodedsoilsarethenorthernequivalentsofgray-brownpodzolicsoils,anameoftenusedintheCanadiansoilclassificationsystems.Intheirmore recent system, the names of gray luvisolic andgray-brownluvisolicsoilshaveapparentlyreplacedthe

69071.indb 344 4/25/08 10:43:10 AM


namegraywoodedsoils(Arocenaetal.,2006).InthemorerecentversionsoftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,1990,2006a),therequirementforbasesaturationofalfisolsabovehasbeendeletedandmakesonewon-derwhetherthiswasamisprintorwhetheronehastoread between the lines in using the criterion of basesaturationforultisolsinthisrespect?Forexample,allothersoilswithargillichorizonsthatdonotmeettherequirementofabasesaturationof≥35%arenotulti-solsbutalfisols?Thisisveryconfusingforscientistsinsoilphysics,soilmicrobiology,soilchemistry,andespe-cially professionals in agricultural sciences, who areinneedofsoilclassification.Theymaynotbeaswell-versedasasoiltaxonomistandwillnotseethiskindofreasoninginthewordytextwithitsmanyifs,eithers,andors.Ittookeventheauthor,asapedologist,reread-ingthetextseveraltimestorealizethecontextofbasesaturationbetweenultisolsandalfisolsabove,thoughheisstillnotsureyetwhetheritisrightornotbecauseofthefollowingissue.Theprovisionofarequirementforbasesaturationhasapparentlybeenmovedforuseas a key at the kandic great group level (Soil SurveyStaff,1990,2006a).However,thetexthasbeenchangedandasitreadsnow,“haveaCECof16cmol(+)orlessper kg clay,” and similarly valid for both the ultisolsandalfisolsorders, it is insharpcontrasttotheorigi-nalversionofabasesaturation≥35%foralfisols.Itwillcontributetoevenmoreconfusionbecausethekandicgreatgroupsofboththeultisolsandalfisolsordersareidentifiedbyanexactlysimilardiagnosticfeature.

Judging from the exploratory soil map of Indone-sia (Chapter 1, Section 1.2.8), alfisols are apparently

69071.indb 345 4/25/08 10:43:11 AM


unknownandhardlyrecognizedinIndonesia.Withanestimatedacreageof52,134km2(2.77%ofthetotalacre-age),thesoilsrankverylowinimportance.TheBogorSoil Research Institute may have included soils otherthan gray-brown podzolic soils in the alfisols order.Fromthedistributiononthesoilmap,severalofthelow-landsoilsmayhavebeenidentifiedasalfisols,whichisapparentlybasedmerelyonthemeritsofhavingargillichorizonsandbasesaturations≥35%.ThepresentauthorhasalsomadereferenceinthisrespecttothepresenceoflowlandalfisolsinChapter6.However,theresultsoftheDutchandauthor’sownresearchindicatetheexten-siveoccurrenceofalfisolsathigherelevations,inacre-agesfarinexcessfromthatoutlinedinthesoil’smap.Thesesoilsaremajorsoilsandareconsideredtypicalhighland or mountain soils, affected by cheluviationandchilluviation.Therefore,gray-brownpodzolicsoilsoralfisolshavebeenformedbydistinctpodzolizationprocesses, which is contrary to the lowland alfisols.Therefore, the present author suggests naming themmountainorhighlandalfisolstodifferentiatethemfromthelowlandalfisols.Themountainsoilscanperhapsbecorrelatedwiththeudalfs,withfurtherplacementpref-erably as tropudalfs, because they still differ in someaspectsfromtheirsoils’counterpartintheUnitedStatesandothertemperateregions.Theuseoftrop(fortropics)prefixeswascommonintheolderU.S.systemsofsoiltaxonomy, but has unfortunately been deleted in thecurrentversions.Thesoilsmayperhapsbefitted intothekandiudalfgreatgroup.However,suchaplacementis less likely to be correct because of the presence ofrelativelyhighpHvaluesandoftheircontentsofmore

69071.indb 346 4/25/08 10:43:11 AM


2:1latticethan1:1latticetypeofclayminerals,aswillbediscussedbelow.Thecoloroftheargillichorizonsisnotoftherequiredhueof2.5YRorredder,butinsteadismoretowardtheyellower5YRand10YR;hence,thesoilswillnotqualifyasrhodicgreatgroupsofalfisolseither.


�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionThedatainTable8.3indicatethatthegray-brownpod-zolicsoilsofIndonesiaaremedium-texturedsoils.TheAhorizonsofthetropicalgray-brownpodzolicaswellasthehumicgray-brownpodzolicsoilsareallcharac-terizedbyasiltloamtexture.Theclaycontentincreasesfrom A to B horizons, which is ascribed to mobiliza-tionofclayintheformofhumo–claycomplexes.Thesubsequent formation of argillic or Bt horizons is inconformity of prevailing concepts for placement ofthesesoilsinthealfisolsorder.

�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsThepHvaluessuggestthesoilstobemoderatelyacidto slightly acid in reaction. A slight tendency can benoticedthatthetropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoils,themountain soils at lower elevations, are slightly moreacidicthanthehumicgray-brownpodzolics,thesoilslocated at higher elevations in the mountains. The Ahorizonofthetropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoilhasapH=4.8,whichplacesthesoilinthecategoryofstronglyacidsoils(pH4to5)(Tan,2005).Cline(1949)madetheobservationsoftheexistenceofacorrelationbetween

69071.indb 347 4/25/08 10:43:11 AM



Org. C %

N %

Profile Horizon

50–2 <2 µ

pHH2O

A

E

B1

Bt

C

23.0

24.4

25.6

34.7

62.0

65.3

63.6

67.5

44.1

25.3

11.7

12.0

16.9

21.2

12.7

4.80

5.26

5.48

5.80

6.24

16.6

10.1

5.4

2.0

0.7

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

A1

E

Bt1

Bt2

B3

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

6.8

18.6

23.4

28.4

34.6

6.80

6.44

6.48

6.36

6.18

14.6

7.1

4.6

3.3

3.5

1.2

0.8

0.5

0.4

0.4

12.2

10.1

9.2

8.3

8.8

>50 µ

C N

Tropical Gray-Brown Podzolic Soil, West Java

Humic Gray-Brown Podzolic Soil, West Java

A1

E

Bt

B2

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

11.3

11.4

15.1

13.1

5.69

5.99

6.23

6.36

9.5

7.2

5.5

2.7

0.8

0.7

0.7

0.4

12.0

10.2

7.9

6.8

Humic Gray-Brown Podzolic Soil, Central–East Java

Table.8.3. PhysicochemcialCharacteristicsofGray-BrownPodzolicSoils

Sources:VanSchuylenborgh,J.andVanRummelen(1955);VanSchuylenborgh,J.(1958);Tan,K.H.andVanSchuylen-borgh,J.(1959,1960).

69071.indb 348 4/25/08 10:43:12 AM


thethicknessofEhorizonsandacidityofgray-brownpodzolicsoilsinuplandNewYork.HestatedthatverythinEhorizonswerenoticedingray-brownpodzolicswithalmostneutralreactions(pH=7to6),whereasthemorestronglyacidicmembers(pH<6)werecharacter-izedwiththickEhorizons.SuchanobservationcannotbesupportedpresentlyinIndonesia,whereonthecon-trarythereversemaybetrue.Inthisrespect,theauthorhas noticed that thick E horizons were found in thehumicgray-brownpodzolicsoils,withalmostneutralreactions(pH=6.8to6.1)ascomparedtothinEhori-zons of the tropical gray-brown podzolic soils wherepHinthesolumisintherangeof4.8to5.8.Thefactsabove tend tosuggest that thesoilpH isnotactuallythe reason for mobilization of clay particles, but thathumicacidsaremorelikelytobetheforcesinthepod-zolizationprocess.AscanbenoticedfromTable8.3,theorganicmattercontentisquitehighfromAtoBhori-zons,and inparticular in theAhorizonswherecon-tentsbetween9.5and17%Corgaredetected.Oftenthetropical gray-brown podzolic variety exhibits lightercolors than the humic gray-brown podzolic soils, butas shown inTable8.3, theorganicmatter contentsdonotdiffermuchbetweenthetwovarieties.Inthispar-ticular example, the lighter-colored A horizon of thetropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoilhaseventhehighestorganicmattercontent.

�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyIntheolderliterature,“mountainsoils”werereportedtobecharacterizedbyhalloysiteclayminerals(Hardon,

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1936b),whichfindssomesupportinthemorecurrentliterature. Due to more advanced techniques and theavailability of more sophisticated instruments, moredetails have been collected in the post-World War IIperiods. The clay fractions of gray-brown podzolicsoilsappeartoalsocontainsubstantialamountsoffreeironoxidesandamorphousorparacrystallinemateri-alsmixedwithvaryingamountsofgibbsite,2:1and1:1typesofclays,andα-crystoballite.Insomecases,hallo-ysitemaybeabsentandseemstobereplacedbykaolin-ite.Anexampleof suchacomposition isprovided inTable8.4foratropicalgraybrownpodzolicsoiloftheKendeng mountain in West Java. As can be noticed,theamountofgibbsitetendstodominatetheclayfrac-tion.Thisisfollowedbynontronite,a2:1latticetypeofclaymineral,whereaskaoliniteranksthirdinamounts.Alpha-crystoballiteandlabradoriteareprimaryminer-als.Theyarealsodetectedintheclayfractionbecauseof theirsizesat<2 mm,thesizeofclayminerals.Theoccurrenceofα-cristoballiteisoftenusedasanindica-tionofthesoil’soriginfromvolcanicmaterial.Theclaymineralogy of the humic gray-brown podzolic soilsofWestandCentral–EastJava(notshown)donotdif-fermuchfromtheabove.Inafewcases,theclayfrac-tionsofgray-brownpodzolicsoilsmaybedominatedbyhalloysite,asisthecasewithatropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoilofPujon,EastJava.Becauseofthisuniqueclay fraction, composed of 90% halloysites, the claymineralcomposition isprovidedinTable8.4 forcom-parative purposes. Such a composition lends supporttoHardon’s(1936)findingsofhalloysitebeingthechar-acterizingmineralofmountainsoils,asstatedearlier.

69071.indb 350 4/25/08 10:43:12 AM


Thepresentauthordeterminedbydifferentialthermalanalysis (DTA) thepresenceofhalloysite,mixedwithamorphous or paracrystalline materials and some 2:1layertypesofclaysinagray-brownpodzolicsoiloftheTangkuban-Prahu volcano, West Java (see Chapter 7,Figure7.1).

Table.8.4. EstimatedMineralComposition(in%)oftheClayFractionsofGray-BrownPodzolicSoilsinIndonesia

Sources:VanSchuylenborgh,J.andVanRummelen(1955);Tan,K.H.andVanSchuylenborgh,J.(1959,1960).

A1

E

B

Bt

C

—

—

—

—

—

10

20

15

10

1

25

30

45

55

35

25

10

5

5

1

30

20

15

15

25

10

20

20

15

40

A1

A2

E

Bt

C

95

90

90

90

60

5

10

10

10

40

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Kendeng Mountain, West Java

Pujon, East Java

Horizon Halloy-site

Gibbsite α-Crystob-allite

Kaolin- ite

Nontron- ite

Labrador- ite

69071.indb 351 4/25/08 10:43:13 AM



�.�.�.� EvaluationofanalyticalpropertiesThepHvaluesarewithinasuitablerangeofthegrowthrequirementsofmostcrops.Attheslightlytomoderatelyacidicconditions,thebasesaturationswereexpectedtobeabovethe35%limit,butresultsofanalysessuggestthe exchange complex to be saturated with less than10%calcium(TanandMassey,1964).Theexchangeablepotassiumcontents(100ppmK)areusuallywithintherangenormallyfoundinproductiveagriculturalsoils.Availablephosphorus(3ppmP)isinthelowrangeofstandards applied to the Bray test. However, this testhasbeencalibratedfortemperateregionsoftheUnitedStatesandissuggestedbytheauthortoberecalibratedifusedforthemountainsoilsofIndonesia.Themoreacidicvarietymayperhapshavesomealuminumaccu-mulatedintheBthorizon,butjudgingfromthesoilpHrangeof5to6,thechancesforsubsoilacidityoralumi-numtoxicityarelesslikelytohappen.

�.�.�.� SignificanceofbasicsoilpropertiesIngeneral, thisgroupofsoils isfertileandmayformgoodagriculturalandforestlands.Mostofthesoilsareyoungvolcanicashsoils,andseveraloftheplantnutri-ents are still locked up in the primary minerals (seeTable8.1). This perhaps explains the presence of rela-tivelylowlevelsofcalciumandotherplantnutrientsinsolubleforms.Mostofthemareexpectedtobesuppliedby the decomposition of the litter covering the forestfloor.Themountainvegetation,responsibleforproduc-tionofthelitter,iscomposedmostlyofhardwoodtrees

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(e.g.,Quercussp.oroak,Castaneasp.,chestnutorlocallycalledsaninten).TheAcaciatrees,mentionedinthesoilmorphologysection,arefromreforestationefforts.Theassociationofbroad-leaftreesaboveisknowntopro-duce base-rich litter. At higher altitudes, close to thetimberline, the hardwood forest may be mixed withsomeindigenousconiferoustrees,thoughthelitterhereisstillnotasacidicasthatknownforconiferousforestsoftemperateregions.

Thelitterlayerisalsoresponsiblefornutrientcyclingand is also the source for the relatively high nitrogencontentsandextremelyhighorganicmattercontentsinthesurfacesoil.Inthecoolmountainclimate,decompo-sitionofthelitterproduceslargeamountsofhumicandfulvic acids, which make the A horizons notoriouslyblack todarkbrown incolor.This is thenwhy, in thepast,thegray-brownpodzolicsoilswereoftenconfusedforandosols.Duetothehighhumuscontents,bringingabout the mountain granulation, the soils exhibit stablesoilstructuresandotherexcellentphysicalpropertiesforagriculturalandforestactivities.Theymayneedproperfertilizationtooffsetsomeofthelownutrientcontents.

When liming is needed, the use of dolomitic limeorgypsumissuggested inordernot toraisesoilpH,becausethisisalreadyinthesuitablerangeformostofthecrops.

�.�.�.� AgriculturaloperationsAsindicatedearlier,lowlandricecultivationisalwaysofprimaryconcernalloverIndonesia,andthisalsoseemstobe true in themountain regions.However, ricewasdiscussed earlier, and its cultivation practices using

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inundatedfields,calledsawahs,are thesamefromthelowlands to the mountain regions. Hence, more atten-tionwillbegivenbelowtosomeofthevegetable,fruit,andestate crops,whichareveryprofitable formostofthe farmers and bring in the needed revenues for thecountry.

The mountain climate, where the soils are located,isfavorableforgrowingagreatvarietyofcoolregioncrops.ThisistheplacewhereEuropeanvegetablesarebest cultivated, whereas at limited locations apples,pears,grapes,andwheatarealsogrown.Theclimateattheseelevationsisusuallytoocoolfortropicalfruitcrops,suchaspapaya,citrus,andcoconutpalms.Theupperlimitsfortheirpropercultivationaretheuplandclimate. The citrus, grown on mountain soils, oftenyields sour-tasting oranges. The lowland bananas,calledpisangambon,arealsooutgrownbythemoun-tain variety that was called pisang ambon-lumut, asdiscussedintheagriculturaloperationsofbrownforestsoils(Chapter7,Section7.3.6.3).Evenfishculture,whichisextensivelyconductedinthelowlandsanduplandswithavarietyofcarp,barbers,andtilapia,cannotbepracticedhereaswellasitcanbeinthelowlands.Thewaterisapparentlytoocold,butimportedfishvariet-ies,suchastrout,areseeminglydoingwell.Themoun-tain regions are also the places where dairy farmingispracticedmostlywithimporteddairycows.Thisisalsotheplacewherethebestteaestatesandcinchonaandarabicacoffeeplantationsarelocated.ThelatterisinternationallyknownasthefamousJavacoffee.

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�.�.�.�.� Horticultural crops The same types ofvegetablesgrownonuplandsoilsarealsogrownhere(e.g.,cabbages,potatoes,beans,carrots,andtomatoes).However,becauseofacoolerclimate,providingbettergrowing conditions, the yields may often be slightlyhigher, whereas the quality of the produce from themountainsoilstendstobebetter.Lettuce(Lactucasativaor Lactuca indica) and the locally called sawi (Brassicarugosa),alsoaleafygreenproduce,arefavoredbymanyrestaurantsandsupermarketsintownbecauseoftheirmountain-grown quality. Stable manure was custom-arilyusedinthepastforstimulatingandraisingcropyields, but today artificial NPK fertilizers seem to bemorecommonincombinationwithstablemanure.

�.�.�.�.�.� Apples and grapes These fruit treeshavebeengrownfora fewdecadeswith limitedsuc-cess.Oftenthefruitsaretoosmallortheirtasteistootangyorsour.Throughbreedingandselection,suitableapplesandgrapesareproducedtodayinthehighlandsofMalang,EastJava,meetingmarketrequirements.

Appleplantsarenormallygrownbyusingbuddings,which isapparentlyamorerapidmethodofplantingthanusingseedlings.Thelatterusuallyrequireapprox-imately6monthsofstayinginthenurseriesbeforetheyarereadyfortransplantinginthefield.Sprayingappleflowerswithgrowthstimulatorstoincreasefruityieldsis often suggested by researchers of the Agency forAgriculturalResearchandDevelopment(AARD,1986).Theyieldincreasesof10to17%areperhapstoosmalltooutweighhealthhazards,andthismethodmayper-hapsnotmeetU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency

69071.indb 355 4/25/08 10:43:14 AM


(EPA)standards forconsumptionof theapples in theUnitedStates.

Grapes,calledangurinIndonesia,aretheotherfruitcrops that are gaining in importance. Today they aremostlygrowninMalang,EastJava,astablegrapes,usingvarietiesfromhomegrowneffortsinbreedingandselec-tion.Thequalityof thegrape fruits seems todependontheperiodoftimeallowedforgrowingandtimeofharvest. According to AARD (1986) research reports,toproducegrapesatmarketstandards,thegrapevinevarieties,developedunderIndonesianconditions,need105daysforgrowthafterpruning.However,theculti-vationofgrapesstillmeetsanumberofdifficultiesduetothehumidclimateofIndonesia.ThisisalsothemainreasonforplantinggrapesinthemountainsofEastJavawhereadryermonsoonclimate,KöppensAmclimate,ispresentratherthanthecontinuouslywetAfaorAfclimate in the West Java mountains. The grape vinesareverysusceptibletoattackbydownymildewfungus,especiallyduringtherainyseason,whichmayresultinatotalloss.Today,sprayingwithafungicide,propineb,hasbeensuggestedtoreducethedamage.Postharvesthandlingneedsalsoincreasedattentionduetotherapidenzymatic fermentation of the fruits during long-dis-tance hauling to reach marketplaces in Surabaya andespeciallyJakartaorotherdistanttowns.

�.�.�.�.�.� Wheat crops Wheat, known locallyasgandum,isanagriculturalcropthathasbeengrownin Indonesia with mixed results since the early daysof the pre-World War II period (Table8.5). The drivefor wheat cultivation in Indonesia has been revived

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today,presumablyoutofnecessity,bybusinesspeopleand thewheatflourmillingcompanies. In Indonesia,as is thecase inmostotherpartsofAsia,wheatasafood crop is not even second to rice. The estimate isthat only 5% of the total wheat flour consumption inIndonesiaisattributedtohouseholduse.Theindustryuses 30% of all the wheat flour primarily for noodle,bread,cake,somecrackers,andpastryproduction.TheaverageIndonesianfamilyneedsitforthepreparationoffriedfood,asadditivesincooking,andformakingcookies, some snacks, and cake. Because wheat flour

Table.8.5. MountainAreasWhereWheatCultivationinIndonesiaHasBeenReportedYear Location

1790 WestJava1828 DiengPlateau,CentralJava;Tengger,EastJava1849 Timor1855 MerbabuVolcanoComplex1925 PengalenganHighlands,WestJava1925 KaroHighlands,NorthSumatra1966 PengalenganHighlands,WestJava

DiengPlateau,CentralJavaLawang,Malang,EastJava

1982 HighlandsofKuninganandTlekung,EastJava2000 Bogor,WestJava;

MojosariInstitutPertanianBogor(IPB)ExperimentalFields

Boyolali,Salatiga,UniversityofSurakartaExperimentalFields

Sources:AARD(1981–1986);Bogosari,Berita(2007).

69071.indb 357 4/25/08 10:43:14 AM


consumptionbyanaveragehouseholdfamilywaslessthan10kg/capita,theneedforwheatflourhasinthepast been satisfied by imports from mostly Australiaand countries around the Pacific. This consumptionisbelievedtohaveincreasedtoanestimated15kgormore per capita in 2002, and seems to increase fur-ther with the years. Due to the considerable rise inconsumption, wheat imports have increased, thoughslowly at first, to 1.5 million tons in 1983, more thantwice the 600,000 tons imported in 1973. Wheat flourimportin1997wasreportedtohavegrowntoawhop-ping5milliontons(BeritaBogasari,2007).Withthesehugeamountsofimports,anotherissueiscroppingup.Duetothelongshippingperiodsfromoverseas,mostof the imported wheat flour seemsafter arrival tobeinfectedbyinsectsandalsoexhibitsunwantedmustyodors,badlydecreasingitsquality.AlltheabovewerereasonscontributingtoanewdriveforgrowingwheatinIndonesiaandprocessingandmillingitdomesticallyinthecountry.Inthisway,wheatflourofhighqualityandnutritionalvaluecanbeproduced. Inaddition, itmayaidinimprovingandbalancingthenation’secon-omy.Thecoolmountainclimateisapparentlysuitablefor cultivationofwheat crops.Thegrowthperiod forwheat in Indonesia is 3 to 4 months from seeding toharvesttime,andhence,atleasttwocropsarepossible.Solarradiationandamountsofrainfallarenotlimitingfactors,asisthecaseintemperateregions,andwillbearound in Indonesia year-long. Several good-yieldingwheatvarietieshavebeenimported,suchasR-164fromCIMMYT, HI-784 from India, Lyallpur-73 from Paki-stan, and UPLW from the Philippines. Test results at

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severallocationsintheuplandsandmountainregionsshowyieldsfrom4.8to1.8tons/ha(AARD,1986).

�.�.�.�.� Dairy farming Dairy farming startedin theearlydaysof thepre-WorldWarIIperioddur-ing the Dutch colonial time to fill the need for dairyproductsfortheDutchpeoplesettlinginIndonesia.Itwasprimarilyformilkfordrinking,andonlyaminorfraction isused forprocessing intocheese. In theolddays,therewereonlyafewfarms,whichwerelocatedmostly near centers of populationwhere the demandfor dairy products is the highest. Some were estab-lishedatthebordersofJakartaandSurabaya,thoughtheclimateisnotcompatiblewiththedairycattle,com-posedmostlyofimportedHolstein-Frisiancows,bredandraisedinthecoolclimateoftheNetherlands.Fewothersweremoreconvenientlylocatedinthemountainregions,suchasinLembangontheslopeoftheTang-kubanPrahuvolcano,WestJava,orintheMalanghigh-land,EastJava,andBrastagi,attheslopeoftheSibayakmountain in North Sumatra. By European standards,theherdswererelativelysmall,andmostoftheseDutchfarmshavebeenliquidatedwiththe independenceofIndonesia.Veryfewremaindersarestillpresent,likealocallywell-knowndairyfarm,namedDeFriescheTerpin Lembang, West Java, on the slope of the Tangku-banPrahuvolcano.However,theoldDutchboerderijen(meaning “dairy farms” in the Dutch language) havesince thenbeen replacedbymanynewsmallerdairyfarms.Ownedbylocalpeople,thesesmallfarms,oper-atingwithonly30to40cows,havebeencroppingupwithincitybordersaswellasinthecountryside.When

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the Indonesiangovernment started launching itsfirst5-yeardevelopmentplanfortheperiodof1969to1974andcontinuedthereafterwithsecondandthird5-yearplans, a system was created to allow participation ofevensmallerfarmsthantheonesdescribedabove.Thissystem involves only two to three cows, owned andraisedbyanindividualfarmernotonlyformilkpro-duction,butalsoforproductionofstablemanure(UotilaandDhanapala,2007).Dairycooperativeswereestab-lishedforcollectingandprocessingthemilkproducedbytheseverysmallfarms.TheNationalUnionofDairyCooperativesandseveralprivate-sectordairy-process-ingfactorieslatertookontheresponsibilityofadsorb-ing thegradually increasedmilkproduction.Thoughbothdairy farmingsystemsexist today, therelativelybigger farms with 30 to 40 cows are more effectivethanthesmallerindividualfarmsowning2to3cows.Thelatteristobeexpectedbecauseitisverydifficultto maintain milk production, for example, with only2 cows. In this respect,one canevenhardly considerthem as real dairy farms. The lactation period is notendless;hence,milkproductionbythesesmallfarmsissomewhat lessreliable.Thedairycowsarecustomar-ily raised in confinement and fed with a daily rationof rice bran and corn, supplemented generously withfreshgreenery,cutfromthesurroundingfieldsandfor-est.Theyareseldomallowedtoroamandgrazeinthefield,exceptperhapswheretheindividualsmallfarmerhasoneortwocows.Inthelattercase,thefarmermayherdthecowsdaily,grazingtheshrubberyandgrassesonempty lots.Foranadequatedailysupplyofgreenfodder, the bigger farms usually have a farmhand or

69071.indb 360 4/25/08 10:43:15 AM


two,whoseresponsibilitiesaretocut,earlyinthemorn-ings,freshgreeneriesfromsurroundingforestedlands.Theinformationrelatedaboveisbasedmostlyonthecurrentauthor’spersonalexperiencefromhispastandrecentconnectionswithdairyfarmsownedbyfriendsandrelatives.

MilkproductionisreportedalwaystobehigherfromfarmslocatedinthemountainsofIndonesiathanthoseinthelowlands.Asindicatedearlier,theclimateinthemountains is more compatible with the Frisian cows,whowereimportedfromthecoolregionsofFriesland,Holland,orfromtheUnitedStatesasdonetoday.Milkproduction at a farm in the Bogor uplands, at 250 mabove sea level, is reported to be 1811 kg/lactation/head,ascomparedto3098kgatfarmslocatedateleva-tionsof1200to1400mabovesealevel,intheLembangand Pengalengan highlands, West Java (AARD, 1986).Themilkisusedbytheindustryprimarilyforprocess-ingintopowderedmilk,skimmilk,infantandchildrenformulas, and sweetened condensed milk. However,someofthefreshmilkfromthelocalfarmsisalsosoldfordirectconsumption, thoughquitea fewpeople inIndonesiaareapparentlynotusedtomilk.Mildstom-achdisordersoftenoccurafterdrinkingmilk.Forsolv-ingthisproblem,dairygoat farming isslowlyontherise—thereisonelocatedinBanjar,WestJava.

The domestic cow milk production by the smallfarms and cooperatives above can only supply 30%ofthecountry’stotaldairyconsumption,whereasthedemandfordairyproductsinIndonesiahasgraduallyincreased by 10%. This situation necessitates import-ingdairyproducts fromAustraliaandNewZealand.

69071.indb 361 4/25/08 10:43:15 AM


Their locations in closer proximity to Indonesia thanthe Netherlands, Denmark, or the United States havea distinct freight advantage. Most of the cheeses areimported fromthesecountriesoverseasandwith theavailabilityofrefrigerationinfreighttoday,evenavari-etyofimportedcottagecheeseandDannonandYoplaityogurtarefoundcurrentlyfillingtheshelvesofmajorsupermarketsinlargecities,likeJakarta.

�.�.�.�.� Estatecrops Teaisoneofthemajorestatecrops in Indonesia. In most of the Western literature,itisknownbytheLatinnameTheasinensis.However,intheDutchliteratureandtheDutchestatesitisalsocalledCamelliatheiferaorCamelliasinensis.Thebotanicaldifferencebetweenthetwofamilies,TheaandCamelia,isconsideredsosmallthatforallpracticalpurposesitisofnousetodividetheteaplantintotwofamilies(VanEmdenandDeijs,1950).TheteaplantisnotindigenousinIndonesiaandhasbeenimportedmostlyfromIndia,Japan,andChina.ItscultivationinIndonesiahasdevel-opedalongtwosystems:plantationorestatecultivationandsmallholderteafarmssystems.ThelargeDutchteaestatesweredevelopedfirstandwerefollowedlaterbythe smaller tea farms. The latter were established, infact,assupportfarmsforsupplyingthelarger“mother”estateswithmoreneededtealeaves.Anotherdifferenceisalsothatteaproductionatthelargeestatesisgener-ally for export in the form of black tea, whereas thatfromthesmallholder farms ismore thegreen tea fordomestic consumption offered at local markets. Thiscultivationofteabythesmallholderfarms,calledear-lierbevolkingstheeintheDutchliterature,wasdiscussed

69071.indb 362 4/25/08 10:43:15 AM


inChapter7,hencethischapterwillrelateteacultiva-tionbythelargeplantations.

Although early in the 1700s, tea seeds of the BoheavarietyhadalreadybeenimportedtoJavafromJapan,the Dutch reports first mentioned germination trialsafewyearslaterin1728.Thefirstrealteaplantationsweredevelopedalmostahundredyearslater,in1826,closetoBogorandinGarut,WestJava,andayearlaterteaplantationswerespreadallovertheislandofJava.Theteaplantsweregrownfromseedlings,germinatedfrom seed presumably imported from China. At thattime,theplantationswerenotonlyverysmall,buttheirteaproductionwasalsoverysmall.Thefirstshipmentof tea from Java to Amsterdam in 1835 was reportedto consist of only 200 cases of black tea (Van EmdenandDeijs,1950).Intheearly1900s,teacultivationalsospreadoverSumatrawithplants fromseed importedfromAssam,India.MostoftheteaplantstodayinJavaand Sumatra originate either from the Indian AssamvarietyortheolderChineseBoheavariety,andsponta-neousnaturalcrossingbetweenthetwoovertheyearshasmadethedistinctionatpresentbetweenBoheaandAssamteaveryconfusing.

By origin, tea plants came from humid temperateregions. For example, Assam, one of the countries oforigin,islocatedonthehillsoftheHimalayamountainrangeinIndia.Forthisreason,teaplantationsarelim-itedinIndonesiatothecoolhumidmountainregionsofWestJavaandSumatraandareseldomfoundinEastJava.ThemonsoonclimateintheeasternpartofIndo-nesia,characterizedbyalongsharpdryseason,islesssuitable for tea cultivation. Where rainfall pattern is

69071.indb 363 4/25/08 10:43:16 AM


suitable, tea will grow in the lowlands. However, theplants require so much shade for protection againstsunburnthattheproductionoftealeavesisdrasticallyreduced.Ontheotherhand,regionstoohighabovesealevelmayalsoberiskyforgrowingteaduetothesud-dendevelopmentoffrostandoftenloweramountsofsunlight.Asometimesintenseradiationofheatintotheairduringthedaymaycausethedevelopmentoffrostduringthenight.Dependingontheintensityoffrost,thedamageto teaplantscanbesmall toverysevere.Plantsmayrecoverfullyduetodamagebylightfrost,but may totally be destroyed, requiring replanting,withtheoccurrenceofseverefrost.Athighelevations,themountainareasinWestJavaalsotendtobecoveredearlyduringthedaybyrainclouds,whichofcoursehasa deleterious effect on shoot growth. The productionandqualityofteaarereportedtodecreasedrasticallyin plantations receiving less than 3 hours of sunlightduringtheday.Thebestteaplantationsarenoticedtobe located between 1000 and 1200 m above sea level,suchasthePengalenganhighlandssouthofBandunginWestJava.

TeaisgrownintheDutchestatesbyplantingteaseed-lingsinpredugpitsorholessuppliedusuallywithsul-fur.Likeazaleas,camelias,towhichteaisrelated,teaplantsareacid-lovingplants,andthesulfur isappar-entlyneededtoensureaverystrongacidsoilreactionfor proper growth and leaf production. During theirfurther growth, they receive adequate NPK fertiliza-tion.Leftalone,theseedlingstendtogrowinto15-m-talltrees,makingtheharvestingofleavesverydifficult;hence,pruningisnecessarytotransformthemintothe

69071.indb 364 4/25/08 10:43:16 AM


1.5-m-tallbusheswithovalorflat-topcrownsforeaseof harvesting. Tea bushes, shaped into flat-table tops,aremorecommon.Thefirstpruning,calledthemother-prune,isconductedbycuttingtheseedlingstoheightsof 20 to 30 cm. The plants are then allowed to growfor1.5 to2.5years,afterwhich time theyareprunedagain and allowed to grow further into the requiredshape. This second pruning is, therefore, called bythe Dutch vorm–snoei (vorm means “shape,” and snoeimeans“pruning”).Manyother typesofpruningsys-temsarepresent,andformoredetail,referenceismadeto Van Emden and Deijs (1950). For protection of theplants,controlofshootgrowth,andsoilconservationpurposes,mostoftheestateshaveappliedinthepastasystemofshadingbyplantingpreferablylegumetrees(e.g., Leucena glauca, locally called pete cina or lamtoro,andAlbiziafalcataorjeungjing),spacedproperlybetweentherowsofteaplants.Theseshadetreesareknowntohavedeeprootsystems,sothattheywillnotinterferewiththedevelopmentoftearootsorcompetewiththemfornutrients.However,currentlythispracticeofusingshadehasbeendiscontinueddue tochanges inculti-vation concepts using an array of agrochemicals andalso because of many socioeconomic changes in thelastcentury.Thisissue,includingthelossofecologicaladvantages,willbediscussedmoreindetailinthenextchapteroncoffeecultivation.

Theteaplantsaretodaystillharvestedmanuallybyhand-pluckingtheyoungshoots,usingmostlyfemalelabor (Figure8.2). For the production of high-qualitytea,youngshoottipsareselectedandcollectedbyhand.This iscalled imperial-pluckasopposedtoroughpluck,

69071.indb 365 4/25/08 10:43:16 AM


bywhicholderleavesareincludedintheharvest,yield-ing,ofcourse,lower-qualitytea.Severalothertypesofpicking, in between imperial and rough plucks, arealsopracticed,yieldinggradualdifferencesinteaqual-ity.However,whenscissorsareused,asoftenappliedtoday,bothshootsandtwigs,youngorold,arebeingharvested indiscriminately, which, of course, pro-duces lower-quality teaandcausesmorestress to theteabushes.Inthefactory,thetwigsareremovedfromthefinalproductbyacombinationofelectromagnetic,air-fan,andmanualsorting.Dependingonthemethodofharvest, thedegreeof inflicteddamage,andspeed

Figure 8.2 Femaleworkersinacool16°Cmorning,readyforharvestingtealeaves.Theyoungshootsarecollectedinthebasketsfortransporttoweighingstationsinthefield,wheretheyaretransportedfartherbytruckstotheteafactory.

69071.indb 366 4/25/08 10:43:16 AM


ofregrowth,thebushescanbeharvestedonetothreetimesamonth.

Inthepre-WorldWarIIperiod,ayieldof≤1000kgdryblackteaperhectareayearwasconsideredverylow,whereasyields in the rangeof2000kg/ha/yearwerevery high. Tea yields have since then been improvedconsiderably, and new tea clones, developed throughselectionandbreedingprogramsattheGambungTeaResearchInstitute,nearBandung,WestJava,havebeenreportedtoyieldanaverageof3000to4000kg/ha/year(AARD,1986).Thesehighyieldsareapparentlyachievedattheexperimentstations,becauseinpracticethenormofproductioncapacitytodayisaround2000to3000kg/haintermsofprocessedfactorytea.Thepluckingsys-temhasalsoadefiniteeffectonyields,with imperialpluck resulting in lower yields, whereas rough pluckwill, of course, give higher yields. The highest yieldsareobtainedbyharvestingtealeaveswiththescissor.

�.� BrownpodzolicsoilsThenamebrownpodzolicsoilisusedherebecausetherearenoothernamespresentintheU.S.SoilTaxonomy,Food and Agriculture Organization of the UnitedNations (FAO-UN), or World Reference Base for SoilResources (WRB) systems to describe the soils ade-quately. The term podzolic is used to indicate that thesoilsshowfeaturesduetopodzolization,buttheyarenotthetruepodzolsorspodosols.InChapter7,(Section7.2),thesignificanceofapplyingthetermpodzolicasaprefixtonamesofsoilswasaddressed.

69071.indb 367 4/25/08 10:43:17 AM


Thebrownpodzolicsoilsareanothergroupofsoilswhoserecognitionasadistinctgroupofsoilshasraisedalotofmixedfeelingsamongmanysoilscientists.Atonetimetheywererecognizedtooccurinthenortheast-ernpartoftheUnitedStates(Baldwinetal.,1938;Cline,1949, 1953; Lyford, 1946; Tamura and Swanson, 1954),andevenrecentlythesoilswereconsideredimportantsoilsandidentifiedstillasbrownpodzolicsoilsbytheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)ForestService(Stearns,1997).Thesoilshavebeennoticedasatransi-torygroupofsoils,betweenthezonalregionsofgray-brown podzolic soils and podzols in New England,NewJersey,andNewYork.TheyweredescribedbytheauthorsabovetolackdistinctEhorizons,andtherewaslittleevidenceofclaymovementandaccumulationintheBhorizons.KrebsandTedrow(1957)alsoindicatedthat these soils, identified as brown podzolic soils,could well be acid brown forest soils. To many othersoil scientists, the featuresasdescribedabove for thesoils in thenortheasternUnitedStatesarenotreflect-ing true podzolization, but show characteristics of apseudo-podzolizationor lessivageprocess,aprocesssug-gestedforbrownearthformation(Zonn,1966,1968).

IntheWestEuropeanliterature,brownpodzolicsoilsareseldommentioned.ThesoilsarenotincludedintheFAO-UNESCOsoilmapofWesternEurope,draftedbyTavernierandMückenhausen (1960),perhapsbecausethey are unknown in Western Europe. It is also pos-siblethattheyareconsideredasbrownforestsoilsandmappedassuchinWesternEurope.

In Indonesia, brown podzolic soils occur from theuplandthroughthemountainareas.Theyaredistinct

69071.indb 368 4/25/08 10:43:17 AM


zonalsoilsofthemountainregionsaffectedbypodzol-izationprocessesandhavebeendiscoveredinJavaandSumatraataltitudesof500 to2000mabovesea level(TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1959;VanSchuylenborghandVanRummelen,1955;).Generally,theyaretypicalmountainsoils,butdependingonthenatureofparentmaterials and climate, their occurrence may move orstretch to locations at lower altitudes. The climate inwhichthesoilsareformedmayrangefromthecoolCmountainclimatetotherelativelywarmerhumidtrop-icalrainforestorAfaclimate.OnintermediateparentmaterialsinJava,thesoilsarefoundathighelevationswithCsclimates,whereasonthemoreacidicliparitictuffsofSumatra,theareasofbrownpodzolicsoilsmaystretch to within the limits of the uplands. However,because these are the only available data, the authoris trying his best to convince other scientists of theconcretepresenceofbrownpodzolicsoilsinthehigh-landsofIndonesia.


IntheUnitedStates,brownpodzolicsoilsareconfinedtoacidparentmaterialsorparentmaterialsthatdonotcontainorarelowincarbonates.Whencalcareousmate-rialsarepresent,Cline(1949) indicates that theymustlieatconsiderabledepthsintheprofileandbeyondthereachofmostplantroots(seealsoKrebsandTedrow,1957).InEngland,Robinson(1951)notedabrownpod-zolicsoildevelopedonporphyriticrhyolite.InIndone-sia, this group of soils is also found limited to acidicparentmaterials.Incaseofalessacidparentmaterial,

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thelocationoftheoccurrenceofbrownpodzolicsoilsisshiftedtohigheraltitudes(Table8.6).Thebrownpod-zolic soilsare found inTapanuli at 1300mabove sealevel.ThemineralogicaldataoftheparentmaterialsofthesoilsinIndonesia,asprovidedinTable8.6,showthelipariticvolcanictuffinTapanuli,NorthSumatra,tocon-tainsubstantialamountsofquartz,indicatingitsacidicnature.Ontheotherhand,theparentmaterialderivedfromtheLawuvolcanoinCentralJavadoesnotcontainquartz.Itisidentifiedasandesitictuff,anintermediateparentmaterial,withahypersthene-augiteassociation(TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1959).Inthepresenceofsuch less acidic parent materials, the brown podzolicsoilsdevelopatlocationsof3000mabovesealevel.

�.�.� Climate

Inthetemperateregions,brownpodzolicsoilsarecon-sideredzonalsoilsofhumidcool-temperateareas,inter-mediatebetweentheclimaticregionofpodzolstothenorthandthatofthegray-brownpodzolicsoilstothesouth.InIndonesiatheclimateinwhichthesoilsoccurmayvaryfromthecoolmountainclimatetothewarmerhumid tropical rain forest climate of the upland. Thedata inTable8.7 indicatethat inSumatra,where lipa-ritictuffsarefound,thebrownpodzolicsoilsoccurinAfaandAm(Köppen)typesofclimates.However, inJavawheretheparentmaterialislessacidic(e.g.,andes-itictuff),thesoilsarelimitedtolocationsathigheleva-tionswithCsclimatetypes.

69071.indb 370 4/25/08 10:43:17 AM


Tabl

e.8.

6.M

iner

alog

ical

Com

posi

tion

ofB

row

nPo

dzol

icS

oils

Pro

file

Pri

mar

y.M

iner

als.

in.P

erce

nt.(

%).o

f.To

tal.S

and

.Fra

ctio

n

Hor

izon

Qu

artz

Gre

en.

.Hor

n- .

ble

nd

eH

yper

-.st

hen

eA

ugi

teS

anid

ine

An

des

ine

Vol

can

ic..

Gla

ssB

ioti

teG

ibb

site

Iron

..C

oncr

etio

nR

ock

..F

ragm

ent

Op

aqu

eM

isc.

Lip

arit

ic.T

uff

,.Tap

anu

li,.N

orth

.Su

mat

ra.a

t.130

0.m

.ab

ove.

Sea

.Lev

el

A1

37—

——

23—

33

tr—

1246

—

E34

——

—24

—2

8tr

—6

52—

B33

——

—19

—2

7tr

—13

49—

C1

14—

——

5—

230

8—

2770

—

C2

13—

——

7—

1414

6—

4489

—

An

des

itic

.Tu

ff,.L

awu

.Vol

can

o,.C

entr

al.J

ava.

at.3

000.

m.a

bov

e.S

ea.L

evel

A1

—tr

37

—19

31—

—2

3329

4

B1

—tr

34

—11

27—

—3

4030

9

B2

—tr

36

—10

24—

tr4

3824

14

C—

—1

3—

921

—tr

tr52

2913

69071.indb 371 4/25/08 10:43:18 AM



BrownpodzolicsoilsweredefinedbyCline(1949,1953)to be podzols in the incipient stage. Morphologicallythey are, therefore, more closely related to podzolsthantogray-brownpodzolicsoils.Generally,thepro-fileischaracterizedbyalayerofhumus,unmixedwithmineralsoil,onthesurface.ThisisunderlainbyaverythinAhorizonandnobleachedEhorizonoccurs.Cline

Table.8.7. TheClimateofBrownPodzolicSoilsinIndonesia

a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols:A = coldestmonth>18°C;a=warmestmonth>22°C;f=humid;m=mon-soon; C = warmest month >10°C and coldest month between18°Cand−3°C;h=coldestmonth>0°C;i=hotsummer;s=drysummer.

Rainfall Altitude

<60 mm >100 mm


Type ofClimatea

Sumatra

Pematang

Siantar

Sipirok

400

898

920

0.2

2.4

2.2

11.0

7.8

8.4

3130

1786

1921

Afa

Am

Afa

A

B

B

RY Podzolic

Brown Podz.

Parapat

Aek na Uli Si-Borongborong

1160

1320

1.0

1.4

11.0

9.0

2609

2088

—

Cshi

—

B Podzols

Java

Sarangan

Taman Sari

Summit Lawu

1290

2480

3200

3.4

—

—

7.7

—

—

2533

—

—

Cfhi

Cs

Cs

C

—

—

Gray Brown

Brown Podz.

Volcano

Location

m Months mm Köppen

Soil

S&F

69071.indb 372 4/25/08 10:43:19 AM


(1949)indicateshavingobservedevidenceofanincipi-entbleicherdeinthebrownpodzolicsoilsofNewYork.ThiscanbenoticedintheformoflightgrayspecksormottlesintheAhorizon.SuchakindofAhorizonisallegedlyconspicuouslythickunderhardwoodforest.The B horizon is strong brown to yellowish-brown,andnoevidenceofthepresenceofclayaccumulationispresent.ThebrownpodzolicsoilsofIndonesiafollowasimilardescription.Anexampleisprovidedbelow:

Brownpodzolicsoil,Tapanuli,AekNaUli,NorthSumatra,locatedataneleva-tionof1300mabovesealevel.Thepro-filewasontheflat topofamountain.Vegetationwascomposedofpinetrees,whereas the parent material was lipa-riticvolcanictuff.Colornotationsrefertoair-dryandfield-wetconditions.


O 5–0 Stratifiedpineneedleliter.

A1 0–10 10YR3/1to10YR2/1,darkgraytoblack,clayloam,granular,fria-ble,manyroots.

A2 10–20 10YR 5/3 to 5YR 3/4, brown todark reddish-brown, clay loam,granular,friable,manyroots.

B 20–75 7.5YR 8/6 to 5YR 6/8, reddish-yellow, clay loam, subangularblocky,friable,fewroots.

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The solum is thus composed of a thick A horizon,divided into a dark gray/black surface (A1) horizonandasubsurface(A2)horizon,underlainbyareddish-yellowtodarkyellowish-brownBhorizon.BecausenoindicationofbleachingcanbedetectedintheA2hori-zon,thishorizoncannotqualifyforanE(albic)horizon,usuallycharacterizingpodzolprofiles.Thesoiltexturedoesnotdifferdownwardintheprofile.Thecomposi-tionoftheclayfractions,however,showsevidencethatpodzolizationisinvolvedhere,whichwillbediscussedinmoredetailbelow.


Most prominent soil scientists in the United Stateswereoftheopinionthatthesoilswereweakpodzolsorpodzolsintheincipientstage.However,agreatmanyotherU.S.scientistswerealsoskepticalaboutthesoilsbeing podzols, young podzols, or acid brown forestsoilsorwhethertheyexistedatallasadistinctgroupofsoils.Becauseofsuchconfusion,theexistenceofbrownpodzolic soils seems to have been recalled with theintroductionofanewU.S.soilclassificationsystem.IntheSeventhApproximationoftheComprehensiveSys-temofSoilClassification (SoilSurveyStaff, 1960), the

C1 75–90 10YR8/3to10YR6/4,palebrownto light yellowish-brown, sandyloam,granular,friable.

C2 +90 10YR 8/2 to 10YR 6/3, white topalebrown,sandyloam,granular,lipariticvolcanictuff.

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forerunner of the current U.S. Soil Taxonomy, brownpodzolicsoilsweregroupedtogetherwiththepodzolsinthespodosolsorder.Thishasremainedunchangedin thenewestversion of the U.S. SoilTaxonomy (SoilSurveyStaff,2006b).

In the German literature the name Podzol-braunerdecan be found, which can be interpreted as an inter-gradebetweenapodzolandbrownforest soil. It canalso mean podzolized or podzolic brown forest soil,which in essence is then a brown podzolic soil. Thedescription of this podzol-braunerde, as provided byAltemüller(1962),fitstheconceptofabrownpodzolicsoil. However, in Russia, podzol-braunerde soils areconsideredtobedwarf-podzols(Tiurinetal.,1960).IntheWRBsystem,thesoilsarecalledumbrisols,whichispresumablybasedonIndonesianresearchfindings.

In Indonesia, the brown podzolic soils were discov-eredin1955byVanSchuylenborghandVanRummelen(1955), and since then have been recognized as a dis-tinctzonalgroupofmountainsoilsbetweenthezonesof gray-brown podzolic soils and podzols. The BogorSoilResearch Institutehasalso recognizedagroupofsoils called podzolik coklat (coklat means “brown”). Thenamewasmeantforabrownvarietyofred-yellowpod-zolicsoilsinthelowland(personalcommunication),andhenceshouldnotbeconfusedforbrownpodzolicsoils.


�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionThesoilsarealllightintexture(Table8.8).Nomarkedclay movement can be noticed, except perhaps for a

69071.indb 375 4/25/08 10:43:19 AM


veryslightgradualincreaseinclaycontentwithdepthintheSumatransoilprofile.ThisabsenceofadistinctlyclayincreaseinBhorizonsisconsideredearlierasthebigdifferencefrompodzolsorotherspodosols.

�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsThesoilpHisratherlowintheSumatranbrownpod-zolicsoils,showingvaluesintherangeofstronglyacidsoils(Table8.8).ThebrownpodzolicsoilsofJava,formedon lessacidicparentmaterial,are lessacidic.ThepHvaluesaround6.0showthesoilstobemoderatelyacid

Table.8.8. PhysicochemicalCharacteristicsofBrownPodzolicSoilsinIndonesia


Org. C %

N %

Profile Horizon

50–2 <2 µ

pHH2O

A1

A2

B

C1

C2

32.6

32.6

33.5

62.3

74.0

42.5

38.6

35.6

25.8

16.7

24.9

28.8

30.9

11.9

9.3

4.98

4.96

4.82

5.04

4.42

8.7

3.5

0.9

0.3

0.2

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

>50 µ

C N

Tapanuli, North Sumatra, 1300 m

A1

B1

B2

C

29.4

34.3

38.1

67.0

64.1

59.5

56.5

27.8

6.5

6.2

5.4

5.2

5.84

6.05

6.08

5.83

10.5

6.14

5.20

3.05

0.53

0.33

0.26

0.09

19.8

17.7

20.7

33.9

Lawu Volcano, Central Java, 3000 m

69071.indb 376 4/25/08 10:43:20 AM


inreaction,whichalsosuggeststhepresenceofamod-eratelyhighbasestatus.Hence,theclayfractionismorelikelysaturatedwithbases,resultinginflocculationofclays.Thisisthenoneofthereasonsfortheimmobili-zationofclays,preventingtheclayparticlesfrommov-ingfromAtoBhorizons.TheorganicmattercontentisperhapsthesourceforthehighamountofbasesinthebrownpodzolicsoilsofJava.

Generally,organicmattercontentinallcasesisexcep-tionallyhighinthesurfacehorizons,exceedingcontentsreportedformollisols(Brady,1990).However,abigdif-ferencecanbenoticedinthenatureandcontentdowntheprofileoftheorganicmatterbetweenthetwosoilslistedinTable8.8.ThebrownforestsoilinSumatraislocated in a coniferous forest, and hence, the organicmatterismoreacidic,duetoitsoriginmostlyfrompineneedles.TheamountsofCorg,rangingfrom8.7to3.5%,inAhorizonsareveryhighanddecreasedsharplyinBandChorizons.Incontrast,thebrownforestsoilofJavaisfoundunderabroad-leafsemideciduousforest.Therefore,itsorganicmatterismorerichinbasesandlessacidicinnaturethanthelitterofthesoilsinSuma-tra.This isonereasonthesoils inJavaare lessacidicinreaction.ThoughtheamountsintermsofCorgalsodecreasesubstantiallyfromAtoBandChorizons,val-uesintherangeof6.14to3.05%Corgmuststillbecon-sideredveryhigh.

�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyTheonlypublisheddatainthisrespectarepresentedbyVanSchuylenborghandVanRummelen(1955)andTanandVanSchuylenborgh(1959).Asummaryofthedata

69071.indb 377 4/25/08 10:43:20 AM


forthebrownpodzolicsoilinSumatraispresentedinTable8.9asabasisfordiscussions.ItcanbenoticedthattheclayfractionofthebrownpodzolicsoilsinSuma-traisdominatedbythepresenceofkaolinite.Substan-tialamountsofα-crystoballitehavealsobeendetected,indicatingthevolcanicoriginofthesoils.Thepresenceofquartzsuggeststheacidicnatureoftheparentmate-rial,whereasgibbsitereflectsalateriticweatheringpro-cessinclayformation.

Thekaoliniticnatureoftheclayfractionissupportedbyelementalanalyses,whichexpressedintermsofsil-ica/sesquioxideratios(orSiO2/R2O3ratios;R2O3=Al2O3+Fe2O3)areintherangeof1.86to1.81fortheSuma-tranbrownpodzolicsoils.Aratiobetween1.0and2.0isindicativeforthepresenceofkaoliniteor1:1typeofminerals,whereasaratioof3.0to4.0suggeststhepres-enceofsmectiteor2:1latticetypeofclays.Thebrownforest soil of Java has clay fractions exhibiting silica/sesquioxideratiosfromAtoBhorizonsintherangeof3.16to2.37.Therefore,theymaycontain,inadditiontokaolinite,smectitesorother2:1typesofclays(Tanand

Table.8.9. EstimatedMineralCompositionofClayFractionsinBrownPodzolicSoilsofSumatra(in%)

Horizon Kaolinite Gibbsiteα.

Crystoballite Quartz Biotite

A1 55 — 45 — — A2 52 15 25 1 8 B 64 18 14 4 1 C1 66 16 13 5 1 C2 67 1 7 20 6

69071.indb 378 4/25/08 10:43:21 AM


Van Schuylenborgh, 1959). The conditions in Java areverydifferentthanthoseinSumatra.IntheregionsofthebrownpodzolicsoilsofJava,theparentmaterialislessacidicandtheclimatelesshumidbutmoremon-soon-like.Theseconditionsarebelievedtopromotelessleaching, resulting in the development of a basic soilmediumessentialfortheformationofsmectites.


Thesoilscontainveryhighamountsoforganicmatter;hence, soilnitrogencontentsareexpected tobehigh.Thoughderivedfromliparitictuff,anacidtypeofpar-entmaterial,thebrownpodzolicsoilsofSumatramaystillbehighinpotassiumandsomeoftheotherplantnutrientsinviewofthepresenceofweatherableminer-alsinitssandfraction(e.g.,biotite,sanidine,andfeld-spar).ThesoilsinJavaareevenricherbecauseoftheirhighcontentsofplagioclaseandferromagnesianminer-als(e.g.,sanidine,labradorite,hypersthene,andaugite)(Table8.6).Theseprimarymineralscanbeconsideredasthemineralreserveofsoils.Inthecourseofweathering,theprimarymineralsaresubjectedtodecomposition,resultinginagradualreleaseoftheelementsthatthencanbecomeavailableforplantgrowth.Perennialcropsandpinetreescantakeadvantageofthesoil’smineralreserve.Becausemineralweatheringisusuallyaveryslowprocess,annualcropsorshort-growingcropsmayneedsomefertilizerswhengrownonthebrownpod-zolicsoils.

Agricultural operations on brown podzolic soilsare inbetween thoseof thehighlandalfisolsand the

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spodosols.Atthebordersofthezonesofthehighlandalfisols, an almost similar type of agricultural opera-tionispracticed,butwithemphasismoreoncultivationofthecoolertemperateregioncrops.Closertobordersof the spodosols, these areas at higher elevations aremostly still under native mountain vegetations or inSumatrausedforpinetreescultivatedinlargeestates,usuallyownedbytheIndonesianForestService.Pinusmerkusiiisanindigenouspinespeciesfrequentlygrownforlumber,cheapfuel-wood,andtodayalsoforpulp-wood. Some of the higher areas here are often tooruggedand theclimateoften toocold that forpracti-calreasonsmostofthefolkspreferfarmingthebrownpodzolicsoilsatthelowerelevations.Becausemostofthe crops for cultivation have already been presented(seeSection8.1),theywillnotbediscussedagainheretoavoidrepetition.

�.� SpodosolsSpodosols were formerly called podzols in the UnitedStates,andtodaythenamepodzolisstillusedandrec-ognized by many other countries outside the UnitedStates,inparticularinGermanyandRussia.AccordingtoJoffe(1949)andRobinson(1951),alsoquotedrecentlybyFAO-UNESCO(2007b),thenamepodzolhasitsrootsfrom the Russian words pod (“beneath” or “under”)and zola (“ash,” referring to the ash-gray or whitishcolorof theEhorizon). It isgenerallyagreedthat thesoilsareformedbypodzolization,aprocessresultinginthedepletionofalkaliandalkalineearthsfromtheAhorizonwithamaximumexpressionintheEhorizon.

69071.indb 380 4/25/08 10:43:21 AM


Thisdifferenceismadepossiblebythehigherorganicmattercontentof thesurfaceAhorizon,possessingahighercation-exchangecapacity.Withthedepletionofbases,clayparticlesandsesquioxidesarereadilypep-tizedandmovedownwardtoaccumulateintheBhori-zon.Bymoremodernconcepts,themobilizationofclayandsesquioxidesisascribedtotheirinteractionswithhumicacidsformingclay-humusandhumo-sesquiox-idechelates.Theprocessofmobilizationandimmobi-lizationofthesechelatesaretodaycalledcheluviationandchilluviation,respectively,byFAOandWRBscien-tists,asdiscussedinChapter5.

Thepodzol-BhorizonhasrecentlybeenconsideredasmorediagnosticinpropertyforidentificationthanthebleachedeluvialEoralbichorizonbytheU.S.soilclas-sification system. It was defined by the U.S. Soil Tax-onomy(SoilSurveyStaff,1960,2006)asaspodichorizon,composedofanilluvialaccumulationoffreesesquiox-ides,accompaniedbyappreciableamountsoforganicmatter.Becauseofitsdominantimportance,thenamespodosols is coined from it and used for replacing thenamepodzolsintheUnitedStates.Thespodichorizon,or horizon of sesquioxides and humus accumulation,maybefoundinalldegreesofdevelopment.

Podzolsaregenerallywidelyfoundintheforestedregions of the northern hemisphere under a humidtemperatetocoolclimate.Theyareprobablythebest-knownsoilsinWesternEuropeandinRussiaandarefrequently found associated with forest vegetationthatproducesacidhumusofthemortype(forexam-ple,coniferousforestorheathvegetation).Suchtypeoforganicmatterisconsideredessentialforacidleaching

69071.indb 381 4/25/08 10:43:21 AM


ofthepedons.InIndonesia,thesoilsarealsofoundasazonalgroup,limitedtohighelevationsinthemoun-tainsofSumatra(KielandRachmat,1948;Mohr,1944;TanandVanSchuylenborgh,1961a).Thetropicalrainforestatthesehighaltitudesiscomposedofbroad-leafmountaintreesmixedwithindigenousconifers,pro-vidingtheacidhumusneededforacidicleaching.ThesoilshavealsobeenlocatedinthehighlandsofPapuabetween the lakes of Angi Gita and Angi Gigi. TheKubremountain,whichseparatesthetwolakes,is2400mhigh,anditssummitandsurroundingsbelowareentirely covered by podzols (Hardon, 1936b). Excep-tionstothiszonaloccurrencealwaysexistinnature,becausepodzolshavealsobeendiscoveredatlowalti-tudesinIndonesia.Theselowlandpodzolshavebeenreported to occur under very specific conditions inthe lowlands of Kalimantan and the Bangka islandsgroup (Hardon, 1937), where they are known underthelocalnameoftanahpadang(tanahmeans“soil,”andpadang means “plain, meadow”). A heath vegetationwasrecentlydiscoveredontheislandsofBangkaandBelitung,consideredtobeassociatedwiththeSunda-landheatherforestsystem(WorldWildLife,2004).Mohr(1949)alsoreported thepossibilityof theoccurrenceofpodzolsinthePalembanglowlandsofSouthSuma-tra,asamoreorlessdrownedsoil inconnectionwiththegreatpost-Pliocenetransgressionofthesea.Theselowlandpodzolsareperhapstheintrazonaltropicalpod-zols,asreferredtobyFAOandWRBscientists.

69071.indb 382 4/25/08 10:43:21 AM



Theparentmaterialsofthemountainpodzolsarelim-itedtotheacidictypesofvolcanicejecta,andnoreportsare available in Indonesia, where they have beenformedonintermediate,basic,orcalcareousmaterials.InSumatra, theparentmaterialsare lipariticvolcanictuffs.Theirmineralogicaldata,asshowninTable8.10,indicatethepresenceofalotofquartzandsanidineinthesandfraction,withgreenhornblende,hypersthene,zircon,andorthitemakinguptheheavymineralfrac-tion.Ingeneral,liparitictuffsarecharacterizedbytheircontentsofalotofquartzandorthite.Thetwomineralsareoftenusedasindicationsoftheacidicnatureofthematerialsandareabsentintheintermediateandbasicvolcanicash.Whenpresentinthelatter,theyareonlydetected in very small amounts, like for example theminoramountsofquartzinsomeoftheandesitictuffs.Thepresenceofzirconandsanidineissometimesalsoused as an indicator of the acidic nature of the tuffs,suchastheliparites.However,thesetwomineralsareoftenalsodetectedinintermediateandbasicvolcanicash, though in relatively smaller amounts (Mohr andVan Baren, 1960). In contrast to Sumatra, the parentmaterials on the other islands, where podzols occur,arenotvolcanicash,butareinsteadsedimentaryandmetamorphicrocks.Forexample,intheKubremoun-tain of West Papua, the soils originate from shales,quartzites, and fine quartz sandstone, as reported byHardon(1936b).Shaleandsandstoneareknowntobesedimentaryrocks,whereasquartziteisanacidicmet-amorphic rock. The lowland podzols of Kalimantan

69071.indb 383 4/25/08 10:43:22 AM


Tab

le.8

.10.

Min

eral

ogic

alC

ompo

siti

ono

fPod

zols

Hor

izon

Com

pos

itio

n.in

.Tot

al.S

and

.Fra

ctio

nH

eavy

.Fra

ctio

n

Qu

artz

Oli

go-.

clas

eS

anid

ine

Vol

can

ic.

Gla

ssB

ioti

teM

isc.

Op

aqu

e

Gre

en.

Hor

n-.

ble

nd

eH

yper

-.st

hen

eO

rth

ite

Gre

en.

Hor

n-.

ble

nd

e

Bro

wn

..H

orn

- .b

len

de

Hyp

er-.

sth

ene

Zir

con

Dai

ri.L

and

s,.S

um

atra

Aa

——

——

——

——

——

——

——

E65

1015

10—

—62

——

172

—1

71

B1

4417

136

—20

55—

—12

14—

663

B2

3017

1116

—25

11

—1

76—

203

C19

267

2213

133

——

1538

—34

13

Mou

nt.S

ibar

ton

g,.T

apan

uli

,.Nor

th.S

um

atra

O/

A33

322

231

5–

trtr

——

——

—

E36

1720

251

tr33

trtr

556

126

11

Bh

208

1216

240

122

tr1

74tr

25tr

Bir

915

645

185

6tr

tr7

76tr

142

C7

84

5223

344

1tr

—75

—15

8

aA

llm

iner

als

are

hum

us-l

ike

conc

reti

ons.

Sour

ces:

Kie

l,H

.and

Rac

hmat

,H.,

(194

8);T

an,K

.H.a

ndV

anS

chuy

lenb

orgh

,J.(

1961

);M

ohr,

E.C

.J.a

ndV

anB

aren

,F.A

.(19

60).

69071.indb 384 4/25/08 10:43:22 AM


havealsobeenformedfromquartz-schists,sandstone,andoldslates,whereastheparentmaterialsforpodzolsintheBangkaislandsaremorevariedintypes.Theyrangeallegedly fromgranite tosandstone,quartzites,andclayschists(Mohr,1944),whichbelongtothecat-egories of plutonic, sedimentary, and metamorphicrocks, respectively. Podzol formation on the Bangkaislands seems to be related to the presence of sandymaterials,whichissubstantiatedbyscientistsinothercountries, who have noticed podzols to also occur inlowland areas. In Brazil, these lowland podzols werereportedtodevelopintheAmazonbasinonlyonthemore sandy materials of river terraces (Klinge, 1965).ThesoilswerefoundbyKlingetooccurnearBelémonoldcoastaldunes,whereasintheregionsoftheupperRioNegro,fluviaticbleachedquartzsandswereidenti-fiedasthematerialsfortheoriginofpodzols.Similarlithologicconditionsintheformationoflowlandpod-zolshavealsobeenreportedbySchulz(1960),whohasdescribed podzol formation in central Suriname onmaterialspoorinbasesandclays.

�.�.� Climate

TheclimateinwhichmountainpodzolsusuallydevelopinIndonesiaislimitedtothecoolhumidmountaincli-mate,rangingfromKöppen’sCfhitoCshiclimatictypes(Table8.11).Dependingonspecificconditions,thesoilsseemalsotooccurinAfaclimates,asisthecasewiththelowlandpodzolsofBangkaandKalimantan.How-ever, these are the only exceptions, because nowhere

69071.indb 385 4/25/08 10:43:22 AM


elseinIndonesiahavepodzolsbeenreportedtooccurinthelowlands.TheclimateintheKubremountainofWestPapua,wherethemountainpodzolsoccur,isbelievedtobeaCfhitype.Noweatherstationsareavailableinthoseremotejungleareastoconfirmthis.PodzolshavenotbeenfoundinthemountainsofJava.Atelevationsbetween400and900mabovesealevel,red-yellowpodzolicandbrownforestsoilsarethemajorzonalsoils intheAfaandAmclimaticregions,asdiscussedinChapter7.

Based on the observations above, it seems possibleto distinguish in Indonesia two groups of podzols:thehighlandormountainpodzolsand lowlandpod-zols.Themountainpodzolsarezonalorclimaticsoils,

Table.8.11. TheClimateofPodzolsinIndonesia

Rainfall Altitude

<60 mm >100 mm


Type ofClimatea

Sumatra

Pematang

Siantar

Sipirok

Aek na Uli

400

898

1160

1320

0.2

2.4

1.0

1.4

11.0

7.8

11.0

9.0

3130

1786

2609

2088

Afa

Am

—

Cshi

A

B

—

B

RY Podzolic

Podzols Si-Borongborong

Bangka

Pangkal Pinang 5 0.0 12.0 2496 Afa A

Location

m Months mm Köppen

Soil

S&F

a S&F = Schmidt and Ferguson; Köppen’s symbols: A = coldestmonth>18°C;a=warmestmonth>22°C;f=humid;m=mon-soon; C = warmest month >10°C and coldest month between18°Cand−3°C;h=coldestmonth>0°C;i=hotsummer;s=drysummer.

69071.indb 386 4/25/08 10:43:23 AM


whereasthelowlandpodzolscanbeconsideredasacli-maticpodzols,becauselithologicandtopographicfac-torsareplayingadecisiveroleintheirformation.


ThemorphologyofIndonesianmountainpodzolsdoesnotdiffermuchfrompodzolsoftemperateregions.Anexampleofasoilprofiledescriptionisgivenbelow:

Humus-iron podzol (Tan and VanSchuylenborgh, 1961a). Profile locatedinLaspondom,Tapanuli,MountSibar-tong, North Sumatra, at an elevationof1600mabovesealevel.Thevegeta-tion is a primeval tropical rain forest,composed of hardwood mixed withindigenousconiferous trees.Thecolornotations below refer to air-dry andfield-moistsamples,respectively.


Oe/Oa 0–20 5YR3/4–3/3,darkreddish-brownraw humus, partly decomposedhemic and rotten sapric organiclayer; when dry it can only bemoistenedwithgreatdifficulties.

E 20–30 5YR 5/1–4/1, gray to dark gray,weak fine crumb, sandy loam,very friable, abundance of roots;difficulttomoisten.

69071.indb 387 4/25/08 10:43:24 AM


TheAhorizonsinIndonesianpodzolsareoftenverythin or absent, as shown in the above profile exam-ple. This observation is substantiated by results ofotherinvestigators.KielandRachmat(1948)havealsodescribed a humus iron podzol of the Dairi lands inTapanuli,locatedat1600mabovesealevel,witha30-cm-thickbrownspongyraw-humus layer (Ohorizon)lyingdirectlyontopofalightgrayoftheEhorizon.

The podzols of the Kubre mountain in West Papuaare found under a shrub vegetation with scatteredconiferoustreesandexhibitasomewhatdifferentmor-phology.AccordingtoHardon(1936b),thesesoilshaveunderanundecomposedlitterlayeroftwigsandrootsrather thick,fine sandy,firm,humic,gray tograyish-brownAhorizons,overlyinggrayish-whiteEhorizons.ThemorphologicaldescriptiongivenbyHardonindi-catesthatthesoilisperhapsaniron-podzol,becauseno

Bh 30–50 10YR 5/3–3/2, brown to verydark grayish-brown, moderatelydeveloped coarse platy, sandyloam,firm,fewroots;difficulttomoisten; few dark reddish-gray(5YR4/2)mottles.

BirorBs 50–55 10YR7.5/6–7.5YR6/8,yellowtoreddish-yellow, irregular platy,loam,veryfirm;noroots.

C +55 10YR 8/1–2.5YR 7/4, white topaleyellow,massive,sandyloam,friable; yellowish-red (5YR 5/8)and yellow (10YR) 7/8) mottles;fewpumicestones.

69071.indb 388 4/25/08 10:43:24 AM


Bhhorizonispresent.MohrandVanBaren(1960)arguethatsoilswiththeaboveprofilecharacteristicsareper-hapsnotgenuinepodzols.However,Wilde(1957)isoftheopinionthatthesearethetypicalpodzolsoftropi-calregions.Thefeaturesof theKubremountainpod-zolsseemtoshowcloseresemblancetothesoilsinNewZealand,identifiedaskauripodzols,orlocallyalsocalledegg-cuppodzols.

During the international soil science conference inNew Zealand in November 1962, the present authorhadthechancetostudykauripodzolsonthespot.ThesoilsmaysometimesdevelopundertheinfluenceofasingleKauritree(Agathisaustralis).Thesetrees,consid-eredasprimitivepine treesdatingback fromtheeraof thedinosaurs,are foundlimitedtoNewZealand’snorthern tropical rain forest,where theyaregrowingintohuge,giant,talltrees,rivalingthesizesofthegiantredoaksofCalifornia.TheKauritreeisbelievedtopro-duceveryacidiclitter,whichleadstostronglocalpod-zolizationunderneaththetree(Bloomfield,1954;TaylorandPohlen,1962),withthesubsequentdevelopmentofableachedEhorizonaswideasthetreecrownandinthe formof anegg-cup.Someof the soil scientists inNewZealandinclinetorelatethekauripodzoltored-yellowpodzolicsoils.

The lowland podzol of Bangka differs in morphol-ogy from the mountain podzol. It has a rather thick,loosegrayish-blackhumusrich,quartz-sandyAhori-zon,overlyingableached E layer,whereas the solumbeneathissimilartothatofthemountainspecies(Har-don,1937).Asmentionedbefore, theBangka lowlandpodzolsareintrazonalsoils.

69071.indb 389 4/25/08 10:43:24 AM



Theclassificationofthesesoils,thoughwelldefinedintheliterature,issomewhatintriguingduetoadifferentconceptinidentificationdevelopedbytheUSDAdur-ingthe1960s.Aspointedoutbefore,internationallythesoilsaredistinguishedbytheirash-coloredEhorizonandhencearecalledpodzols,derivedfromtheRussianwordspodandzola.However,incontrasttotheabove,theU.S.SoilTaxonomypreferstheuseofthepodzol-Bhorizonastheidentifyingfeature,whichiscalledspodichorizon,andthenamespodosoliscoinedfromthis.

InIndonesia,thenameofspodosolsisused.However,the soils appear to be of minor importance, becauseaccordingtotheSoilResearchInstitute(seeChapter1,Figure1.2,page16), theyoccupyonlyamere1.16%ofthetotalsoilacreageinIndonesia.Mostofthesoilsaregenerallylocatedinremoteareashighinthemountainsandperhapshaveescapedtheattentionofsoilsurvey-ors. Therefore, the author believes that more of thesekindsof soilswillbediscovered in timewhen inten-sivesoilsurveyswillbeextendedintothefarcornersofthemountainregions.Asdiscussedpreviously,thesoils can be classified into two kinds of podzols: thehighland or mountain podzols and the lowland pod-zols.Ofthesetwo,themountainpodzolsarethemostprevalent,becausethelowlandpodzolshavebeendis-coveredonlyonthesmall islandsof theBangka-Beli-tunggroup,locatedontheeastcoastofNorthSumatra.Locally, these lowland podzols are called padang soil(Hardon,1937),whichsomebelievetobecloselyrelatedtoredyellowpodzolicsoilsorultisols.Theauthorhas

69071.indb 390 4/25/08 10:43:24 AM


nothadtheopportunitytoinvestigateandconfirmsucha contention. Most of the lowland areas in Indonesiaarealreadydenselypopulatedandcultivatedandsur-veyedthoroughly,andtheSoilResearchInstitutehasnotreportedtheoccurrenceoftheseintrazonallowlandpod-zolsanywhereelseinthelowlandsareaofIndonesia.

The highland or mountain podzol can be distin-guishedintoahumus-ironpodzolofSumatraandtheiron-podzol of West Papua. These soils may possiblybe placed in the U.S. Soil Taxonomy as Humods andFerrods, respectively (Soil SurveyStaff, 2006a, 2006b).Thehumodsare then the spodosols thathave spodichorizonsenrichedwithhumusorwithhumusandAl-oxides.ThisdefinitionfitsthefeaturesoftheSumatranmountain podzols, because not iron but aluminumhas accumulated in the Bhs horizon. The Fe2O3 con-tentsof theEandBhshorizonsare2.35%and2.30%,respectively, as determined by the author in his soilslaboratoryinIndonesia.Ontheotherhand,theAl2O3contentsoftheEandBhshorizonsare18.1and33.85%,respectively.Theferrodsaredefinedas themountainspodosolswithBshorizonsonly,andwithoutcompa-rableaccumulationofhumus.SuchfeaturespertaintothespodosolsoftheKubreMountainsinWestPapua.

Perhaps the use of tropical as a prefix is warrantedtounderlinethedifferenceinformationofIndonesianspodosolsundertheinfluenceofatropicalcoolclimatefromthatoftemperateregionspodosolsofthenorthernhemisphere.Itshouldberealizedthatthecoolclimateofthetemperateregionpodzolsincludesawintercli-matewithiceandsnow.ThisisinsharpcontrastwiththecoolmountainclimateofIndonesia,classifiedasa

69071.indb 391 4/25/08 10:43:24 AM


Köppen’sCclimate,definedashavingtemperaturesinthecoldestmonthof>0°C.Theseasonisonlyalternatedbyrainyandrelativelylessrainyperiods,whereastem-peraturesareusuallygettinglowerduringthewettermonths. Snow and ice are only present in the SnowMountainrange(Nassau-Oranjerange)ofPapua,wheretheIdenburgtop(PuncakTrikora)andtheCartensztop(PuncakJaya)mountainsummitsreach4900and5040m,respectively(seeChapter4).


�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionThe data in Table8.12 indicate that, as a whole, thepodzols in Indonesia are coarse- tomedium-texturedsoils.Theclaycontents,rangingfrom1to15%,areverylowandshowatrendofeluviationfromtheEtoaccu-mulateintheBhorizons.Thisisatypicalfeatureinapodzolizationprocess.Intruepodzolsofthetemperateregions, it is awell-established fact that claycontentsdecreasesharply inEhorizonsto increaseagainsub-stantiallyintheBhorizons.Inthisrespect,theBangkapodzol shows this genuine characteristic for podzol-ization.PerhapsitcanbeaddedthatinNewZealand,theclayfractionofEhorizonsofthekauripodzolsarereported to contain large amounts of secondary silica(TaylorandPohlen,1962).

�.�.�.� ChemicalcharacteristicsThe soils exhibit invariably very strongly acidic (pH= 4 to 3) to strongly acidic (pH = 5 to 4) reactions inespecially their topsoils.SoilpHvaluesof3 to4are

69071.indb 392 4/25/08 10:43:25 AM


mostlycommonintheAhorizons.Inthetruepodzolsofthetemperateregions,asharpdecreaseinsoilpHisnoticedfromAtoEhorizons,toincreaseagainintheB

Table.8.12. PhysicochemicalCharacteristicsofTropicalPodzols


Org. C %

N %

Profile Horizon

50–2 <2 µ

pHH2O

O

E

Bh

Bs

C

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

8.3

10.6

10.3

10.9

3.42

4.95

5.30

5.73

5.81

47.8

7.4

11.6

1.9

0.2

2.1

0.3

0.3

0.04

—

22.7

24.6

38.6

47.5

—

A

E

Bs

BC

64.0

29.0

26.0

39.0

32.0

61.0

59.0

48.0

4.0

10.0

15.0

13.0

4.3

3.9

4.3

5.0

6.2

0.6

1.7

0.6

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.1

31.0

6.0

17.0

6.0

>50 µ

CN

Mountain Podzols, Sumatra

Mountain Podzols, West Papua

A

E

Bh

Bs

97.8

98.4

91.5

93.9

1.0

1.3

2.0

1.1

1.2

0.3

6.5

5.0

3.9

6.1

3.9

4.6

1.2

0.1

5.2

—

—

—

0.1

—

—

—

52.0

—

Lowland Podzols, Banka

Sources:Tan,K.H.andVanSchuylenborgh,J.(1960,1961);Hardon(1936);Kiel,H.andRachmat,H.(1948).

69071.indb 393 4/25/08 10:43:26 AM


horizons.SuchatrendinsoilreactionisobservedonlyintheKubremountainpodzolsofWestPapua.IntheSumatran mountain podzol and the Bangka lowlandpodzol,soilpHtendstoincreasegraduallywithdepthinthesoilprofile.

Soilorganicmattercontentsarecommonlyveryhighin the surface soils of the mountain podzols, exceptin the Bangka podzols. The latter is to be expectedbecause oxidation and mineralization processes arehighandrapidinlowlandareasofIndonesia.Thedatain Table8.12 also show that the humus of these pod-zolsischaracterizedbywidevaluesinC/Nratios.Innoothersoilsstudiedbytheauthorsofar inIndone-sia,havesuchwideC/Nratiosbeenobserved.Thisisanoutstandingfeature thatcanperhapsbeusedasadiagnosticpropertyfordifferentiatingthetypeofsoilorganicmatterinthepodzolpedon.Asindicatedfromthe data of the Sumatran podzol, the composition oftheorganicmatter,asexpressedintermsofC/Nratios,differsintheeluvialfromthatintheilluvialhorizon.TheBhandBshorizonscontainorganicmatterexhibit-ingthewidestC/Nratiosof37.3and42.9,respectively,suggesting that this typeofhumus is low inmolecu-larweightorintheearlyphasesofhumification(Tan,2003a).

�.�.�.� ClaymineralogyUnfortunately, not much is known about the exactnatureandcompositionoftheclaymineralsinpodzolsof Indonesia. However, from the low silica/sesquiox-ideratios,indicationsarethattheclayfractionisprob-ablycomposedof1:1latticetypeofclays.Thedatain

69071.indb 394 4/25/08 10:43:26 AM


Table8.13showtheSiO2/R2O3andSiO2/Al2O3ratiostorangefrom2.45to1.07andfrom2.6to1.2,respectively,indicatingthesialliticnature.Thisisincontrasttopod-zolsoftemperateregionsoreventhekauripodzolsofNewZealand.Thelatterhaveaclayfractiondominatedby2:1latticetypeofclayminerals,generallyreflectedbySiO2/R2O3andSiO2/Al2O3ratiovaluesof≥3(TaylorandPohlen,1962).

ThenormaltrendintemperateregionpodzolsisalsoforSiO2/R2O3andSiO2/Al2O3ratiostoincreasesharplyfromAtoEhorizonsbecauseof theaccumulationofsecondarysilicaintheEhorizon.ThevaluesoftheseratiosthendecreaseagainsharplyintheBhandBshori-zons,duetoilluviationandaccumulationofsesquiox-ides.SuchatrendcanonlybenoticedintheSumatran

Table.8.13. Silica/SesquioxideRatiosoftheClayFractionsofPodzolsinIndonesiaHorizon SiO2/R2O3 SiO2/Al2O3 SiO2/Fe2O3 Al2O3/Fe2O3

Mountain.Podzol,.Sumatra O — — — — E 2.45 2.66 32.3 12.2 Bh 0.45 0.56 14.8 26.5 Bs 1.07 1.21 8.84 7.32 C 1.21 1.30 17.9 13.8

Mountain.Podzol,.West.Papua A 2.28 2.40 — — E 1.96 2.05 — — B 1.35 1.97 — — BC 1.27 2.43 — —

69071.indb 395 4/25/08 10:43:26 AM


podzol. The West Papua podzol exhibits a gradualdecreaseinsilica/sesquioxideratioswithdepthintheprofile,acharacteristiccommonlydetectedinred-yel-lowpodzolicsoils.


�.�.�.� Soilpropertiesandagriculturaloperations

NotmuchisknownabouttheuseofpodzolsinIndone-sia foragriculturaloperations.Their remote locationshighinthemountainareaswithroughterrainandcoolclimatehaveapparentlydiscouragedmanypeoplefrominhabitingtheseregionspermanently.TheuplandsandespeciallythelowlandsarethemostdenselypopulatedareasofIndonesia.

Thesoiltexturefavorsthedevelopmentofrapidairmovement.However,theverystronglyacidicreactionsmay impose drastic measures for cultivation of thesoils.AccumulationofaluminumintheBhorizonwillperhapscauseproblemsbycreatingsubsoilacidityandphosphatefixation.Theorganicmattercontentisveryhigh,butbecauseitisofthemortype,itmaycontrib-utetoacidleaching.Nevertheless,thelitterlayerseemstocontributetonutrientcycling,becausethevegetationcover showssignsofa lushandhealthy cool tropicalregionforest.Atthesummitofthemountains,podzolsaregenerallystillundertheoriginalvegetation.Fromenvironmentalorecologicalstandpoints, it isperhapsbettertoleavethismontaneorhighlandregionofpod-zolsunderforest.Atthelowerlimits,wheretheclimatic

69071.indb 396 4/25/08 10:43:26 AM


conditionsaremorereasonableforthepeopleofIndo-nesia,thesoilscanpossiblybeusedfordairyfarming,whereasgoatfarmingisanotherpossibility.Indonesiaalsoseemsnottobeusedyetinsheepfarming,likeinNewZealand.

�.�.�.� TreefarmingOccasionally,limitedareasofthepodzolregionshavebeen used for shifting cultivation, or used by for-estryand industry forplanting tree crops for timber,firewood,andtodayforpulpwoodproduction.Oneofthetreecropsespeciallysuitableforgrowinginthesepoorandacidicconditionsistheindigenouspinetree,calledPinusmerkusii.KnownalsobythenameofPinussumatranaandthelocalnamesofdamarbatuandtusamtapanuli, it was in the past a dominant species of theSumatranTropicalPineforest,anecoregionstretchingoriginallyfromAcehinthenorthtotheBukitBarisanmountain range in the south near Lake Toba, NorthSumatra. Repeated burning for shifting cultivation atespecially the lower limitsof themountainareashasendangeredtheexistenceofthispinespecies,theonlypineallegedlygrowingsouthoftheequator.Itcangrowto70mtallandisconsideredthetallestpinetreeintheOldWorld.Itswoodisclassifiedassoftwoodandcanbeusedforlightconstruction,matches,andtodayforthemuchneededpulpinthepaperandrayonindustry.Thetreescanalsobecultivatedforproductionofres-ins,atarateof3to5kg/year.Thisresinappearstobeveryusefulasrawmaterialintheperfumeindustry,formakingpaintsandmedicines,andinprintingandthepaintindustry.

69071.indb 397 4/25/08 10:43:26 AM

69071.indb 398 4/25/08 10:43:27 AM

��

chapternine

AndosolsofIndonesia

�.� IntroductionForreasonsexplainedbelow,thisgroupofsoilsisdis-cussed as a separate chapter. Compared to the othersoilsaddressedintheprecedingchapters,andosolshavebeenrecognizedonlyveryrecentlyasamajorgroupofsoils.TheywerefirstbelievedtooccurmainlyinJapan,butwerelateralsodiscoveredinNewZealand(Taylorand Cox, 1956). Since then, research attention on thisgroupof soils increased rapidly inmanyother coun-tries.Thesoilsappeartooccurmorewidespreadintheworld than expected and of the estimated 50 millionhaavailable,morethanhalfarelocatedinthetropicalregions.Manydifferentconceptshavebeencreatedonthisgroupofsoils,usingavarietyofsoilnames.ThiswasthenoneofthereasonsfortheFoodandAgricul-turalOrganization(FAO)tocallforaspecialconferencein 1964 held in Tokyo, attended by representatives ofmostnationspossessingvolcanicashsoils,andinpar-ticularthosearoundthePacificbasin.AsreportedbyDudal(1964),theTokyomeetingabovetriedtocorrelatetheconceptsofthisgroupofsoilsinthevariouscoun-triesandbringsomeorderinthesoil’snomenclature.ThenameAndosolwasselectedastheofficialnameat

69071.indb 399 4/25/08 10:43:27 AM


thattimeforuseinidentification,becauseitrecallsthecountryoforigin.EventodaytheFAOandWorldRef-erenceBaseforSoilResources(WRB)systemsidentifythisgroupofsoilsasandosols.

Thoughthesoilsappeartobefoundinawiderangeof climatic conditions, from subalpine regions to thehumidtropics,theyseemtoconstituteagroupofsoilswithsimilarmorphological,physical,andmineralogi-calcharacteristics(Shojietal.,1994;Tan,1964).Conspic-uousamong these is thecommon thickblacksurfacehorizon,richinhumusanddominatedbyamorphous,noncrystalline, or paracrystalline clays. The latter areconsideredtobeallophaneandimogolite,weatheringproductsofvolcanicglass.Thesoilcolloidal fractionsmay also contain hydrated silica andalumina, whichtogetherwithallophanereflectthesoil’shighlyreactivesurfaces.TheblackcolorwasthereasonwhyU.S.soilscientistspreviouslycalledthesoilsandosoils(Simon-son,1979;ThorpandSmith,1949).InJapaneseanmeans“dark”or“black”anddomeans“soil.”ManyJapanesescientists are also referring to them as kuroboku (kuromeans“black”andbokumeans“friable”)soils,whereasothersusethenamehumicallophanesoils(Kanno,1962;Wright,1964).

However,withtheintroductionofanewsoilclassifi-cationsystemintheUnitedStates,thesoilswereplacedas an obscure suborder of the inceptisols, the andepts(SoilSurveyStaff,1960,1975).Sincethen,theywereforalongtimenotconsideredanimportantormajorgroupofsoils,andthesoilswerestillreferredtoasandeptsbyFlachetal.(1980)atthe1980InternationalSocietyofSoilScience,CommissionsIV–V–VI–VII,meetings,held

69071.indb 400 4/25/08 10:43:27 AM

Chapternine: AndosolsofIndonesia �0�

atLowerHutt,NewZealand,todiscusssoilswithvari-ablechargesand,inparticular,andosols.Becauseoftheworldwiderecognitiongainedbythesoilsinthemean-time,theU.S.conceptwasapparentlyamendedinthe1990sbyplacingthesoilsattheorderslevel,butunderthenameofandisols(SoilSurveyStaff,1990,2006).Thelatterisbasedontheallegedassumptionthatthevowel“i” is more appropriate in the English language than“o”as inandosol,andforreasonsofbeingconsistentinnomenclaturewiththeotherorders(e.g.,alfisols,ari-disols,inceptisols,mollisols,oxisols,ultisols,andverti-sols).Ifitisbasedonuniformityofnomenclature,thequestionariseswhyitisthennotwarrantedtochangethenamesspodosolsandhistosolsalsointospodisolsandhistisols,respectively?Theidentifyingfeaturesarealsospodichorizonsandhisticepipedonsanyway.

In Indonesia, andosols are spread over the archi-pelago,fromSumatrainthewest(Druif,1939a;Mohrand Van Baren, 1960; Tan and Van Schuylenborgh,1961a)overJava(Tan,1963;TanandMassey,1964)totheLesserSundaIslandsintheeast(MohrandVanBaren,1960). They are associated with intermediate to basicvolcanicparentmaterialsandaremostlyfoundinthemountainsofthehumidtropicsandmonsoonregions.Recently,andosolswerediscoveredinthelowlandsofSumatra. However, their occurrence in lowland areasisratherlimitedandalsoappearstobeconditionedbyspecific factors (for example, topography and parentmaterials).Thesoilsseemtodeveloponlyontheandes-iticvolcanicmaterial,flowingdowninafan-likeformfrom the Sibayak volcano in the coastal plain area ofNorthSumatra(Tan,1963;TanandVanSchuylenborgh,

69071.indb 401 4/25/08 10:43:27 AM


1961a).Theacidicmaterials(forexample,liparitictuffs)surroundingtheandesiticfanabovehavegivenrisetothedevelopmentofultisols.Forreasonsnotknownbytheauthor,andosolsarenotlistedintheSoilsMapofIndonesia,asshowninChapter1,Figure1.2.TheyareveryimportantvolcanicashsoilsandareboundtobepresentinthemountainregionsofIndonesiawhencon-ditionsarefavorablefortheirformation.Brownforestsoilsandgray-brownpodzolicsoilsmaybefoundcom-petinginoccurrence,butthesesoilsareformedbydif-ferentsoil-formingprocessesasdiscussedinChapters7and8,respectively.Thelatteristhenthereasonwhythe current author believes that processes of soil for-mationandmorphologyshouldbeconsideredofequalimportance.Basedonsoilmorphologyalone,andosolsin themountainsof Indonesiaareoftenconfused forbrownforestorgray-brownpodzolicsoils,aspointedoutearlier.

�.� ParentmaterialsTheandosolsinIndonesiaaredevelopedfromslightlyacidic, intermediate to slightly basic volcanic ash. Allthese materials are young in age and originate fromrecent Pleistocene eruptions. The soils have not beennotedtoformfromotherkindsofparentmaterials,likeliparitic and rhyolitic ash, as reported in Japan, NewZealand,andChile.Theyhavealsonotbeenfoundonplutonic,metamorphic,orsedimentaryrocks.

InNorthSumatra,theandosolshavebeenformedpri-marilyondacito-andesiticmaterials,withahornblendeassociation (Table9.1). The materials originated from

69071.indb 402 4/25/08 10:43:27 AM

Chapternine: AndosolsofIndonesia �0�Ta

ble

.9.1

.M

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alog

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69071.indb 403 4/25/08 10:43:28 AM


eruptionsoftheSibayakvolcano,whichweredepositedonthemountainslopesandatthefootofthemountain.In the lattercase, the laharflowsweredeposited inafan-likeshape,coveringthelowestpartsinthecoastalplainareaofDeli,inthevicinityofMedan.AndosolsarealsolocatedinthesurroundingsofPadang,inWestSumatra,ontheslopeoftheOphirvolcano,andintheregionsofLakeManinjau.TheparentmaterialhereisbelievedtobealmostsimilartothatofNorthSumatra,thoughthematerialoftheOphirvolcanoisnotedtobemoreandesiticinnature.

InWestJava,theparentmaterialsvaryfrombasalto-andesitictuff intheLembangareatoandesitictuffatCiapusandthePengalenganhighlands.ThematerialsatLembangcamefromtheTangkuban-Prahuvolcano,locatednorthofBandung,andarecharacterizedbyahornblendeassociation,whereasthatoftheCiapusareawasfromtheSalakvolcano,westofBogor.The latterhasahypersthene-augiteassociation.Theparentmate-rialsofthePengalenganhighlandswereejectafromtheWayang-Papandayanvolcanocomplex,locatedsouthofBandung,exhibitinganaugiteassociation.

InCentralandEastJava,thematerialsbelongtothecat-egoryofandesiticorbasalto-andesitictuffs,witheitherahypersthene-augiteoraugite-hyperstheneassociation.

Thefactsabovesupportedtheopinionoftheauthorthattheparentmaterialsforformationofandosolsaremostly intermediatetoslightlybasicvolcanicash.Thesoilshavenotbeenfoundonliparitictuffsorrhyoliticmaterials, as indicated earlier. But, they may possiblydevelop from basaltic ash, the most basic material ofvolcanicejectas.Basalticmaterialsareexpectedtoyield

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a base-rich soil solution, which favors carbonization oforganicmatter.Thisprocessisbelievedtoimmobilizetheorganicfraction,inducingitsaccumulationinsoilsandformationofintenseblackcolors,asnotedintheando-solsoftheDiengplateauandtheMalangHighlands.

�.� ClimateAndosolsarenoticedtohavebeenformedworldwideinawidevarietyofclimatetypes.TheyhavebeenfoundinthetemperatemaritimeclimateofJapan,inthecoolAndeanclimateofChile,inthewarmtemperateregionsofNewZealand,inthesubarcticclimateofIceland,insub-MediterraneanclimatesoftheAzores,Spain,Italy,andGreece,andalsointhewarmtropicalclimatesofIndonesiaandSouthAmerica.InthetemperatezonesofSouthAmerica,thesoilsmaydevelopinsuperhumidclimatesaswellasindrysubhumidenvironmentswithaccentuateddryseasons.Formoredetails,referenceismadetoWright(1964).

In Indonesia, the andosols occur mostly in a tropi-calcoolhumidmountainclimatewithorwithoutpro-nounced dry seasons. However, the soils have alsobeenfoundtoalimitedextentinthehothumidclimateof lowland areas (Table9.2). The lowland andosols inNorthSumatraarerestrictedtothelaharandtufffansintheplainsatthefootoftheSibayakvolcano.AscanbenoticedfromthedatainTable9.2,theclimatehereisclassifiedasahumidtropicalrainforestclimate(Köp-pen’sAfa)typicalforlowlandareasofIndonesia.InJava,thesoilsaremostlylocatedathigherelevationsabovesealevel.InWestJava,theyarefoundatCiapus,eastof

69071.indb 405 4/25/08 10:43:29 AM


Bogor,ontheslopeoftheSalakVolcano,at540to600maltitudesandhigher.HereintheBogorarea,thesoilsarealsopresentattheupperslopesoftheGedehVol-canointhesurroundingsofPasirSaronggeatapproxi-mately1200morhigher.NorthofBandung,andosolsoccurontheupperslopesoftheTangkubanPrahuVol-canointheareaofLembangat1250mandhigher.Thesoilsarealsomajorsoils,occupyingtheMalabar-Pen-galenganmontaneplateau,southofBandung,at1500mandhigher.TheclimateintheaboveregionsrangesfromtheuplandAfa(Köppen)tothemountainAfandCfhiorCf(Köppen)typesofclimate.

Table.9.2. TheClimateofAndosolsinIndonesia

Rainfall Altitude

<60 mm >100 mm


Type ofClimatea

North Sumatra

Timbanglangkat

Padangbrahrang

29

49

0.7

0.4

9.7

10.9

2522

2847

Afa

Afa

A

A

Andosol

Andosol

Ciapus/Bogor

Pasir Sarongge

Lembang

Malabar-Pengal.

540

1230

1247

1550

0.1

1.0

2.6

2.7

11.8

9.4

8.0

8.1

4880

3125

2915

2564

Afa

Af

Cfhi

Cf

A

A

B

C

Andosol

Andosol

Andosol

Andosol

Andosol

Central Java

West Java

Dieng Plateau 2093 4.0 8.0 2290 Cf C

Andosol

East Java

Malang 1250 5.0 7.0 2117 Cs D

Location

m Months mm Köppen

Soil

S&F

a S&F=SchmidtandFerguson;Köppen’ssymbols:A=coldestmonths>18°C;a=warmestmonth>22°C;f=humid;i=hotsummer;m=mon-soon;s=summerdry;C=coldestmonthbetween18°Cand–3°C.

69071.indb 406 4/25/08 10:43:30 AM


AndosolsalsooccurinthemonsoonareasofCentraland East Java, where they are mostly situated in themountainsat≥1000maltitude.For instance, the soilsexistat2093maltitudeintheDiengplateau,closetotheareasofWonosobo.LargeareasofandosolshavealsobeennoticedinthesurroundingsoftheMalang-Pujonhighlandsat1250mabovesealevel.TheclimateoftheseareasisclassifiedasthetropicalmountainCfandCsitypesofclimates.ACsiclimate isa typicalmonsoonclimateforthemountainregionsinEastJava(s=sum-merdry). It isusuallycharacterizedbyapronounceddryseasonfromthemonthsofMaytoOctober,butthetotal annual rainfall is still quite high (see Table9.2).As mentioned earlier, Wright (1964) also reported theoccurrenceofandosolsinSouthAmericainsubhumidclimateswithadryseason.

�.� SoilmorphologyAndosolsarecommonlydistinguishedbytheircharac-teristicmorphological features.InJapan,Kanno(1961,1962)andOhmasa(1964)reportedthesoilstopossessthick pitch-black surface layers rich in humus; hence,thenamekurobokuwasassigned.ThisAhorizonvariesusuallyinthicknessfrom30to50cmandisveryloose,soft,andmellow.Butwhenthesoilsaredevelopedindepressions,thisAhorizonmayoftenbemorethan1mthick. Inthiscase,differentiationintotwoormorelayersispossible.Insomecases,thepresenceofburiedAhorizons,resultingfromdepositionofnewashlay-ers,isalsopossible.

69071.indb 407 4/25/08 10:43:30 AM


Thehorizondifferentiation inandosolprofilesmayvaryfromplacetoplace.Wright(1964)noticedinSouthAmerica the occurrence of andosols with AC, A(B)C,orABCprofiles,rangingfrom50cmtomorethan100cmindepth.TheverydarkAhorizon issharplydif-ferentiatedfromtheyellowish-brownBorChorizons.ThelayerimmediatelybelowtheAhorizonisreportedtobe themost friablepartof theprofile,whereas thewholeprofileexhibitslowbulkdensityvalues.Segrega-tionofaluminumintheformofsoft,waxynodulesofgibbsitewasnoticedbyWright(1964)inBandChori-zons.Oneormorehardpansmayalsobepresent,buttheyareusuallyinheriteddepositionalfeatures,whoseintrinsicpropertiescanbecomereducedoraccentuatedbysoil-formingprocesses.

In Indonesia, andosols have similar morphologicalproperties as discussed above. Notwithstanding thehumid tropical climate, the soils still possess a blacksurface layer, rich inhumus.Anexample isprovidedbelowassampledbytheauthor(TanandVanSchuylen-borgh,1961a):

Andosol at Glugur (Medan, NorthSumatra),atanelevationof50mabovesea level. The topography is undulat-ing,andthevegetation isasecondaryforest with Eupatorium sp. and grassas underbrush. The parent material isdacito-andesitictuff(seeTable9.1).Itisawell-drainedprofile.Colornotationsrefertoair-dryandfield-moistsamples,respectively.

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ThecoloroftheAhorizonmayvaryfromblacktodark brown and, consequently, one may tend to dif-ferentiatethesoilsintoabrownandablackvariety.Theblack variety of andosols tends to be limited moreto thehigherslopesof theSibayakvolcano,whereasthe brown variety is associated more with the low-land areas. In Java, both varieties of andosols havealsobeenobserved,buttherearenoindicationsthatthelighter-colored(brown)soilsarelimitedtolowerelevations.Onthecontrary,theblackvarietyisfoundat Ciapus-Bogor at approximately 600 m altitude aswellasinCentralandEastJavaatelevationsof≥1000m.Thebrownandosolsareveryspecificfortheareasof Lembang and the Malabar-Pengalengan montane

Horizon Depth.(cm) DescriptionA1 0–18 10YR 4/2-10YR2/1, dark gray-

brown to black, weak fine crumb,silt loam, loose, friable and soft,manyfineroots.

A2 18–20 10YR 4.5/2–10YR2/2, gray-browntoverydarkbrown,moderatefinecrumb, silt loam, friable and soft,manyfineroots.

B 20–31 10YR5/3–10YR3/4,browntodarkyellowish-brown,weakfinegranu-lar,loam,friable.

BC 31–76 10YR7/4–10YR4/4, very palebrown to dark yellowish-brown,weak medium granular to blocky,loamslightlysticky,fewsmallstonefragments.

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plateau.Intheseareas,thesoilhasinadditionabur-ied profile underneath. The buried soil is usuallycharacterizedbyanintenseblackAhorizon(TanandMassey,1964).ItispossiblethattheblackcoloroftheburiedAhorizonhasbeenaccentuatedafterdeposi-tionofnewashlayersontop,duetosubsequentdevel-opment of poor aeration and drainage conditionsbelow. This may be substantiated by results of thin-section studies. Whereas usually the A horizons ofmountainandosolsexhibitacrumbtogranularstruc-ture,similartothestructureshowninFigure8.1,theburiedAhorizonseemstoexhibitarelativelymassivestructurewithlittleornomicropores,builtupmostlybypeptizedblackcolloidalorganicmatter(Figure9.1).Little inorganic material has taken part in its struc-turalformation,andwhateveraluminumandironarepresent,theyareprobablyalsoinpeptizedforms.Thethinsectionsfailtoshowanychangesinrefractionorcolorswhenviewedinordinarylightaswellasundercrossednicols.Itisbelievedthatperhapssomekindofinternalpeatformationmayhavetakenplace.

The soil in the surroundings of Lake Maninjau,Padang,WestSumatra,hasanACprofileandaburiedAhorizonbelow.Thisandosolisofthebrownvarietyandhasapronouncedwaxyappearance,comparabletoseveraloftheLatinAmericanandosols,asdiscussedbyWright(1964).TheburiedAisespeciallyextremelywaxyandpossessesaveryhighwatercontent.Whensqueezed,waterisflowingthroughthefingers.Asoilprofiledescriptionisgivenbelowforcomparison.

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Chapternine: AndosolsofIndonesia ��

ThephotographsinFigure9.2andFigure9.3provideadditionalexamples,showingblackandbrownandosolsin Sumatra and an andosol with a buried A horizoninWest Java.A thinsectionof thisburiedhorizon isshowninFigure9.1.

�.� SoilclassificationAsstatedbefore,avarietyofnameswereusedworldwideforthisgroupofsoils.InJapan,theywerealsoformerlyknown under different names, and at one time, theywerecalledkuroboku soils,whereasSeki (1934)wasoftheopinionthatitseemedmorereasonabletocallthemalliticsoilsbecauseoftheirhighaluminumcontents.Butthe soils are affected by neither laterization nor pod-zolization processes (Kanno, 1961). The classificationashumicallophanesoils,asproposedbyKanno(1961),appears tohave receivedprovisionalacceptanceonly,becausemanyscientistsinJapandisagreeonthebasis


A 0–30 10YR3/3,(field-moist)darkbrown,strongfinegranulartoweakcrumb,siltloam,friable,waxy,fineroots.

C 30–50 10YR 5/6, yellowish-brown, weakfine granular, sandy loam, mixedwithabundantfinegrainsofbrown-ish-yellow(10YR6/6)volcanictuff.

Ab +50 7.5YR 4/4, brown, strong fine sub-angular blocky to blocky, silty clayloam,friable,verywaxy.

69071.indb 411 4/25/08 10:43:31 AM


thatotherclaymineralscanbefoundinlargeamountsin addition to allophane (Egawa and Watanabe, 1964;Ohmasa,1964).

Efforts to place the importance of the type of claymineral in the classification of these soils have beenapparentfromthebeginning.It isespeciallynotedinthe older New Zealand system of soil classification.The clays in question are known in New Zealand as

Figure 9.1 ThinsectionofaburiedAhorizonofanando-solattheslope(1300maltitude)oftheTangkuban-Prahuvol-cano,WestJava.Theverydarkgray(10YR3/1)densefabricisdottedwith reddish-yellow (7.5YR6/6) ironoxides.A largeplagioclasemineral isembeddednear thecenterof thecol-loidalmass.(Originalmagnification×100.)

69071.indb 412 4/25/08 10:43:31 AM


amorphicclays,claysthatareamorphoustox-raydiffrac-tion.Todaythesetypesofclaysarecallednoncrystalline,paracrystalline,variable-chargedclays,orshort-range-orderclays,dependingonthepreferenceoftheauthors(Tan,2003b). It isbelieved thatnotonlywill these typesofclaysimparttothesoilssomeofthehighlydistinctivephysical and chemical properties, but they will alsoendowthesoilswithunusualfarmingpropertiesandproblems (Birrell and Fieldes, 1952; Taylor, 1964). Thesoils are, therefore, classified at that time as amorphicsoils (Taylor and Pohlen, 1962) and today as allophanicsoilsinNewZealand(Hewitt,2003).InLatinAmerica,asimilartendencycanbenoticedwithregardstotheimportanceoftheclaymineralsintheclassificationofthesoils.Wright(1964)andBesoain(1964)usethename

A B

Figure 9.2 (A)Blackandosoland(B)brownandosol,Talangvolcano,WestSumatra.

69071.indb 413 4/25/08 10:43:32 AM


allophanicsoils.InChileandArgentina,theyarelocallycalledtrumaosoils,whereasinNicaraguathesoilsareknown as talpetate soils. The distinctive status of allo-phaneintheclassificationofthisgroupofsoilscanalsobenoticedintheearlyversionoftheU.S.soilclassifi-cationsystem,calledtheSeventhApproximation(SoilSurveyStaff,1960).Itlistedasonetherequirementsofandeptsthepresenceofanx-rayamorphousexchangecomplex or one dominated by allophane. In the newcurrentversionoftheU.S.SoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,2006),thisemphasisonallophanicclayshasbeen

Figure 9.3 Andosol with a buried A horizon, Tangkuban-Prahuvolcano,WestJava.

69071.indb 414 4/25/08 10:43:33 AM


deleted in favorofacid-oxalateextractablealuminumcontents, a major requirement for the newly createddiagnosticandichorizon.However,amorphousmateri-alsarestillmaintainedtodayasanimportantfeatureinclassificationofandosolsbytheFoodandAgricultureOrganization–United Nations Educational, Scientific,andCulturalOrganization(FAO-UNESCO)systemandespeciallybythesystemoftheinternationallyacceptedWRB(FAO-UNESCO,2007b;Shojietal.,1996).Asindi-catedearlier,thenameandosol,selectedatthe1964FAOconferenceoncorrelationofvolcanicashsoils,remainsrecognizedtodayastheofficialnamebytheFAOandWRB systems. According to their original definition,andosolsaresoilswithmollic,umbric,orochricAhori-zonsoverlyingcambicBhorizonsandatadepthof≥35cmhaveoneorbothofthefollowing:

1. Bulk densities of ≤0.85 g/cm3 (at one-third barwater retention) in the ≤2-mm soil fraction andan exchange complex dominated by amorphousmaterials.

2. Vitricvolcanicash,cinders,orothervitricpyroclas-ticmaterialsof≥60%inthesilt,sand,andgravelfractions.

Basedonthepropertiesabove,theandosolsareclas-sifiedintothefollowing:

I. Mollicandosols.AndosolswithmollicAhorizons.ThesesoilsthencorrelatewiththeblackandosolvarietyofIndonesia.

69071.indb 415 4/25/08 10:43:33 AM


II. Humic andosols. Andosols with umbric Ahorizons.

III. Ochricandosols.AndosolswithochricAhorizons,aresiltloamintextureandsmearyinconsistence.Thesecanperhapsbecorrelatedwith thebrownandosolvarietiesofIndonesia.

IV. Vitricandosols.Andosolswithlotsofvitricvolca-nicash.

Theaboveconceptofclassificationwaslateramendedsomewhat to underline the importance of vitric andandicasthemajordiagnosticcriteriaforandosolsandto include in addition to mollic, umbric, and ochric,also histic, fulvic, melanic, and duric horizons (FAO-UNESCO,2007b).

As explained earlier, in the United States, the soilswerefirstclassifiedasandosoils(Simonson,1979;ThorpandSmith,1949),butwerelaterplacedasasubgroupoftheinceptisols(forexample,andepts),withtheintro-ductionofanewsystemofsoilclassification,knownatfirstas theSeventhApproximation (SoilSurveyStaff,1960,1975).ThiswaslateramendedinthenewestU.S.system,calledSoilTaxonomy(SoilSurveyStaff,2006),byupgradingitsclassificationtotheorders’levelunderthe name of andisols. Though several Japanese scien-tistsseemtoagreeinadoptingthenameandisols(Shojietal.,1994),thenameandosolisbyfarpreferred.Thelatter is noticed in a subsequent paper by Shoji et al.(1996),whereheandhisAmericancoworkersrefer toandosolswhiletryingtobringtotheattentionthenew-estWRBsuggestionsinsubdividingtheandichorizoninto a vitric-andic, aluminum-andic, and silica-andic

69071.indb 416 4/25/08 10:43:33 AM


horizon.Theyalsowanttounderlinetheimportanceofformationofnoncrystallinematerialsandorganicmat-teraccumulationasdominantpedogeneticprocessesinformationofandosols.

InIndonesia,thesesoilswereknownsincetheearlydaysoftheDutchcolonialtime.TheywerecalledinthepastblackdustsoilsbyDutchsoilscientistsbecauseofthehugeblackdustbowlsstirredupbythewindwhenthesoilsweredry(Druif,1939a,1939b;Mohr,1922,1938,1944). In thepost-WorldWar IIperiod, the soilswererenamed andosols (Dudal and Supraptohardjo, 1961;Tan, 1964). However, at a later date after its indepen-dence, Indonesia apparently adopted the use of thenameandisols,thoughthesoilshavenotbeenlistedintheofficialSoilMapofIndonesia,asstatedearlier.

�.� Physicochemicalcharacteristics�.�.� Physicalproperties

�.�.�.� ParticlesizedistributionTheanalysisofparticlesizedistributionisfraughtwithmanydifficulties,andevenatthepresent,someofthesehavenotbeensolvedsatisfactorily.AccordingtoBirrell(1964), thesedifficultiesarecausedbythepresenceofamorphouscolloidswithisoelectricpointshigherthanthoseoftheusualcrystallineclaymineralsandhydrousoxides,whichinducemutualcoprecipitation.

InIndonesia,itwasobservedbyVanSchuylenborghandVanRummelen(1955)thatairdryingsoilsamplesbeforeanalysiswouldresultinverypronouncedchangesintheirphysicalconditions.Wheneverpossible,thesoil

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samplesareanalyzedinfield-moistconditions.Dryingmanifests itself in the so-called mountain granulation.Thesoilthenhasadustyappearanceandisverydif-ficulttomoistenagain.Becauseoftheseeffects,thesoilisusuallyeasilydisturbedbywindactionwhichtendstostirupbigblackdustbowls;hence, thenameblackdustsoilwasgivenbyDutchsoilscientiststothesoils.Insuchadrystate,thesoilisgenerallyverysensitivetoerosion.Intheanalysisforparticlesizedistribution,peptizationordispersionoftheclayfractionisnotassimple indry (oxidized)samplesofandosolsascom-paredto, forexample, latosols.Samplesofoxisolsareusuallydispersedsatisfactorilywithsodiumpyrophos-phate solutions, but this is not the case with andosolsamples.Itisevennecessarytofindadifferentagent,suitableforpeptizingthesamples,foralmosteachindi-vidualhorizon.VanSchuylenborghandVanRummelen(1955)havefoundthatinmostcasesasolutionof0.005NHClwassufficientinachievingcompletepeptizationof andosols samples. Today dispersion or peptizationcanbeachievedbyultrasonicmeans.

Another problem is the fact that volcanic ash soilscontain a mixture of particles which are very unsta-bleinparticlesizes.Itisperhapscommonknowledgethatpumice,thoughitstillhastheappearanceofbeingin its original form, will be very easily broken downintosmallerparticlesbyweakpressureorimpactdur-ingparticlesizeanalysis.This isdueto itsweakenedcohesion as a result of weathering. When weatheringprocessesareallowedtocontinuefurther,pumicewilleventuallyloseitsowncharacteristicshapeandformalayerofmixedcoloredmaterials,calledimogolayersin

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Japan,fromwhichtheterm imogolite iscoined(Yoshi-nagaandAomine,1962a).

Therefore, the results of particle size analysis(Table9.3),carriedoutbythepipettemethod,shouldbereadinlightoftheissuesabove.Theandosolsanalyzedsofarareallmedium-texturedsoils.Theclaycontentisgenerallylow,andmechanicalclayeluviationisseldomnoticed.Anexceptionisnoticedinthecaseoftheblack

Table.9.3. PhysicochemicalCharacteristicsofAndosols


Org. C %

N %

Horizon

50–2 <2 µ

pH (H2O)

A1

A2

B

BC

20.55

18.47

18.49

29.59

58.65

59.33

41.41

30.41

20.80

22.20

40.10

40.00

5.80

5.70

5.85

6.20

6.93

6.08

2.77

1.38

0.66

0.57

0.37

0.21

10.5

10.7

7.5

6.6

A

A2

B

BC

15.56

13.03

14.78

11.97

62.59

68.44

66.22

72.82

21.85

18.53

19.00

15.21

4.93

4.86

4.82

5.04

15.19

13.56

9.01

4.07

1.25

1.24

0.78

0.41

12.2

10.9

11.6

9.9

>50 µ

C N

Black Andosol, Deli, North Sumatra, 50 m

Black Andosol, Ciapus-Bogor, West Java, 600 m

Ap

B

Ab

26.34

21.23

11.09

60.11

70.36

78.68

13.55

8.41

10.23

5.04

5.69

5.85

6.08

2.39

6.00

0.76

0.37

0.45

8.0

6.5

13.3

Brown Andosol, Lembang, West Java, 1300 m

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andosolsofDeli,locatedinthelowlandsofNorthSuma-traat50mabovesealevel.Here,notonlyarethesoilscomparativelyheavierintexture,butasharpincreaseinclaycontentcanalsobenoticedintheBhorizon.

�.�.�.� SoilreactionThe data indicate that the soils are generally moder-ately acid in reaction (in the pH range of 6 to 5) andonly the black andosol at Ciapus exhibits a stronglyacidsoilreaction,registeringapHrangeof5to4.Thelatter may suggest the presence of umbric propertiesandperhapscanbecorrelatedtotheFAO-WRBumbricandosols.Yatno(2006)reportedvolcanicashsoilsfromtheTangkuban-Prahu,WestJava,toexhibitpHvalues~3.0,whichisunbelievablystronglyacidicandmaybeharmfultosoilsandplants.

�.�.�.� BulkdensityandporosityOtheroutstandingpropertiesofandosolsare the lowbulkdensity,theveryhighmoisturecontentthrough-out the profile, the high uniform total porosity, andaggregate stability. Unfortunately, only general dataandnotmuchresearchinformationareavailableaboutthesephysicalfeatures.TheFAO-UNESCO(2007b)listsasarequirementabulkdensityof≤0.85Mg/m3(=g/cc),whichconformswithresultsofthefewresearchanaly-sesofandosols,reportingbulkdensitiesrangingfrom0.78 to 0.85 Mg/m3 (Leamy et al., 1980). In Indonesia,bulkdensityvalues ranging from0.38 to0.79Mg/m3havealsobeenreportedfromanalysesofvolcanicashsoilssampledattheslopeoftheTangkuban-Prahuvol-cano,WestJava(Yatno,2006).

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Themoisturecontentsarealsoexceptionallyhigh,buttheyarenotcausingthedevelopmentofreducedcondi-tions,becauseandosolsareknowntobewellaerated.Birrell(1964)reportedthatthesubsoilsofandosolsinNewZealandmayhavemoisturecontentscomparabletothoseofpeatsoils.This isalsotrueforIndonesianandosols,whereH2Ocontentsof≥50%havefrequentlybeennoticed.

�.�.� Chemicalcharacteristics

�.�.�.� HumuscontentandcompositionAndosolsarecharacterizedbyveryhighorganicmat-ter contents. The organic carbon contents may evenbe as high as 15% in the surface horizons (Table9.3),exceedingvaluesreportedbyBrady(1990)formollisolsintheUnitedStates.However,thegeneraltrendofCorgcontentisintherangeof5to6%,withthelowervaluesnotedincultivatedandosols.ThedatainTable9.3alsoshowasharpdecreaseinCorgcontentsfromAtoBorChorizons.ThegeneralopinioninJapanisthatgrasses,especially Miscanthus sp., a solfatara plant, and bam-boograss,arethesourcesforaccumulationofhumus.Foresttreesarenotconsideredimportantfortheaccu-mulationoforganicmatter inAhorizonsofandosols(Kanno,1961).ThelatterisincontrastwithIndonesia,whereandosolsarelocatedunderatropicalmountainrainforest.

JudgingfromthevaluesofC/Nratios(Table9.3),thenature of the organic fraction seems to be somewhatdifferentfromthatreportedintheliterature.Theaver-ageC/NratioinAhorizonsofandosolsinJapanis13.8

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(Shojietal.,1994),whereasinIndonesianandosolsvaluesofC/Nratiosequalto8to13havebeennoticed.Italsoappearsthatthehumicfractionsofandosolsaregener-allyhighinfulvicacids.Thehumicfractionsoflowlandandosolstendtobedominatedbyhighamountsofful-vicacids.AsshownbythedatainTable9.4,thehumicfractionsof lowlandandosolsofDeli,NorthSumatra,arecomposedof80to100%fulvicacids,yieldinghumicacid/fulvicacidratiosequalto0.2to0.0.Thisisincon-trast to those of the mountain andosols of West Java,

Table.9.4. HumicCompositionofAndosolsofIndonesia

Composition (%) Horizon Humic

Fulvic Humic Acid

A

A2

81.4

100.0

18.6

0.0

0.2

0.0

Ciapus/Bogor A

A2

65.9

55.9

34.1

44.1

0.5

0.8

Lembang A

B

42.9

52.5

57.1

47.5

1.3

0.9

Pengalengan A

B

67.7

69.9

32.3

30.1

0.5

0.4

Fulvic Acid

Lowland Andosol, Deli, North Sumatra

Highland or Mountain Andosols, West Java

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wherethehumicfractionsarecharacterizedbyhumicacid/fulvicacidratiosrangingfrom0.4to1.3.Aratioof0.4meansahumicfractioncomposedoffourpartsofhumicacidsandtenpartsoffulvicacid,asnotedforexampleinthePengalenganandosol(Table9.4).Ontheotherhandaratioequalto1.3indicatesthatthehumicfractioniscomposedofslightlymorehumicacidsthanfulvicacids,ascanbenoticedintheLembangandosol.Thedifferencesaboveinfulvicacidandhumicacidcon-tentsbetweenlowlandandmountainandosolsaretobeexpected.Inthelowlands,theclimaticconditionsfavorrapiddecompositionandmineralizationofsoilorganicmatter.Undersuchconditions,fulvicacidsarethemostpossiblehumiccompoundtobeformed.Humicacids,whenformed,tendtodecomposeintosmallerfractions,the fulvic acids. However, as discussed in precedingsections, theclimate in themountainsof Indonesia iscoolerandmoreconducive tohumificationprocesses,resultinginformationofbothhumicandfulvicacids,butwithatendencytoyieldmorehumicacids.Becausefulvicacidsarethemostsolublehumicfractions,theirhighercontentssuggesttheirbiggerroleinmobilizationofclaysandcationsthroughtheprocessesofchelation.

From the data above, a tentative conclusion can bedrawnforadivisionoftheandosolsinIndonesiabasedonthecompositionoftheirhumicandfulvicacidscon-tentsintothefollowing(Tan,1964,1965):

1. Lowlandandosolswithhumic/fulvicacidsratiosequalto0.2orlower.

2. Highlandandosolswithhumic/fulvicacidsratiosequalto0.5orhigher.

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�.�.�.� NitrogencontentTheandosolsofIndonesiaareallinvariablyveryhighinnitrogencontent.ThedatainTable9.3showtheper-centofnitrogen(%N)rangingfrom0.2to1.3%,valuesfarexceedingthosereportedformollisolsoftheUnitedStates(Brady,1990).Theexceptionallyhighnitrogencon-tentsof1%orhigher,noticedfortheAhorizons,arecom-parablewiththoseofsomeoftheorganicmanures.

�.�.� Claymineralogy

Aspreviouslydiscussed,emphasishasbeenplacedontheclaymineralogyforidentificationofandosols.Themost importantareallophaneand imogolite. Inaddi-tion to these,1:1 lattice-typeminerals,gibbsite,amor-phous silica, and alumina, and some 14 Å mineralshavealsobeendetectedintheclayfractionsofandosols(Kanno, 1961, 1962, 1964). The 1:1 lattice types of claymineralsaremainlykaolinitemixedwithhalloysiteasanundeterminedrandommixture.Theyarebelievedtobe formedbyenrichmentwithsilicaofagingallo-phane.Intheprocessofcrystallization,theamorphousallophane changes first into globular particles, whicheventually may grow into an onion-like mass thatfinallywillburstintotubularkaolin-likeparticles.Evi-denceforthehypothesisabovewaspresentedbyYoshi-nagaandAomine(1962a,1962b),whoshowedelectronmicrographsofcrystallineclaymineralsinametastablestateresultingfromtheweatheringofallophane.Thiskindofallophane,exhibitingthread-likeparticles,per-ceivedtobethefirststepindevelopmentofcrystallinestructures,iscalledimogolite.Sincethen,imogolitehas

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alsobeenfoundinandosolsinChileandothercoun-triesintheworld(Besoain,1968;Eswaran,1972).Basedonclaymineralogicalfeatures,Kanno(1964)suggestsadivisionofandosolsasfollows:

1. Soils,characterizedbyadominantcontentofallo-phane.Thesearetheyoungandosols.

2. Soils,characterizedbyamixtureofallophaneandhalloysite.Thesearetherelativelyolderandosols.

3. Soils, rich in allophane, kaolinite, and gibbsite.Theseandosolsareconsideredtobecomparativelytheoldestage.

InIndonesia,thecurrentauthorhasfoundbydiffer-entialthermalanalysis(DTA)thatmostoftheandosolsinSumatraandWestJavacontainlargeamountsofallo-phane with comparatively minor amounts of gibbsite(Figure9.4).Theendothermalpeaksaround300°Caretoo small to account for the presence of substantialamountsofgibbsite.KaolinitehasbeendetectedonlyintheclayfractionsofandosolsofEastJava.TheandosolsoftheDiengPlateau,CentralJava,possessratherdiffer-entthermograms.Here,noexothermalpeaksarepres-entat temperaturesof800 to900°Corhigher.OneofthethermogramsisprovidedasevidenceinFigure9.4.SuchaDTAthermogramsuggeststhepresenceofallo-phane-B or β-allophane, as proposed by Fieldes (1955).However,AomineandcoworkersinJapan(Yoshinagaand Aomine, 1962b) are skeptical about the theory inNewZealandonthedivisionintoallophane-Bandallo-phane-A. Large amounts of imogolite have also beendetectedintheCiapusandosolbytransmissionelectron

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microscopy.Ascanbenoticedfromtheelectronmicro-graph (Figure9.5), the hairlike or cylinder-like struc-turesclearlydominatethepicture.Theaccompanyingx-rayimagebyelectronmicrobeamanalysisorEDAX(Energy Dispersive Analysis by X-rays) supports thepresenceofimogolite.

300 500 °C

5

4

3

2

1

700 900

Figure 9.4 Differentialthermalanalysis(DTA)curvesofclayfractionsofandosols in Indonesia: (1)LakeManinjau,WestSumatra;(2)Ciapus-Bogor,WestJava;(3)Lembang,WestJava;(4)Deli,NorthSumatra;and(5)DiengPlateau,CentralJava.

69071.indb 426 4/25/08 10:43:37 AM


Al Cl

EDAX

Liat CiapusSi

Figure 9.5 Transmission electron micrographs of the clayfraction of the Ciapus Andosol, showing the characteristichairlikeorcylinder-likestructuresofimogolite.TheEnergyDispersive Analysis by X-rays (EDAX) image supports thepresenceofclay,composedofsiliconandaluminum.

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�.�.� Chargecharacteristics

Andosolsare considered tobevariable-charged soils.Withoutaddressingtheissueonvariablecharges,adis-cussiononandosolsisincomplete.Asexplainedbefore,the electrical charges, stimulated by inorganic andorganiccolloidalmaterials,areresponsibleforthesoils’chemicalactivitiesandcanbepermanentorvariable innature.Thepermanentchargesoriginateusuallyfrompermanent-chargedclaysandaremostlydevelopedbyisomorphous substitutions in the clay structures. Forexample, the negative charges of expanding 2:1 layertypesofsilicateclaysoriginatefromisomorphoussub-stitution.Ontheotherhand,variablechargesarecreatedbydissociationofexposedOHgroups.Becausetherateof such dissociation depends on soil pH, the chargeswill go up and down with corresponding fluctuationinsoilpH.Thechargesoforganicsubstancesandsomeof the clays (e.g., humic acids, amino acids, hematite,gibbsite) are pH dependent. This group of soil mate-rials is thencalledvariable-chargeclays (ororganics).Kaolinitehasasmallpermanentchargebuthasahighvariable charge, causing the cation-exchange capacity(CEC)alsotofluctuatewithsoilpH(Tan,2003b).Thesecharges of andosols, expressed in terms of CECv, aresummarized inTable9.5.Thedata show thatmostofthesoilsarecharacterizedbyhighCECvvalues, indi-catingthepresenceofhighvariablecharges.Theando-solsatCiapusandLembang,WestJava,areveryhighinthesepH-dependentcharges.OnthebasisoftheCECvvalues,threegroupsofandosolscanberecognized:

69071.indb 428 4/25/08 10:43:39 AM


Table.9.5. ChargeCharacteristicsandKCl-ExtractableAlConcentrationsofAndosolsofIndonesia(inme/100g)

Horizon AEC CECp CECv CEC8.2

N. SumatraPadang BulanA

A2

0.22

0.10

29.9

21.1

35.6

22.3

W. SumatraLake ManinjauA

C

0.11

0.14

15.4

34.3

26.5

41.2

Ophir VolcanoA

A2

0.36

0.17

23.6

22.1

5.7

1.2

11.1

6.9

5.3

3.3

28.9

25.4

14.0

20.2

11.5

22.8

West JavaCiapus-BogorA

A2

4.7

1.5

62.3

64.3

70.4

72.7

8.1

8.4

23.9

29.1

Central JavaDieng PlateauAp

A2

17.3

7.0

13.2

13.6

22.2

21.5

9.0

7.9

5.0

18.6

East JavaPujon-MalangAp 0.37 15.7 24.9 9.2 9.7

18.0

21.6

LembangA

B

0.78

0.78

39.0

36.2

4.8

5.5

43.8

41.7

24.5

24.5

PengalenganA

B

0.21

0.13

19.4

20.6

5.0

2.8

24.4

23.4

14.9

18.2

Al3+

Notes: CEC,cation-exchangecapacity;AEC,anion-exchangecapacity.

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1. CECv≤30me/100g.Andosolswithcomparativelylow variable charges (e.g., andosols of Sumatra,CentralandEastJava).

2. CECv=30to50me/100g.Andosolswithinterme-diatevariablecharges(e.g.,andosolsatLembang,WestJava).

3. CECv ≥50 me/100 g. Andosols with high vari-ablecharges(e.g.,andosolsatCiapus-Bogor,WestJava).

TheaboveresultsseemtobeinagreementwiththoseobservedinNewZealand.Althoughtheanalyseswereconductedwithquitedifferentmethods,Fieldes(1962)reported that allophane developed an increasinglyhighernegativechargeas thepHincreasesabovepH=5.

Concerningtheamountofpositivecharges,itcanbenoticedthatandosolswithlowCECvhavelowanion-exchange capacities (AEC), whereas andosols withintermediate and high CECv exhibit medium to highAEC values. The data in Table9.5 also show that theAECvaluesofmostoftheandosolsappeartobelargerforthesubsurfacethanforthesurfaceAhorizons.ThismaybereflectedintheP-fixationcapacity,ifany.Hence,P-fixationmayoccur insomebutnotallof theando-sols in Indonesia,andwillmore likelybean issue inthesubsurfacelayers.Phosphatefixationhasbeencon-sideredbyseveralFAOandJapanesesoilscientistsasoneofthedetrimentalfeaturesoftheotherwisefertileandosols.InIndonesia,noreportsarepresentyetabouttheharmfuleffectofP-fixationofandosols.Asfarasit

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isknownbytheauthor,theandosolsarethebestsoilsforagricultureinIndonesia.

The data in Table9.5 also show that the soluble orexchangeableAl3+concentrationsareveryhighintheCiapus and Dieng andosols, which are also reflectedinthesoilreactionsoftherespectivesoils.AsnotedinTable9.3,theCiapusandosolsarethemostacidicinsoilreactionsascomparedtotheothers.ThehighlevelsoffreeAl3+mayhaveaneffectonincreasingthechancesofP-fixation.However,themechanismofthisfixationaccordingtoaligand-exchangeprocess,asproposedbyJapanesescientists(Shojietal.,1998),isharmfulfortheexistenceofandosols.Ligandexchangemayreleasethehumic molecules from the aluminum exchange sites,andintheformoffreemolecules,thehumicandfulvicacidsaresubjecttorapidattackbydecompositionpro-cesses, normally occurring under tropical conditions.Therefore,theauthorbelievesthataluminumbridgingisabetterexplanationfortheretentionofphosphates,asillustratedbelow:

HumicAcid–Al–HPO4orHumicAcid–Al–PO4 (9.1)

Suchabridginginteractionisnotharmfulfortheexis-tence of andosols, because it will preserve the humicmolecules.Theinteractionbetweenallophaneandimo-golite (through their structuralaluminum layers)andhumicacidsisthemostimportantprocessinthegen-esisofandosols.FreeAl3+isconsideredtoalsoplayaroleintheaccumulatingprocessofhumicsubstances.Additionally, in chelated form, the phosphate mole-culeisstillavailablebyexchangeforplantuse.Thisis

69071.indb 431 4/25/08 10:43:40 AM


thenthereasonwhytheauthorhasstatedabovethatinIndonesia,noseriousproblemsinfixationofphos-phates have so far been reported, like in andosols ofJapan.

�.� Landuseandevaluation�.�.� Evaluationofanalyticalproperties

Asdiscussedabove,theandosolsinIndonesiaarechar-acterized by very high organic matter contents, withhumuscontentsexceedingthosereportedformollisolsintheUnitedStates.Asawhole,theyaremedium-tex-tured and friable soils, with low bulk densities, highwater contents, good porosity, and stable aggrega-tion.Theycontainhighamountsofnitrogenandhavemediumlevelsofpotassiumandphosphates(TanandMassey, 1964). The latter are presumably due to theirintermittent enrichment with volcanic ash, supplyingthepotassium-andphosphorus-bearingminerals.

�.�.� Significanceofbasicsoilproperties

The physical and chemical properties, summarizedabove,indicatethattheandosolsofIndonesiaareper-hapsthemostfertilesoilsintheworld,nexttothemol-lisols.Thenitrogencontentsoftheandosolsof≥1%canbematchedonlybygreenandstablemanures,andnoothersoilsintheworldhavebeenreportedtocontainthose high nitrogen contents. However, a disadvan-tage isperhaps thatmuchof theareasofandosols inIndonesiaarelocatedinruggedterrain,highupinthe

69071.indb 432 4/25/08 10:43:40 AM


mountains,unliketherollinggreatplains,wheremostoftheextensiveareasofmollisolsarefoundintheUnitedStatesandCanada.Anotherstrikingdifferenceisthatthechemicalcharacteristicsarealsocontrolledbyvari-ablechargesgeneratedbythepeculiaramorphoustypeofclaysandbythehighamountsofhumicsubstances.Hence,asvariable-chargedsoils,theandosolsofIndo-nesiamustbehandledverydifferentlywhenused inagricultural operations than the mollisols. Mollisolsare known to be permanent-charged soils due to thepresenceofcrystallineclays,suchassmectitesormont-morillonites,withlotsofisomorphoussubstitutionsintheircrystal structure.Lime isperhapsnotneeded intoolargeamountsintheandosols,duetothesoil’spHrange,whichismostlybetween5and6.Inthemoreacidictypesofandosols(umbricandosols)andwhenrequiredtooffset lossesbyplantuptakeandleaching,perhapsapplicationsofdolomiticlimestoneorgypsumaremorewarrantedthantheuseofcalciticlimestone.IncontrasttotheoxisolsandultisolsofIndonesia,whicharealsovariable-chargedsoils,thenegativechargesinandosolsarealreadysufficientlyhighformaintainingtheproperCECvalues,andthereisnoneedtoincreasethemfur-therwithlargeapplicationsoflimingmaterials.

�.�.� Agriculturaloperations

Becauseofthefavorablesoilpropertiesabove,theando-solsinIndonesiaarefavoredforavarietyofagriculturaloperationswhenevertheareasaresuitableforinhabita-tion.Thelowlandandosols inNorthSumatrawere inthepre-WorldWarIIperiodusedforcultivationofthe

69071.indb 433 4/25/08 10:43:40 AM


famous Deli-tobacco wrappers, which formerly foundtheirmarketsinHolland.Grownontheandosols, thetobaccoplantsusuallyreceiveadequatephosphatefertil-ization,littlepotassium,andsmallamountsofnitrogenfertilizers.Tocontrolthebacterialwiltdisease,theareaiscultivatedwithtobaccoonlyonceeveryfouryears.

InLembang,WestJava,theandosolsareoftenconsid-eredthemainfactorforasuccessfulhorticulturalopera-tion.Duetothelocationinacooltropicalclimate,thesoilsarefavoredforgrowingcabbage,tomatoes,carrots,potatoes,greenonions,andothertemperateregionveg-etablesandcutflowers.Althoughthesoilscontainhighamounts of organic matter, the farmers often fertilizethesecropsagainwithtonsoforganicmanure,probablytocounteractanytoxiceffectduetothehighAl3+con-tentsofthesoil.InthePengalenganhighlands,thebestteaplantationsarefoundonandosols.Theproductionofapproximately3000kgtea/haperyearisconsideredquitehigh,asdiscussedinChapter8.Thequalityofthishighlandteaisallegedlyfarbetterthanthelowlandteathatisgrownatlowerelevationsondifferentkindsofuplandsoils. The cultivation of these crops was addressed inChapter8onuplandsoils;therefore,thefollowingwilladdresstheothercropsalsofavoredforcultivationonmountainandosols(e.g.,coffeeandclove).

�.�.�.� EstatecropsCoffeeandcloveareformerlythetwootherimportantestatecropsofIndonesia.

�.�.�.�.� Coffee Egyptians were recorded ashavingusedcoffeebeans formakingbeveragessince

69071.indb 434 4/25/08 10:43:41 AM


biblical times.Coffee, locally calledkopi, isnotnativetoIndonesia,andtheplantshavetheiroriginperhapsintheAbyssinianhighlandsofEthiopia,wherecultiva-tion of coffee allegedly started in 600 AD. From hereitwascarriedovertheworldbyArabmerchants,whoimported some of the plants for cultivation in theirhomeland,theArabianPeninsula.ThiswasthereasonforassigningitlatertheLatinnameCoffeaarabica.Ironi-cally,muchofthecoffeeintheworldisnowproducedinLatinandSouthAmerica,farfromitscountryoforigin.RenownedintheUnitedStatesis,forexample,Colom-biancoffee,thoughthelatterisnotpurearabicacoffeebutmaycontainothervarieties,discussedbelow.

In Indonesia, coffee was planted during the Dutchcolonialtimeinlargeestates,atfirstasagovernment-enforced (Dutch: verplichte) cultivation in Java andSumatra. In the wet tropical climate of Sumatra andWest Java, the coffee plants are easily subject to thedreadfulleafdiseasebyHemileiavastatrix(Ultée,1950).Thisdiseasewasfirstnotedin1969inSriLanka,andsincethenhasspreadquicklytothecoffeeplantationsofthePadangHighlands(BukitTinggiandsurround-ings) inWestSumatra,where ithaswipedoutwholeplantations.Thisisthereasonwhytoday,coffeeplan-tations are primarily concentrated in the mountainsofEastJava,wherethemonsoonclimateismoresuit-ableforitscultivation.Itneeds3monthsofsharpdryseasons for proper berry-setting, ripening, and easyharvesting.Usually,arabicacoffeegrowswellataver-age annual temperatures between 16 and 20°C, andatelevationsbetween800and1500mabovesealevel.In the coffee-growing areas of East Java, the lower

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altitudinallimitforcultivationofarabicaissetbythehemileiadisease,whichbelow800m is still adevas-tatingfactor.Thehigheraltitudinal limitat1500misdetermined by the possible occurrence of night frost.Coffee stillgrowswellat1700mabovesea level,buttheplantsarethenfrequentlydamagedbynightfrost.Duetothediseaseabove,newtypesofcoffee,presum-ablyresistant to thehemileia,havebeen importedbytheDutchpeople(e.g.,theLibericaandRobustacoffees).The liberica coffee (Coffea liberica) has been importedfrom Liberia, Africa, whereas the robusta coffee (Cof-fea canephora) originated from the Congo. Both coffeevarietiesappear toalsogrowwell in the lowlandsofIndonesia.Theysoonbecamethesourcesforthedevel-opmentofsmallholdercoffee farmsoperatedby localpeopleinlowlandareasbelow800m,fromwhichthefamousLampungcoffeeoriginated(Lampungisaprov-inceatthesoutherntipofSumatra).InSumatra,Java,Bali,Timor,Menado(Sulawesi),andWestPapua,mostofthelowlandcoffeeisnowreplacedbyeitherrobustaorlibericacoffee.SomearabicacoffeeisstillgrownatlocalsmallfarmsinthemountainsofBengkulu,South-westSumatra,ataltitudesof1000m,whereasarabusta,acrossingbetweenarabicaandrobusta,iscultivatedinTimor(AARD,1986).

Traditionally,coffeeinIndonesiawasplantedfirstasseedlings. Used to growing as an undergrowth bushinitsoriginalforestsettinginAfrica,theverticalstemof the seedling soon produces lateral branches thatbecomeprogressivelylonger,givingtheshrubapyra-midalshapewhenlefttogrow.Inpractice,formationofacrowncomposedoflateralbrancheswasencouraged

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bytheformerDutchCoffeeResearchInstitute,atJem-ber,EastJava,bygraftingontopofthestemseedlingyoungshoots,takenfromthelateralbranchesofoldertrees.Themoreoftheselateralbranches,thebiggerwillbe theyield,because coffeeflowersdevelop themostonthesebranches.Floweringstartsusuallyattheendof the rainy season, when stem elongation and shootgrowth have stabilized somewhat. In the presence ofaprolongedrainyseason,theflowerswillbeaborted.Thisisthenthereasonwhyamonsoonclimatewithacouplemonthsofdryseason is essential forgrowingcoffee.Thefruit,calledaberryordrupe,turnsredoryellow,dependingonvariety,whenreadyforharvest.A1-year-oldplantwillalreadygiveasmallyield,andthisyieldcontinuestogrowandeven-upinplantsatagesof3to4years.Today,theyieldofathird-yearplantationisaround2000to3000kg(beans)/ha(AARD,1986).

IntheDutchcoffeeplantations,itwascustomarytogrow the coffee plants below shade trees, preferablytall, nitrogen-fixing legume trees (e.g., Albizia sp. andGliricidiaspp.).Asimilaruseofsuchashademethod,applied in cultivation of tea, was discussed in Chap-ter8.Suchasystemoftalltreesdoesnotonlyprovideshadeforprotectionofthecoffeecropsagainstsunburn,butitalsoprovidestheestatewithaseriesofecologicaladvantages. The canopy of the shade trees interceptstherainfall,whichisusuallyratherheavyinthemoun-tains,decreasingsubstantially the impactof the rain-drops on the andosols beneath. The dead leaves andtwigsproducea litter layer,mulchingthesoilandbydecompositionrecyclingthenutrientscontainedbytheplantremains.Aspointedoutearlier,theseshadetrees

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generallydevelopdeeprootsystemsthatdrawnutrientsfromthedeepersoillayers,contributingtowhatwecallnutrientcycling.Inaddition,thealbiziatreescanprovideprecious firewood and cheap timber. Unfortunately,theuseofshadetreesinestatecropshasbeenreducedor discontinued recently. New cultivation methods,includingapplicationsofabatteryofagrochemicalsandhigher-yielding crop varieties, have brought changesintheconceptsofgrowingestatecrops.Thedangerofthehemilieadiseasethatcanbecomeseriousinshadyareas,dueperhapstoincreasedrelativehumidity,isanadditional factor for encouraging the use of a shade-less system. Nevertheless, experimental results of theIndonesiangovernmentresearchstationssuggestonlytheuseoflesseramountsofshadetrees,butnotelimi-natingthemtotally.Estatesthatgrowcoffeewithzero(0)shadetreesproduceanaverageof2000kgbeans/haas compared to a substantially lower average of 1300kg/hafromestatesusing1322shadetreesperhectare(AARD,1986).Thisistobeexpected,becausethedensityofshadewillcontrolbothgrowthandyieldofplants.Themostsuitabledensityofshadetrees,forprofitablebeanproduction,hastobefoundforeachestate,andaspresentedbytheAgencyforAgriculturalResearchandDevelopment(AARD,1986),highercoffeeyieldsaver-aging2200kg/hawereobtainedinestatesusingeither331or147shadetreesperhectare.

By growing these cover trees, a forest-like settingisalsocreated,playingan important role in issuesofconservationandbiodiversity,similarlyasthoseoccur-ringinatropicalrainforest.Thestructuraldiversityoftheestatecrops,producedbythedifferentvarietiesof

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plantsandlayersandheightsofcanopies,canbecomeanimportantrefuge,harboringadiversepopulationofbirds.Itiswithoutquestionthatalltheseecologicalben-efitsaffordedtothelandsinIndonesiaarelostforeverbytheeliminationofshadetrees.Theauthorhasnoticedlately that thewildchickenor jungle fowl,numerousinthepast,havenowbecomeextinctorendangeredinmanyoftheestatesbecauseoflossofhabitats.Theyarelocally calledayam hutan (ayammeans“chicken,”andhutan means “wild” or “forest”) or in West Java alsonamedkasintu,butnotmanukasoftenstatedinEnglishbooks.ManukisaSundanesedialectreferringtobirdsingeneral.Inthepast,Indonesiarecognizedatleasttwotypesofayamhutan,thered(Gallusgallus)andgreenjunglefowl(Gallusvarius).Theredvariety,fromwhichIndonesia’s domestic chickens have descended, hasbeenconsideredextinctforalongtime,butthegreenjunglefowlhasapparentlybeenabletoexistforawhilein thehugeexpansesofmountain forestsettingscre-atedinthetea,coffee,andotherplantations.DuringtheDutchtime,nohuntingwaspermittedontheestates,butthesewildbirdshaveapparentlyalsodisappearedrapidlyinnumbersbecauseofhabitatlossesinrecentyears.

�.�.�.�.� Clove This is another plant that hasmade Indonesia famous as the Spice Islands. Cloveplants (Figure9.6), known during the Dutch time bytheLatinnameEugeniacaryophyllatabutintheEnglishliteraturecalledEugeniaaromaticum,arenativetoIndo-nesia.Locallyknownascengkeh,theplantsarereportedtooriginatefromtheislandsgroupofTernate,Tidore,

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Ceram,Halmahera,andAmbonintheMoluccas.It ispresumablyalsofoundinTimor(Deinum,1950b).Clove,as a spice, was known already in 547 a.d. in Egypt,presumably imported fromChinaandCeylon. Itwasaverypreciouscommodity,andevenafterthePortu-guesefoundtheirwaytotheMoluccasin1511,theclovewas still scarce and expensive in European markets.FromTimor,Frenchsailorssucceededtosmugglecloveplantsin1753toRéunionisland,andthecrophassincethenspreadtoMadagascar,SainteMarie,andZanzibar,Africa,wheretodayextensivecloveplantationscanbefound.Asisthecasewithnutmeg,cultivationofcloves

CA

B

Figure 9.6 (A)Youngcengkehorclove tree. (B)Freshgreencloves.(CourtesyofP.T.CenkehLanriber.Photo(B)providedbyJanuarDarmawan.)(C)Driedcloveshowingtheformofanailorscrew.

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in Indonesia is mostly done by smallholder farms, intheearlydaysunderaforced(Dutch:verplichtecultuur)cultivation system. The latter was abolished in 1863(Deinum,1950b).Theplantswere, in1798,duringthebriefBritishoccupationofIndonesia,broughttoSuma-tra,whereclovehasbeencultivatedsincetheninmanysmall plantations in Bengkulu, Southwest Sumatra,PayahKumbuh,andotherareasinWestSumatra.

Theplantsarepropagatedbygerminatingseedsandallowedtogrowfor8to12monthsinseedbedsorpotsbefore they are ready for transplanting in the fields.Somefarmerskeepthemfor2yearsinthepotsbeforetransplanting.Theplantswillgrowinthelowlandsaswell as in the uplands. In West Java, they have beencultivatedonlowlandultisols,buttheywillgrowbet-teronsoilsatelevationsof600to800mabovesealevelwithanaverageannualrainfallof±3000mm(TanandHadiwidjaja,1959).

Priortoflowering,aperiodof2to3monthsofdryweather,wherethemonthlyrainfallisaround80to90mm,appearstobeofadvantage.Thoughthisisnotareallydryseasoncharacteristicofamonsoonclimate,this semidry period usually results in prolific forma-tion of flower buds, which should then receive againadequate amounts of rains for proper development(Deinum, 1950b). A really dry season with 3 monthsof<60mmrain isunsuitable,whereasaclimatewithtoohighannual rainfalls (≥4000mm),as exhibited intheCiapusandPasirMadangareas,WestJava,isalsoveryharmful.Thehighhumidityseemstoencouragetheappearanceofthetwomostdreadfulclovediseases:dieback, locally known as the mati bujang disease, and

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a fungal blister-blight disease, called by farmers CDC(cacardauncengkeh;cacarmeans“pox,blister,”anddaunmeans “leaf”). The dieback disease, noted already intheearlyPadangandBengkuluplantations (Deinum,1950b), has destroyed most of the clove plantationsat Ciapus and Pasir Madang. No satisfactory reasonshave been presented so far for this cengkeh diebackdisease.Deinum(1950b)hasquotedJ.Reitsma,profes-sorofplantpathologyat InstitutPertanianBogor (IPB),Bogor, about Phytophthora sp. isolated from roots ofsick plants. In contrast, AARD (1986) has pointed toan infestation by the xylem limited bacteria (XLB). Themycoplasma-likeorganismsareallegedlycloggingthexylemvessels,blockingtheflowandsupplyofwatertoleavesandtwigs.Inasense,itislikecloggingthearter-iesofhumanheartpatientsbycholesterolsludge.Thisthenresultsinyellowingoftheleavesfollowedbypre-maturedyingofleavesandtwigs,alltoowell-knownsymptomsofthecengkehdiebackthathasdevastatedthe clove plantations in Ciapus, Pasir Madang, andother areas in West Java, and also in Sumatra whereannualrainfallishigh(TanandHadiwidjaja,1959).Theblister-leaf-blightdiseaseorCDC,firstnoticedin1975inLampung,SouthSumatra,has spread rapidlyovertheothercloveareasinSumatraandJava.Thisdisease,caused by the fungus Phyllostica sp., is allegedly alsoveryserious inareaswithhighrainfall.AccordingtoAARD(1986),ithasdevastated74%ofthecloveplanta-tionsintheLampungsalone.However,itappearstobeeasier to control than thediebackdisease,by theuseoffungicidesincombinationwithpropercultureman-agementandsanitationpractices.

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Becauseofthetwodiseasesabove,lowlandareasofSumatraandWestJava,characterizedusuallybycontin-uouslyhumidconditions,arelesssuitableforgrowingcloves.Theplantationsare,therefore,morerestrictedtotheuplandregions,wheretheconditionsarerelativelydryer,limitingtheappearanceofthediebackandleaf-blister-blightdiseases.Theuplandsoilsarealsolighterintexture(e.g.,andosolsaresandyloams,withgoodairand water percolation, factors favoring the growth ofclovetrees)(TanandHadiwidjaja,1959).Stagnantwaterconditions appear to be harmful for the somewhatdelicate root system. Some shade is required for thefirstfewmonthsofgrowth,whichisusuallyprovidedbygrowingsmallbushes,likeTephrosiacandida.

Cloveisanevergreentreethatcangrowtoa15-to20-m-talltree,andallegedlyhasalifespanof130yearsormore(Deinum,1950b).At4yearsofagethetreestartstoflower,and2.5to3monthslaterthefirstfreshclovescanbeharvested.Harvesttimediffersfromregiontoregion. For example, in South Sumatra trees are har-vestedinMarchthroughApril,whereasintheMoluc-casharvesttimeisusuallyinOctoberthroughJanuary.The fresh cloves harvested are, in fact, the unopenedflowerbudsthataregreenincolor(Figure9.6),whichassumeadarkbrown,rustycolorafterdryinginthesununtilthemoisturecontentis≤4%.Thisdryclovehastheshapeofanailorscrewandisthereasonforthenameclove(fromFrenchclou,meaning“nail”).Ayieldinthepastof1.5to4kg/tree(drycloves)wasconsideredlow,becauseyieldsof12to15kgdryclovespertreehavebeenreportedfrom10-to15-year-oldtreesinMenadoand South Sumatra (Deinum, 1950b). Apparently, the

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yield isnotmuchdifferent today.Currently theyieldoffreshclovesfromyoungtreesgrowninuplandsoilsofJavaisaround1to2kg/tree(=±700gdry).Thisis,ofcourse,small,butitwillincreasetomaximumyieldsof±10kgfreshcloves(=6.5kgdry)pertreeattheageof10to12years(JanuarDarmawan,P.T.CengkehZan-zibarCompany,personal communication,2007).With144to150plantsperhectare,thismeansayieldof504to525kg/haintermsofdrycloves.Loweryieldsof400kg/hahavealsobeenreportedfromcloveplantationsinGorontalo,Minahassa,NorthSulawesi.SellingatapriceofRp.30,000.00toRp.50,000.00perkilogram(Rp.10,000.00=U.S.$1.00),clovesarestillbringinginasiz-ableincometofarmers.

�.�.�.�.� Kretek industry The aroma of cloves,producedbytheirmajorchemicalcomponent,eugenol,hasfoundapplicationinthepreparationoffooddishesall over the world. When extracted as oil, eugenol issaid to have antiseptic and anesthetic properties andiseventodayusedbysomedentistsinrootcanalsandtreatmentoftoothaches.DryclovesareoftenusedforenhancingtheflavorofAsianaswellasEuropeanandAmerican food. Especially in India, it is ground andmixedwithotherspicesandisthenusedinalmostanyIndiandish.Beriyani,afamouslocalIndianricepilaf,isusuallyflavoredwithwholecloves.InIndonesia,clovesareusedinflavoringandincreasingthearomaofcook-iesandcakes.Themainapplication,however,isintheproduction of kretek-cigarette, an Indonesian brand ofcigarettespicedwithchoppedcloves.Thenamekretekcomesfromthecracklingsoundoftheburningcloves

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when smoking the cigarette. In Indonesia, the storygoesthatkretekwasproducedin1880byHajiJamhariofEastJava,whocreateditfortreatmentofhisasthma.Ascustomaryinthepast,manyIndonesiansgobyonenameonly,andHajiisatitle,earnedbyMuslims,aftertheir sacred pilgrimage to Mecca. His kretek caughton locallyandtoday isoneof themostpopularciga-rettes in the market of Indonesia. It isnow producedandmarketedbyanumberofcompanies.Someofthewell-knownbrandsareSampoerna,GoedangGaram,Djarum, Bentoel, and Dji Sam Soe. Recently, kretekhasalsofounditswaytoEuropeanandU.S.markets.Strongoppositionwasapparentlylaunched,especiallyintheUnitedStates,forfearoflosingthecigarettemar-ketbypromotingadversehealtheffectsfromsmokingkreteks.Theyhavebeenthesourceforpoliticaldebates,highlightedbythenewsmediaintheUnitedStates.AU.S.Senate2004billwasallegedlyproposedthatwouldhaveplacedlegalrestrictionsonimportsofkreteks.ThecoupdegraceforthekretekmarketintheUnitedStatesis perhaps the purchase of P.T. Sampoerna by PhilipMorris International Tobacco Company on March 14,2005.

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69071.indb 474 4/25/08 10:43:50 AM

��

IndexAAARD(AgencyforAgricultural

ResearchandDevelopment),18–19

ABChorizons,lowlandoxisols,143

Acacia,79,353Acehregion,35,65,194,196,250,

252,397Achraszapota(sawo),172,246Acidbrownearths,311Acid-brownforestsoils,13,303,

307–308,313,314,374 associationwithpodzolic

latosols,294–295 brownforestsoilclasses,308,

309 physicochemical

characteristics,310 properties,315Acidhumus highlandpodzols/spodosols,

382 podzolization,74–75 podzols/spodosols,381–382Acidleaching,highland

podzols/spodosols,381–382

Acidparentmaterial,369Acidrain,271Acidreactions,soilsequencein

hillycountry,215Acidsulfatesoils,272Acidic(carboxyl)group,clay

peptidization,105

Acidicmaterials andosols,402 brownpodzolicsoils,369–370,

371 inceptisols,299 lowlandultisols,180,181 podzoliclatosols,295–296 volcanic,34Acidicvertisols,238Acidity;SeealsopH,soil andosols,420 argillic(Bt)horizons,187–188 brownforestsoils,377 brownpodzolicsoils,376–377,

379 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,347,349,352

highlandpodzols/spodosols,383,392–393,396

inceptisols/brownforestsoils,315

lowlandalfisols,218 lowlandoxisols,154,155,163 lowlandultisols,179,192,198 andlowlandvertisolcolor,239 mineralleachingand,73 peatsoils/histosols,256,257,

270–273,283,288–289 formationof,255,272 water,270–271 podzolization,98 precipitation/evapotranspiration

ratiosandsoilformation,119

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soilsequenceinhillycountry,215

spodichorizonformation,108 tropicalconiferforestlitter,

353 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics,

182 andvertisol/grumusol

formation,228 volcanicmaterials,38Aclimaticsoils,387 brownforestsoils,304 lowlandpodzols,387Acreages/areasofdistributionof

soils,124 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,345–346 lowlandoxisols,161 lowlandultisols,178,197 mountainsoils,333 peatsoils/histosols,124,

256–258 spodosols,390Acreagesofmajorfoodcrops,

125Acrisols,187;SeealsoRed-yellow

podzolicsoils(ultisols);Ultisols,lowland(red-yellowpodzolicsoils)

AEC(anionexchangecapacity),193–194

Aeolianorigin,lowlandalfisols,210

Aeration carbondioxideexchange,112 inlowlandvertisols,243Aerobicmicobialprocesses,peat

formation,261Aerophotogrammetry,21Afaclimates,86,139

andosols,405,406 brownpodzolicsoils,370 lowlandoxisols,139,141 lowlandultisols,182,183 lowlandvertisols,230–231 peatsoils/histosols,263 podzols/spodosols,385 zonalsoils,386Afclimates,65 andosols,406 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,340 inceptisols,302 teaandcoffeerequirements,

126–127Agathisaustralis(kauritree),389Agathisrainforest,80Agaveangustifolia(cantala),174,

206Agavesisalana(sisal),174,206Age,soil andosols,402,425 brownpodzolicsoils,374 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,352 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

312 IndonesianversusU.S.,116 lowlandoxisols andclaymineralogy,161 andcolor,156 modalprofiles,143 parentmaterials,137 particlesizedistribution,

153 U.S.versusIndonesia,152 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,180,192

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Index ��

AgencyforAgriculturalResearchandDevelopment(AARD),18–19,126

Aggregation,lowlandultisolparticles,199–200

Aglaiaodorata(culanflowers),325AgriculturalEnvironment

ResearchInstitute,19Agriculturaloperations andosols,128,434–445 clove,439–444 coffee,434–439 kretekindustry,444–445 brownpodzolicsoils,379–380 highlandalfisols,353–367 applesandgrapes,355–356 dairyfarming,359–362 estatecrops,362–367 wheatcrops(gandum),

356–359 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoiland,353 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

315–316 lowlandalfisols,222–227 estatecrops,223–227 kapok,224–225 teak,225–227 lowlandoxisols,163,165–177 estatecrops,173–177 fruitcrops,171–174 nonricecultivation,169–177 ricecultivation,165–169 vegetablecrops,170,171 lowlandultisols,200–209 estatecrops,206–209 ricecultivation,204–206 shiftingcultivation,

200–204

soilqualityand,198,199 lowlandvertisols,244–253 coconut,249–253 estatecrops,246–249 smalllandholdersor

farmers’crops,245–246 mountainregions,334–335 peatsoils/histosols,126,

286–291 estatecrops,289–291 ricecultivation,288–289,

290 spodosols,396–397 temperateregioncropsat

higheraltitudes,75 transmigrationprogram,23 uplandsoils,inceptisols,

316–331 albizia,325–328 cabbages,317–319 dairyfarming,330–331 estatecrops,322–330 fruits,321–322 horticulturalcrops,317–322 nutmeg,328–330 potatoes,319–320 tea,322–325 tomatoes,320–321Agroforestry;SeealsoRubber

(Hevea);Teak(Tectonagrandis,jati);Treefarming

rubber,23 teak,225–226Agrogeology,13Ahorizons andosols,407,408,409,410,

412,414,415,421–422,423 brownpodzolicsoils,372,373,

374 claymigration,105

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highlandalfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoils,347,353

highlandspodosols,380–381 humusironpodzol,388 ironandaluminumcomplex

formation,108 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicmorphology,184

lowlandultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,182

Air/aeration,soil,112,243,396,410,420

Alang-alang(Cochongrass,Imperatacylindrica),20,21,201,260

Alaskapeat,288Albic(E)horizons brownforestsoils,304 brownpodzolicsoils,368 formationof,75,102,106,113 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,341,342,343,349

highlandpodzols/spodosols,380,381,392

humusironpodzol,388 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,182 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics,

188Albite,180Albizia(jeungjing),316–317,322,

325–328,364,437Albiziafalcata,364Alfisols,344 aluminumoxide/ironoxide

ratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119,120

brownforestsoilsas,307

highland(gray-brownpodzolicsoils),337–367;SeealsoGray-brownpodzolicsoils(alfisols)

climate,340–341 landuseandevaluation,

352–367;SeealsoLanduse,highlandalfisols

parentmaterialsof,338–340 physicochemical

characteristics,347–351 soilmorphology,341–343 kandicgreatgroupdiagnostic

features,345 lowland classificationissues,338,

346–347 vertisolsinassociation

with,233–234 vertisolsintoposequence

with,227–228 lowland(redMediterranean

soils),99,123,130,209–227


221–227;SeealsoLanduse,lowlandalfisols


characteristics,218–221 soilclassification,215–218 soilmorphology,213–215 Miamisiltloam,119 percentoftotalarea,124 soilformation,98 terminology/taxonomy,95–96

69071.indb 478 4/25/08 10:43:52 AM

Index ��

AlgemeneVereenigingvoorRubberOnderzoekterOostkustvanSumatra(AVROS),3–4,18,176

Alisols,306Alkalicontent;SeeBases/base

status,soilAlkalisoils(aridisols),99,100Alkalineearthelements,131,

210,380Alkalinity;SeepH,soilAlkalinization,100Alkalis,soil;SeeBases/base

status,soilAlliticsoils,149,220,411Alliticweathering,149Allitization,97Alliumcepa(shallots,bawang

merah),170Alliumfistulosum(greenonions),

170,317Allophane,312,400,423,424Allophanicclays,414–415Allophanicsoils,413–414Alluvialsoils/sediments classificationsystem,123 coconutgrowthin,250 lowlandoxisols,132 lowlandpodzols,383 lowlandvertisol/grumusol

formation,229,230 NusaTenggara,47 Sumatra,37–38Alor,46Alpineconditions,91Alpinegrassland,81Alternativeenergysources,18Altitude/elevation andagriculturalactivity cabbages,317–318

dairyfarming,361 nutmegcultivation,328 teacultivation,364 andosols,405,408,409 andclimate,67–72 inceptisols,299 rainfall,68 temperature,68–69 ultisols/red-yellow

podzolics,182,183 zonaldivisionsinto

lowland,upland,mountain,andhigh-mountainland,69–72,73

highland/mountainsoils,333,336

alfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoils,340,341,343,346

brownpodzolicsoils,368–369,370,371,372

podzols/spodosols,382,386,392

zonalsoils,386 lowlandalfisols,213 lowlandoxisols,138,140,141 classificationand

nomenclature,148–149 versushighland,145–146 ironcontent,137 andweathering,156 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,189,197 lowlandvertisols,231 peatsoils/histosols,263 soilformationprocesses,114,

117 climate,110 organicmatteroxidationat

higherelevations,113

69071.indb 479 4/25/08 10:43:52 AM


transitionzones;SeeUplandsoils

uplandinceptisols/brownforestsoils,299,303,308,309–311,313

vegetationzones,84–91 cloud-beltforest,89–90 coastalflora,84–88 rainforestandmountain

rainforest,88–89 subalpine,90–91 zonaldistributionofsoils,

13–14Alum,lowlandultisols/red-

yellowpodzolicsoils,190Alumina andosols,423 desilicification,102–103 podzolization,98Aluminum aluminumoxide/ironoxide

ratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119

andosols,411,415,428,429,431 chelates,74,113 highland/mountainsoils,333,

334 alfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,352 humusironpodzols,391 podzols/spodosols,396 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

313–314 lowlandoxisols,131,157 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,193,196 peatsoils/histosols,275,282 soilformation allitization,97 clayformation,75–76

laterization,97 leaching,76 translocationof,106–108,

120 Sumatranbauxitedeposits,37Aluminumbridging,431Aluminumoxide(Al2O3),97Aluminumoxide(Al2O3)/iron

oxide(Fe2O3)ratios,119–120,241

Amclimate,oxisols,141Amclimates,65 brownpodzolicsoils,370 coffeerequirements,127 grapecultivation,356 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

302–303,308 lowlandoxisols,139 zonalsoils,386Amaclimates lowlandsoils,130 alfisols,212 oxisols,139 peatsoils/histosols,263 vertisols,231 sugarcanegrowth,127Amaranthusspp.(spinach,

bayem),170Ambon,44,45–46,440 monsoons,60Ambonites,46AmericanSystem,7;Seealso

U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)classificationandtaxonomycategories

issueswith,5 terminology,74–75Ammonia,205

69071.indb 480 4/25/08 10:43:52 AM

Index ��

Ammoniumnitrogen,redoxconditionsand,109–110

Ammoniumsulfatefertilizer,176–177

Amorphicsoils,413Amorphousclays,413;Seealso

Noncrystallineclays andosols,400,433 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,350,351 lowlandalfisols,220Amorphoussilica,andosols,423Anacardiumoccidentale(cashew

nut),203Anaerobicprocesses gleyization,101 peatformation,271 peatsoils/histosols,282,

288–289 soilphysicochemical

characteristics,278Analyticalproperties andosols,432 highlandalfisols,352 inceptisols,313–315 lowlandalfisols,221 lowlandoxisols,161–164 lowlandultisols,197–199 lowlandvertisols,242 peatsoils/histosols,282–283Anaphalisjavanica(edelweiss

plant),91Andalusite,211Andepts,400,414;Seealso

AndosolsAndesine brownpodzolicsoils,371 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,339 inceptisols,299

lowlandultisolacidictuffs,180

Andesites/andesitictuffs Ambon,46 andosols,401,403 brownpodzolicsoils,370,371 highlandalfisols,338 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,340 inceptisols,299,301 lowlandoxisolformation,156 lowlandoxisols,132,133,137 lowlandvertisol/grumusol

formation,229 podzols/spodosols,383 soilformationfrom,116 Sulawesi,44 Sumatranvolcanicmaterials,

38 volcanic,34Andesito-basalticvolcanic

materials,34,179Andesito-dacitictuffs,179,180Andichorizon,416–417Andisols,terminology,236,270,

401,416Andosoils,400Andosols,399–445 brownforestsoilsmistaken

for,306 chemicalcharacteristics,

421–432 humuscontentand

composition,421–423 nitrogencontent,424 classificationand

nomenclature,123,399–402

claymineralogy,424–427 climate,405–407

69071.indb 481 4/25/08 10:43:53 AM


highlandalfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoiland,353

landuseandevaluation,432–445

agriculturaloperations,128,434–445

analyticalproperties,evaluationof,432

basicsoilpropertiesand,432–433

latosol/oxisolco-occurrence,142

mountainsoilclassificationbySoilResearchInstitute,309

mountainsoils,336 nomenclature,399–400 parentmaterialsof,402–405 physicalproperties bulkdensityandporosity,

420–421 chargecharacteristics,

428–432 particlesizedistribution,

417–420 soilreaction,420 physicochemical

characteristics,417–432 silica/sesquioxideratiosof

clayfractions,241 soilclassification,411–417 soilmorphology,407–411,412,

413,414Andriesseclassificationscheme,

256,261,262,268–269Anerobicmicrobialprocesses,

peatformation,261,262Anggur(grapes),354,356AngiGigi,382AngiGita,382

Anionexchangecapacity(AEC),193–194,429,430

Apatite,180Apples,354,355–356Aquasuborder,101Aquaculture,354Aquox,151,152–153Aquults,189Arabicacoffee,354Arablelandarea,28Arabustacoffee,436Areaofarableland,28Areaoflandcontainingsoil

typesacreage;SeeAcreages/areasofdistributionofsoils

Arecacatechu(Pinangpalm,betelpalm),85,86

Arenpalm(Arengasaccharifera),249

Arenosols,306Arfakmountains,48Argillaceouslimestone,228Argillans,106Argillic-Bhorizons,337Argillic(Bt)horizons,101,

104–105,341–342 chromosols,188 Davidsonsoils,154 formationof,102,107 highlandalfisols/gray-brown


inceptisols/brownforestsoils,306–307

kurosols,187 lowlandalfisols,216,218 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,182,184–188,190,192–193,196

69071.indb 482 4/25/08 10:43:53 AM

Index ��

podzolicsoils,312Argillization,97,101Aridicregimes lowlandoxisols,141 ustoxsoils,141Aridisols(salinesoils,

solonchaks,whitealkalisoils,solods,sodicsoils,blackalkalisoils),99,100

percentoftotalarea,124Arjunatuff,301Arjunavolcano,299,300,301,

310,312Artocarpasintegra(jackfruit,

nangka),203,246AruIslands,48Asclimates,lowlandoxisols,139Asaclimates,lowlandalfisols,

212AsianSoilConference,20Assamtea,324,363Assarting,202Association minerals hornblende,402,404 hypersthene,338 hypersthene-augite,301,

340,370,404 olivine,338 soils alfisols,209,215 grumusols-terrarosa,233 grumusols-vertisols,230 oxisol-alfisol,209 oxisol-andosol,142 podzols-brownforestsoils,

294,298 vegetation broad-leaftrees,340,353 climax,77

forest,79–80Atmosphericpressure monsoons,55–58 subalpinezone,91Augite andosols,403,404 brownforestsoils,300,301 brownpodzolicsoils,371,379 falseredlimestonesand

fraction,211 gray-brownpodzolicsoils,

339,340,370 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,339 inceptisols,300,301 lowlandoxisols,133,134–135,

136,137Australiansoilclassification

system,215–216 kurosolsandchromosols,

187–188 peatsoils/histosols,268Availablewater,peat,281–282Avicenniaspp.(kayuapi),85AVROS;SeeAlgemene

VereenigingvoorRubberOnderzoekterOostkustvanSumatra

Awclimates,139Awaclimates lowlandultisols,182 lowlandvertisols,230,231 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolic

soils,189Ayamhutan(junglefowl),439

BBhorizons,104–105

69071.indb 483 4/25/08 10:43:53 AM


aluminumaccumulation,396 andosols,408 brownforestsoils,304 brownpodzolicsoils,368,373 clayaccumulationin,154 claymigration,105,106 ironandmanaganese,109 lowlandoxisols,143,154 podolization,392 podzol-Bhorizon,381,389 podzolization,98 spodichorizonformation,74Bacannut(nutmeg,Myristica

speciosa),328Bako-bako/bakau(Rhizophora),

84BalaiBesarPenelitandan

PengembanganSumberdayaLahanPertanian,19

BalaiPenelitanBioteknologiPerkebunan,17

BalaiPerguruanTinggiPertanian,8

Bali acreagesofmajorIndonesian

foodcrops,125 geography,29 geomorphology,30 lowlandalfisols,210 monsoons,59Baluranvolcano,211,219Bamboo,246Bamboograss,421Bananas(Musaspp.,pisang),163,

174,202,203,321–322,354BandaAceh,204BandaIslands,30,45BandaSea,29,45,60Bandah-Aceh,204

Bandaneira,45Bandung,34,54,75,228,324,367Bangil,228Bangka,29,37,127,382,385,386,

389,390,393Bangkapodzols(lowland

podzols,tanahpadang,padangsoils),382,390,392,394

Banjarmasin,39,41Banjirs(floods),166Bantam,179,181,183,185–186,

191,196,197BaritoRiver,39BaritoRiverbasin,41Basalticashdeposits,211,239,

404Basalto-andesitictuffs,137,299,

301,338,404Basalts,34,44,301,404–405Basesaturation andosols,405 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,337,338,344,345,346,352

highlandbrownpodzolicsoils,377

inceptisols/brownforestsoils,298,311,313,314,315

lowlandalfisols(redMediterraneansoils),215,216,218,219,221,222

lowlandoxisols,155,156,163 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,184,187,188,191,192,198

peatsoils/histosols,256,270,273

redlateriticsoils,215

69071.indb 484 4/25/08 10:43:53 AM

Index ��

soilsequenceinhillycountry,215

spodosols,381,385 U.S.soiltaxonomyand,184Bases/basestatus,soil andosols,404–405 brownpodzolicsoils,377 highlandpodzols/spodosols,

381 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

311 laterization,97 leaching,73 lowlandalfisols,210,218,219,

220 lowlandoxisolformation,131 lowlandvertisol/grumusol

formation,229 lowlandvertisols,229,238 podzolization,98 tropicalbroad-leafrainforest,

314–315Basicparentmaterial inceptisols,299,301 lowlandoxisols,137 lowlandultisols,179 podzols/spodosols,383 precipitation/

evapotranspirationratiosandsoilformation,119

volcanicmaterials,34,137Basicrocks,lowlandultisols,228Basinpeat,255Batak,36,37BatangKampar,205BatangSamo,205Batavia,2,6BatuagungRange,229Bauxite,37Bauxitesoils,149

Bayem(Amaranthusspp.,spinach),170

Beachforest,87Beachvegetation,87–88Beechforest,304BekasiRiver,168Belitung,29,127,382,390Bengkulu,7,205,263,328,436,

441,442BengkuluMountains,13,18Beras,168Bermudahighs,58Betel(Piperbetel),223Betelpalm(Arecacatechu,pinang

palm),85,86Betelnuts,85,86,223Bevolkingsthee,322,362Bhhorizon humusironpodzol,389 Sumatranpodzol,394Bhshorizons,formationof,106,

108Biak,48BibliothecaBogoriensis,20Bijipala(nutmeg),128,329Biodiesel,206Biotechnology,estatecrops,

17–18Biotite,107,180,199,371,378,384,

403Birdshead(Vogelkop),45,48,53Blackalkalisoils(aridisols),100Blackandosols,409,411,413,415,

419Blackcottonsoil,227,235Blackdustsoil,417,418Blacklatosols,142Blackmargaliticsoils,215,231,

235,240

69071.indb 485 4/25/08 10:43:54 AM


Blackself-mulchingsoils,227;SeealsoVertisols,lowland

Blackturfsoil,227,235Blanketpeat,255Blastdisease,206Bleicherde,373Boehmite,149Boerderijen,359Bogor,4,6,241,357,361 annualprecipitation,54 experimentstation

establishment,4 FacultyofAgricultureat,8–9 latosol/oxisols climateareas,140 particlesizedistribution,

136,137BogorInstituteofAgricultural

Sciences,9BogorResearchInstitute;See

SoilResearchInstituteBogorResearchStationCenter,

17BogorSoilResearchInstitute;See

SoilResearchInstituteBog-typepeats,268Boheatea,363Bojonegoro,231BoneMountains,44Bonthain,44Borassusflabellifer(lontarpalm),

249Borealforest(taiga),298Borneo;SeeKalimantan(Borneo)BougainvilleMountains,49Boylolali,357Braakformula,68–69Brassicaoleracea(cabbage),75,

170,317–319

Brassicarugosa(sawi),170,317,355

Braunerde(brownearth),294,297,298,304,306,307,368;SeealsoInceptisols(brownforestsoils,cambisols)

Braunerde(brownearth),podzol,375

Braunlehm,334Braymethod,271,274,282,352Breeding,plants;SeePlant

breeding/hybridsBroad-leafrainforest,tropical,

314–315Brownandosols,409,411,413,

419Brownearth(braunerde),

inceptisol,294,297,298,304,306,307,368;SeealsoInceptisols(brownforestsoils,cambisols)

Brownearth(braunerde),podzol,375

Brownforestsoils(inceptisols);SeeInceptisols(brownforestsoils,cambisols)

Brownforestsoils(brownpodzolicsoils)

andosolsand,402 classificationand

nomenclature,368,375 claymineralogy,378 vegetation,377 zonalsoils,386Brownhornblende,180Brownlatosols/oxisols chargecharacteristics,157–158 clayandsandcontent,153 claymineralogy,160–161,162

69071.indb 486 4/25/08 10:43:54 AM

Index ��

lowlandoxisolprofiles,143 mineralogicalcompositionof

sandfraction,134 nitrogencontent,156 organicmatter,Ncontent,

CEC,basesaturationandpH,155

particlesizedistribution,136 profiledescription,146–147Brownmargalites,235BrownMediterraneansoils,214,

218,219Brownpodzolicsoils,98,182,

367–380 brownforestsoilsas,307 carbon/nitrogenratio,depth

ofprofileand,114 classificationand

nomenclature,368 climate,115,183,370,372 geographic/topographic

distribution,368–369 landuseandevaluation,

379–380 mountainsoils,13,336,

367–380 organicCandC/Nratios,115 parentmaterialsof,369–370,

371 physicochemical

characteristics,375–379 soilclassification,374–375 soilmorphology,372–374Brownsoil,noncalcic,123Brownsoils,297Brunisols,308Brunizem,297,308Bthorizons;SeeArgillic(Bt)

horizonsBukitAsam,37

BukitBarisanMountains,25,32,35,36,38,52,397

BukitTinggi,25,37,38,53,435Bulkdensity andosols,415,420–421 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

316 peatsoils/histosols,277,

278–280,286,291Bunchgrass,91Buriedprofile,andosol,410,411,

412,414Burning,forest,24Buru,44,45Bushvegetation,186

CCabbage(Brassicaoleracea),75,

170,317–319Cacao(Theobromacacao),224,250,

326Cacaoplantations,soil

conservationprograms,326

Cacatuas,85Calapogoniumspp.,176Calcareousmaterials brownpodzolicsoils,369 inceptisols,304 lowlandalfisols,211 lowlandultisols,179,181,228 podzols/spodosols,383Calcification,94,99 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

308 withlaterization,114 lowlandalfisols,210,220Calciticlimestone,284

69071.indb 487 4/25/08 10:43:54 AM


Calcium basalts,34 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,352 inceptisolformation,304 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

313 lowlandultisols,198 lowlandvertisol/grumusol

formation,229 lowlandvertisols,238,242,

244 peatsoils/histosols exchangeablebases,273 limingeffects,284 soilsequenceinhillycountry,

215Calciumcarbonate,232Calciumconcretions,210,234,

242Calciumfertilizer,rice,167Calophyllumsp.,260Camara(trees),88Cambiare(Latin),307Cambichorizon,298,415Cambisols,307Camelliasinensis;SeeTea

(Camelliasinensis/theifera,Theasinensis)

Campnospermamicrophyllum/auriculatum,265

Canadiansystemsofsoiltaxonomy,101,268

brownforestsoils,308 graywoodedsoils,344–345 highlandalfisols(luvisols),

337 andred-yellowpodzolicsoils,

188

CanadianWetlandClassificationCenter,275

Canariumcommune/Canariumindicum(pohonkenari),329

Canopies,rainforest,78Cantala(Agaveangustifolia),174,

206CapeDatuk,39CapeSambar,39Capillarywater,281,283Capsicumannuum,Capsicum

frutescens(hotpepper),202–203,245–246

Carboncontent;SeealsoOrganicmatter,soil

andosols,421–422 lowlandalfisols,219 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,191 peatsoils/histosols,275–277Carbondioxide dissolved andchemicalweathering,

111 andleaching,120 mineralizationoforganic

matter,111–112Carbon/nitrogen(C/N)ratio,

102 andosols,419,421–422 brownpodzolicsoils,376 comparisonoftemperateand

tropicalsoils,115 gray-brownpodzolicsoils,114 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,348 highlandpodzols/spodosols,

394

69071.indb 488 4/25/08 10:43:55 AM

Index ��


lowlandalfisols,219 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,191 lowlandvertisols,237 peatsoils/histosols,270,

275–277Carbonicacid,112Carbonization,organicmatter,

405Carboxylgroup,clay

peptidization,105Caribbeankapok,224Caricapapaya(papaya,papaya

semangka),172,173,174,203,354

Carrots(Daucuscarota),75,170Cartensztop,50,392Cashewnut(Anacardium

occidentale),203Cassava(Manihotutilissima,

yucca),125,156,163,169,202,203,222–223,245,284,288

Castaneaargentea(saninten),89Castaneajavanica(kihiyur),89Castaneasp.(chestnut,saninten),

314–315,353Castanozems,297,306Castoroilcrops,245Casuarinaequisetofolia,88Casuarinaforest,82Catclays,272Cationconcentration,subsoil,

108Cationexchangecapacity(CEC) alkalinization,100 andosols,428,430

highlandalfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoils,345

highlandpodzols/spodosols,381

andironandaluminummobility,107

lowlandoxisols,154,156–157,161,164

claymineralogy,162 reddish-brown,brown,and

redlatosols,155 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,193,200 lowlandvertisols,238,240 mineralnutrition,75 peatsoils/histosols,271 percolatingwater,112–113 podzolization,98 soilmoisture,dissolved

carbondioxideand,112 soilsequenceinhillycountry,

215 volcanicmaterials,34Cationexchangecapacity,

effective(ECEC),95,157Cattle dairyfarming,317,330–331,

354,359–362,397 fallowlands(tegalans),222Cauliflower,75Cauliflowersoilstructure,

grumusols,232Ceibapentandra(kapok,tani,

petani),174,203,213,223,224–225,246

Cementation,lowlandoxisols,147,154

Cengkeh,128;SeealsoClove(s)(EugeniacaryphyllataandE.aromatica)

69071.indb 489 4/25/08 10:43:55 AM


CenterforAgriculturalLandResourcesandDevelopment,19

CenterofResearchandDevelopmentofEstateCrops,18

CenterofResearchandDevelopmentofSoilsandAgroclimate,4

CentraleProefstationsVereeniging(CPV),4

CentralJava climate,67,72,140 geomorphology,34 inceptisols,303 latosols,140 lowlandalfisols,210 lowlandultisols,179 lowlandvertisols,227 mountainflora,89 sugarcanegrowth,247Centrallakeplain,49Centrosema,176Ceram,44,45,46,86Cfclimates andosols,406,407 lowlandoxisols,139 lowlandvertisols,230Cfhiclimate andosols,406 podzols/spodosols,385Cficlimates,highlandalfisols/

gray-brownpodzolicsoils,340

Chargecharacteristics andosols,428–432 claypeptidization,105 lowlandoxisols,157–159,161

lowlandultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,193–194,200

lowlandvertisols,240Chargedistributionanalysis,

lowlandoxisols,157–158Chelates/complexformation altitudinalvariationsinsoil

formationandfertility,74 aluminumandiron

translocation,120 highlandpodzols/spodosols,

381 andironandaluminum

mobility,107–108 andmicronutrientavailability,

75 mountainsoils,334 podzolization,98 redoxconditionsand,109 withsilica,103,104 soilformation,113Cheluviation(eluviation),98,

334,337,346,381,392,394Chemicalcharacteristics andosols,421–432 humuscontentand

composition,421–423 nitrogencontent,424 highlandalfisols,347–349 highlandspodosols,392–394 inceptisols,311–312 lowlandalfisols,218–220 lowlandoxisols,154–157 lowlandultisols,192–193 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,190 lowlandvertisols,238–239 mineralizationversus

humification,110–112

69071.indb 490 4/25/08 10:43:55 AM

Index ��

Chemicalweathering ferralization,97 percolatingwaterand,112–113 soilsolutionstrengthand,

117–118 temperatureand,116–117Chemicallyboundwater,peats,

281Cheribon,247Chernozems(mollisols),99,124,

377;SeealsoVertisols,lowland

Chestnut(Castaneaargentea,Castaneasp.),89,314–315,353

Chficlimates,mountainpodzols,386

Chilipepper(Capsicum),202–203,245–246

Chilluviation(illuviation),98,334,337,346,381,394,395–396

Chromosols,215;SeealsoAlfisols,lowland

Cianjur,167,228,324Ciapus,303,403,404,405,406,

409,410,420,422,425,426,427,428,429,430,431,441,442

Ciasam,168Ciawi,19,160Cibadak,322Cibinong,136,137,145,173,241Cicurug,322Cigombong,341Cikampek,168Ciluarprofile,133,136,137Cimanggu,Bogor,6CimanukRiver,228Cinchona(quinine),334,354

Cipanas,341CircumAustraliaMountain

system,30CircumSundaMountain

system,29,30,43CitarumRiver,166Citruscrops,354Citrusnobilis(jeruksiam/jeruk

paseh),173–174Citrusveinphloem

degeneration,174Clamdisease,330Classificationofsoils andosols,123,399–402,

411–417 brownpodzolicsoils,368,

374–375 inceptisols,306–309 inIndonesia,121–125 lowlandalfisols,215–218 lowlandoxisols,148–153 lowlandultisols,186–189 lowlandvertisols,235–236 methodologicalissues,7–8 peatsoils/histosols,267–270 publications,14 spodosols,390–392 systemsof FAO-UN,121,122;Seealso

FoodandAgriculturalOrganization(FAO)classificationsystemandterminology

inIndonesia,14 USDA;SeeU.S.Department

ofAgriculture(USDA)classificationandtaxonomycategories

69071.indb 491 4/25/08 10:43:55 AM


WRB,98,130;SeealsoWorldReferenceBase(WRB)forSoilResources

Clayloam,Davidsonsoils,154Claymobilization/movement/

translocation,75 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,347,349 highlandbrownpodzolic

soils,368 highlandpodzols/spodosols,

381,392 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

311–312,313 lowlandoxisols,154 lowlandultisols,190 mountainsoils,334 soilformation,98,102,104–106 humicacidsand,113 illimerization,101Clayschists,385Clayskins,106Clays/claymineralogy;Seealso

specificminerals andosols,412–415,417–420,

424–427 formationof,75–76 argillization,101 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,190 highlandsoils,334 alfisols,347,349–351 brownpodzolicsoils,376,

377 podzols/spodosols,381,392 spodosols,394–396 lowlandsoils alfisols,218,220–221,222 peatsoils/histosols,278 ultisols,194–197

ultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,190–191,200

vertisols,227,232,237–238,239–241

lowlandsoils,oxisols,138,148,151–152,153,159–161,162

cationexchangecapacity,157,158–159

classificationandnomenclature,149,154

particlesizedistribution,137

organiccomplexes humo-complexformation,

105,106,381 translocationof,106,113 podzolization,98 uplandbrownforestsoils/

inceptisols,304,309–311,312–313,314

Claystone,229Cleanweeding,176Climate,51–76 andagriculturaloperations

cloves,441–442 grapecultivation,356 nutmegcultivation,328–329 sugarcane,246,247–248,250 teaandcoffee

requirements,126–127 altitudinalvariations,67–72 andrainfall,68 andtemperature,68 zonaldivisionsinto

lowland,upland,mountain,andhigh-mountainland,67–72

divisionsbasedonlengthofwet/dryseasons,61–67

69071.indb 492 4/25/08 10:43:56 AM

Index ��

Mohrsystem,62–65 SchmidtandFerguson

system,65–67 equatorialclimateconcept,

52–54 monsoon(s) conceptof,55–59 andpedogenesis,72–76 westandeast,59–61 NusaTenggara,47 andpedogenesis/soil

formation,72–76,110–115 altitudinalvariations,74–76 mineralizationversus

humification,110–115 precipitation/evaporation

effectsindifferentclimatictypes,73

andweatheringinmountainregions,333

tropical conceptof,54–55 andpedogenesis,72–76Climateeffectsonsoilformation

andproperties andosols,400,405–407,423 highlandsoils brownpodzolicsoils,369,

379 podzols/spodosols,386 lowlandsoils,130 alfisols,212–213,215–216,

219 histosols,262–264 oxisols,138–142 peatsoils/histosols,262–264 ultisols/red-yellow

podzolics,181–182,183 vertisols,230–231,246 mountainsoils

alfisols(gray-brownpodzolicsoils),340–341

brownpodzolicsoils,370,372

spodosols,385–387 uplandsoils inceptisols/brownforest

soils,296,297,299,302–304,308,316

podzoliclatosols,295–296Climatic(zonal)soils brownforestsoils,304 mountainpodzols,386–387Climaxassociation,77Climaxvegetation,77–79 monsoonfloraasindicationof

monsoonclimate,61 tropicalmonsoonforest,78–79 tropicalrainforest,77–78 tropicalsavannahforest,79Cloud-beltforest,84,89–90Clove(s)(Eugeniacaryphyllata

andE.aromatica),2,15,127–128,223,439–444

C/Nratio;SeeCarbon/nitrogen(C/N)ratio

Coaldeposits,37,41Coastalflora,84Coastalplains,47,255,401–402Cochongrass(alang-alang,

Imperatacylindrica),20,21,201,260

Cocoa,126Coconut(Cocosnucifera,kelapa

gading),23,71,88,126,286,321,354;SeealsoCopra


lowlandultisols,203

69071.indb 493 4/25/08 10:43:56 AM


lowlandvertisols,233,246,249–253

transmigrationprogram,23Coconut,dwarf(Cocosnucifera,

kelapapuyuh),250,252Coconut,varietyof(Cocos

nuciferavar.pultaria,kelapakopiyor),253

Coffeacanephora(robusta),436Coffealiberica,436Coffee(Coffeaarabica),2,126,174 andosols,434–439 experimentstation

establishment,4 highlandalfisols,354 soilconservationprograms,

326Colombiancoffee,435Colonialism,2Color,soil andosols,400,407,408 brownpodzolicsoils,373 gleyization,101 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoiland,353 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,342–343,347,349

inceptisols/brownforestsoils,297,298,304–306,312

lowlandalfisols,210,214 lowlandoxisols,137,138,

141–142 claymineralogy,161 organicmatterand,156 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolics,178–179 altitudeand,182 classificationand

nomenclature,188–189

lowlandvertisols,234–235,239

melanization,102 rubification,101 soilformationterminology,97Color-Bhorizon,298Combretocarpussp.,260Compaction,peat,279,280Complexformation;See

Chelates/complexformation

Concretions calcium,210,234,242 iron;SeeIronconcretions lowlandoxisols,144–145,147Conductivity,electrical(EC),100Conferences,national,19–20Conglomerates,44Conifers,89,90,353 brownforestsoils,304 brownforestsoils,podzolic,

377 brownpodzolicsoils,379 highlandpodzols/spodosols,

382,387–389 mountaintrees,71–72Conservationpractices,20–21Constantcharge,240Coolfronts,58Coolmonsoonclimate,coffee

requirements,127Copra,126,249–250,252;Seealso

Coconut(Cocosnucifera,kelapagading)

Coralreefs,27,32,45,47Coralsands,250,251Corn,17,202 acreagesofmajorIndonesian

foodcrops,125 lowlandalfisols,223

69071.indb 494 4/25/08 10:43:56 AM

Index ��

lowlandoxisols,169–170 lowlandvertisols,244,245,246 peatsoils/histosols,284,288Cotton(Gossypium),174,223,245CPV(CentraleProefstations

Vereeniging),4Cracking;SeePlasticity/shrink–

swellpropertes/crackingCratoxylonglaucum,260Criticallands,21Cromosol,148Cropproduction;See

AgriculturaloperationsCrotalariaspp.,176Crusttirs,235Crystallineclays andosols,423,433 lowlandalfisols,220–221 lowlandoxisols,159 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,195Crystallinekaolinite,160Crystallineschists,49Crystoballite,44,312,351Csclimates andosols,406 brownpodzolicsoils,370 lowlandvertisols,230 red-yellowpodzolics,181,182Cshiclimate,podzols/spodosols,

385Csiclimate,407C-typeclimates,lowland

ultisols,182Cucumbers(Cucumissativis,

ketimun),170Cucumissativis(cucumbers,

ketimun),170Culanflowers(Aglaiaodorata),

325

Cultivation,andpeatbulkdensity,279–280

Cwclimates,red-yellowpodzolics,181–182

Cyperaceaesp.(sedges),255,257Cyrtostachyslakka,260

DDacites/daciticparentmaterials,

34 Ambon,46 andosols,402 lowlandultisols,179,180,181,

186,192 soilformationfrom,116 Sumatranvolcanicmaterials,

38Dacito-andesiticvolcanic

materials,34,38,137 andosols,402,403 inceptisols,301 lowlandoxisols,133,137 lowlandredoxisols,156Dacito-liparitictuffs,180Dahatteak,225Dairilands(Tapanuli),384,388Dairyfarming,317,354,397 highlandalfisols,354,359–362 highlandpodzols/spodosols,

397 uplandsoils,inceptisols,

330–331Dairygoats,361Damconstruction,21–22Damarbatu(Pinusmerkusii),17,

71–72,89,380,397Dams,166DanauVolcano,181

69071.indb 495 4/25/08 10:43:56 AM


Darkgraymargalites,235Daucuscarota(carrot),75,170,317Davidsonsoil,152,154,159Davidsonsoils,295Decomposition,mineral irontranslocation,107 laterization,97 andsoilfertility,74 soilformation,101 watermovementinsoil,110Decomposition,organicmatter andosols,423 gray-brownpodzolicsoil

humification,114 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,352,353 litter,peatformation,261–262 lowlandsversushighlands,75 mineralizationversus

humification,110–111 nitrogencontent,274 andpeatbulkdensity,279 peatformation,258–259,

261–262 shadesystem,437 tropicalbroad-leafrainforest,

315 tropicalrainforestlitterlayer,

78Deepweathering,lowland

ultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,191

Deforestation,20,24,25,130 lowlandultisolexhaustion

after,199 shiftingcultivationand,201,

202 transmigrationprogramand,

23 andvegetationcover,82

Degradedlateriticsoils,189,295Degradedsoils cleanweedingand,176 deforestationand,24 peatsoils/histosols,289 rubbercultivationand,176 soilformation

processes;SeeSoilformation/pedogenesis

Dehydration,lowlandoxisols,161

Deli,241,404,420DeliTobaccoExperiment

Station,3Demakplain,227,230,245Depok,140Depthofprofile;See

Horizons/profiles/pedonDerno-palepodzolicsoils,344Desertclimate,55Desilicification,75–76 aquoxlatosolformation,152 climateand,110 soilformation,102–103,104Diagnosticfeatures,95 alfisols,338,345 andosols,415–416 histosols,254,268 kandicgreatgroups,345 oxisols,142–143 peatsoils/histosols,254 podzols/spodosols,108,381,

394 ultisols alfisolsversus,338 uplandversuslowland,296Diebackdisease,15Dieng,357,425,429Differentialthermalanalysis

(DTA)

69071.indb 496 4/25/08 10:43:57 AM

Index ��

andosols,425,426 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,351 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

313 lowlandalfisols,220 lowlandoxisols,159–160,161 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,194–195,196

lowlandvertisols,239–240Digul,250Digul-Frydepression,50Dioecious,329Diplaziumspp.,186Dipterocarpaceae,80,81,89,

259–260Disorderedkaolinite,159,

160–161Dolomiticlimestone,284,315,

353,433Dome,swampforest,259Drainage raisedbedcrops,245 andsoilformation,110 aquoxlatosolformation,152 ironmobilization,107 lowlandoxisols,152 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,192–193 lowlandvertisol/grumusol,

229 andredoxreactions,108,

109 silicification,103–104 soilproperties andosols,408 highlandalfisols/gray-

brownpodzolicsoils,342

andlowlandalfisolproductivity,221–222

lowlandalfisols,218 lowlandoxisols,132,162 ultisols/red-yellow

podzolics,182,186,188 soilsequenceinhillycountry,

188,215Drainageprojects peatlands,Indonesia,287 peatlands,U.S.,284–285 peatsoils/histosols,289Drought Mohrsystem,63,64 vegetationadaptedtoin

monsoonclimates,89Drownedsoil,382Dryclimate lowlandoxisols,taxonomic

complications,139,141 soilformation,99 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolic

soils,189Dryseasons,65;SeealsoWet/dry

seasons lengthof,andsoilforming

processes,113–114 lowlandalfisols,212,223–224 lowlandoxisols,139 Mohrsystem,63,64 mountainsummits,68 NusaTenggara,47 weak,55 WestJava,55Dryingeffects,lowlandalfisols,

222DTA;SeeDifferentialthermal

analysis(DTA)Dumpy,207Duras,207

69071.indb 497 4/25/08 10:43:57 AM


Dutchcolonialism,2–6 nationalizationofcolonial

plantations,17 post-WorldWarIIperiod,6–7 transmigrationprogram,

34–35Dutchsoilclassificationsystem,

14,121,150,154 andosols,417Dwarfcoconut(Elaeisguineensis,

kelapapuyuh),250,252Dwarfhybrids,oilpalm,207–209Dwarfpodzols,375

EEhorizons;SeeAlbic(E)

horizonsEast–CentralJava,soilmaps,14EastIndonesianvegetation

province,80–81EastJava climate,67,72,140 coffeeplantations,127 evapotranspirationrates,118 geomorphology,34 inceptisols,303 lowlandalfisols,210,213 lowlandoxisols/latosols,140 lowlandultisols,179 lowlandvertisols,227,231 mountainflora,89 sugarcanegrowth,127Eastmonsoon,60EC(electricalconductivity);See

ElectricalconductivityECEC;SeeEffectivecation

exchangecapacityEco-friendlycrops,327

Ecologicaldamage;SeealsoDegradedsoils

peatsoils/histosols,279,280 shiftingcultivationand,201EDAX;SeeEnergydispersive

analysisbyx-raysEdelweiss(Anaphalisjavanicaor

Leontopodiumalpinium),91Education,Indonesia,6,8–9,10Effectivecationexchange

capacity(ECEC),95,152,157

Egg-cuppodzol,389Eggplants(Solanummelongea,

terong),170EilandenRiver,50Elaeisguineensis(oilpalm,kelapa

sawit),126,176,199,206–209,246,250,288,290,291,322,323

Elaeismelanococca,�0�Electricalconductivity(EC),100Electrochemicalpotential,

276–277Electrokineticpotential,105Electrolytes,peatformation,255Electronegativity,lowland

ultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,195–196

Electronmicrobeamanalysis,426,427

Elevation;SeeAltitude/elevationEluvialBhorizons,98Eluviation(cheluviation),98,334,

337,346,381,392,394Eminentdomain,35Endertclimatesystem,62Energydispersiveanalysisby

x-rays(EDAX),426,427

69071.indb 498 4/25/08 10:43:57 AM

Index ��

Energyresources(oil,naturalgas)

Kalimantan,41 Sumatra,37Energysources,alternative,18Entisols,124,126Environmentalfriendlycrops,

327Epidote,211Epiphytes,88Equator,52–53Equatorialclimate,59 conceptof,52–54 terminology,51–52Erosion conservationissues,21 lowlandultisols,198,199,200 lowlandvertisols,243 mountainregions,333 rubbercultivationand,176Erythrinatrees,87ESP;SeeExchangeablesodium

percentageEstatecrops andosols,434–445 clove,439–444 coffee,434–439 kretekindustry,444–445 biotechnologyfocusofnew

experimentstations,17–18

classificationandnomenclature,126,250

earlyexperimentstationfocus,5–6

highlandalfisols,362–367 lowlandalfisols,223–227 kapok,224–225 teak,225–227 lowlandoxisols,169,173–177

lowlandvertisols,206–209,246–249

mountainregions,334–335 peatsoils/histosols,289–291 researchinstitutes establishmentof,3 new,18 uplandsoils,inceptisols,

322–330 albizia,325–328 nutmeg,328–330 tea,322–325Eucalyptus,79EugeniacaryphyllataandE.

aromatica(cloves),2,15,127–128,223,439–444

Eugenol,444Eupatoriumsp.,408Eusideroxylonzwageri(ironwood),

80Eutrophicprocesses,peat

formation,256,262,268,274

Evaporation rainwater,64 andsoilformationindifferent

climatetypes,73Evapotranspiration,118,261Exchangeablesodium

percentage(ESP),100–101Exhaustion,lowlandultisols,199Exocarpuslatifolia(sandalwood),

82Experimentstationsin

Indonesia,3 AlgemeneVereenigingvoor

RubberOnderzoekterOostkustvanSumatra(AVROS),176

69071.indb 499 4/25/08 10:43:57 AM


historicaldevelopmentofIndonesiansoilscience,17–19

wheatcrops(gandum),357ExploratorySoilMapof

Indonesia,14–15,16,124,132

FFabric andosol,412 gray-brownpodzolic,335 rotlehm,101 soilformation,106FaculteitderDiergeneeskunde,6Faculties,6,8FacultiesofAgricultureandSoil

Science,9FacultiesofAgricultureand

VeterinaryScience,11–12FacultyofAgriculturalSciences,

6,9FacultyofVeterinaryScienceat

Bogor,9Fallowlands(tegalans),222,224Falseredlimestonesoils,211Falseterrarossasoils,221Farmers’crops highlandstemperatecrops,75 lowlandvertisols,245–246Feldspar,199Fentypes,peat,268Ferraliticsoils,220Ferralitization/laterization,

76,97,101,103,210;SeealsoLaterization(ferralitization)

Ferralsols,98,149;SeealsoOxisols(latosols),lowland

Ferrods,391Ferromagnesianminerals,107,

379Ferruginoushumiclatosol,

148–149Fertility,soil altitudinalvariationsin,74–76 chelatesand,75 earlyexperimentstation

focus,4 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,352 historicaldevelopmentof

Indonesiansoilscience,15,17

lowlandoxisols,156,164 lowlandultisols,198 micronutrientmassflow,75 andplantnutrition,historical

developmentofIndonesiansoilscience,15,17

Sulawesi,44 tropicalbroad-leafrainforest,

315 vertisols/margaliticsoils,

uplandversuslowland,231

volcanicmaterialand,34,38Fertilizerapplication,22 andosols,434 brownpodzolicsoils,379 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoil,353 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

315 lowlandoxisols,164,169

69071.indb 500 4/25/08 10:43:58 AM

Index �0�

lowlandultisols estatecrops,206 uplandricecultivation,

205–206 lowlandvertisols,245 mineralnutritionstudies,15 paddy-sawah,166–167,245 redoxconditionsand,109–110 rubber,176–177 teacultivation,364 teak,226–227 vegetablecrops,170Fibercrops,174,206,250Fibrists,269Ficusspp.,175Fieldcapacity,243Filmwater,281Fishculture,354Fisheries,18–19Flocculation,clay,106,377Flooding,20,22,24–25,166,262Flora;SeeVegetationFlores,29,46Fluviaticsands,383Folichorizon,254Folists,269FoodandAgricultural

Organization(FAO)classificationsystemandterminology,8,121,122

acrisols,187 andosols,399,415,420 brownpodzolicsoils,367,368 cheluviation/chilluviation,

381 highlandpodzols/spodosols,


296,307 lowlandoxisols,151

lowlandpodzolsasintrazonaltropicalpodzols,382

lowlandsoilcategories,129–130

peat/histosols,257,268 soilformationterminology,

98,101 vertisols,236Foodcrops;SeealsoAgricultural

operations acreagesinIndonesia,125 earlyexperimentstation

focus,5–6Foodimports dairyproducts,361–362 rice,126Forestfires,260;SeealsoSlash/

burn(ladang,shiftingcultivation)system

Forestpeat,261Forestry brownpodzolicsoils,380 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoiland,353 rubber;SeeRubber(Hevea) teak;SeeTeak(Tectonagrandis,

jati)Forests altitudinalzones beach,87 cloud-beltforest,89–90 rainforestandmountain

rainforest,88–89 andosols,408 brownforestsoils,99;See

alsoBrownforestsoils(brownpodzolicsoils)

inceptisols/cambisols,298,304

podzolic,377

69071.indb 501 4/25/08 10:43:58 AM


clearingforcropcultivation,22

climaxvegetation,77–79 tropicalmonsoonforest,

78–79 tropicalrainforest,77–78 tropicalsavannahforest,79 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,342,352–353


inceptisolformation,296 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

314 peatswamp,254–255,259–260,

265–266,267 podzols/spodosols,381–382 reforestation,21 slash/burnsystem,20 uplandsoils,inceptisols/

brownforestsoils,316Formationofsoil;SeeSoil

formation/pedogenesisFragipanhorizon,184Frenchsoilclassificationsystem,

149Freshfruitbunches(FFBs),208Frontalborders,58Frontalsystems,atmospheric

pressure,58Fruitcrops highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoil,354 lowlandalfisols,223 lowlandoxisols,163,169,

171–174 lowlandultisols,202 lowlandvertisols,246 transmigrationprogram,23

uplandsoils,inceptisols,321–322

Fuli(mace),329Fulvicacids,334,353,422–423,

431

GGabah(unhulledrice),166,167,

168GajahMadaUniversity,8GambungTeaResearch

Institute,324,367Gandum(wheatcrops),356–359Garciniamangostana

(mangosteen),172Gardeniaaugusta,325Gebleichteparabraunerde,344Gede-Pangrangovolcano

complex,25,54,133,323,335,406

GeelvinkBay,48Gelamvegetation,260–261GeneralAgriculturalResearch

Station,5–6Genesisofsoils;SeeSoil

formation/pedogenesisGeochemicalweathering,191Geographicdistribution brownearthformation,

worldwide,297 brownpodzolicsoils,368 peatsoils/histosols,254–255Geography,27–30Geomorphology,27–50 Ambon,45–46 Ceram,46 geography,27–30 Java,31–35

69071.indb 502 4/25/08 10:43:58 AM

Index �0�

Kalimantan,38–41 Maluku,44–46 NusaTenggara,46–47 Papua(WestIrian),47–50 Sulawesi,41–44 Sumatra,35–38Gibbsite(hydrargillite),104,105,

134–135,149,159,161,162,194,300,351,371,378,408,424,425,428

andosols,423 brownpodzolicsoils,371,378 highlandalfisols/gray-brown


inceptisols/brownforestsoils,300,312–313

Gilgai,234Glagah(Saccharumspontaneum),

247Glass,volcanic,180,300,301,339,

371,384,403Gleyhorizonformation,108,123Gleysoils,123Gleytirs,234,235Gleying,101,108Gleyization,94,101,234,239Gleysols,101Gliciridiaspp.,437Glugur,408Gneiss,43,228Goats,222,361,397Goethite,138Golanmethod,244–245Gonystylusbancanus,260Gorontalo,65Gossypium(cotton),174,223,245Gossypiumbarbadense(cotton),

174Governmentpolicy

colonial,verplichte,435,441 dairyfarming,359–360 nationalizationofcolonial

plantations,17 peatreclamation,327–328 regreeningprograms,21,325 transmigrationprogram,

22–23,34–35,201Granites inceptisols,299 lowlandultisols,179,181,192,

193–194 Papua(WestIrian),49 parentmaterials,Kalimantan,

290 Sulawesi,43Granulation,mountain,334,353,

418Grapes(anggur),354,356Grasses,186 andosolhumussource,421 beach,88 gelamvegetation,260 lowlandalfisols,213 slash/burnsystemand,

203–204 subalpinezone,91Gray-brownluvisolicsoils,337,

344–345Gray-brownpodzolicsoils

(alfisols),182,341;SeealsoAlfisols,highland(gray-brownpodzolicsoils)

aluminumoxide/ironoxideratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119,120

andosolsand,402 brownpodzolicsoils,375

69071.indb 503 4/25/08 10:43:58 AM


brownpodzolicsoilsastransitionalsoils,368,370,372

carbon/nitrogenratioin,114 classificationasbraunerde,

298 mountainsoilcomposition,13 mountainsoils,336 soilformation,98 mineralizationversus

humification,U.S.soilsversushumidtropics,115

precipitation/evapotranspirationratiosand,118

thermography,314 ultisolclaycompositionas

distinguishingfeaturefrom,195

Gray-brownsoils,303Grayhydromorphicsoil,123Grayluvisolicsoil,337,344–345Graymargaliticsoils,229Graywoodedsoils,344–345Graywacke,43,46Greenbeans(Phaseolusradiatus),

245Greenhornblende,180Greenmanures,164,176,200,

244Greenonions(Alliumfistulosum),

170,317Greentea,325Groundwaterlaterite,123Groundwaterpodzol,123Groundwatertable,peatsoils/

histosols,283Grumus,235

Grumusols,123,130,215,227,235–236;SeealsoVertisols,lowland

Guava(Psidiumguajava,jambukelutuk),172

Gulaaren,249Gulamangkok,249,253Gulf(Teluk)Cenderawasih,48GunungMas,140Gypsum,315,353,433

HHalloysite,350 andosols,424,425 brownforestsoils,313 highlandalfisols/gray-brown



lowlandalfisols/redMediterraneansoils,220,221

lowlandoxisols,159,160–161,162

lowlandvertisols,240Halmaheranutmeg(Myristica

succedanea),44,328Hapludoxsoils,142Hardpans,408Hardwoodforest,353Heath,269,304,382Heatherforest,382Hematite,138,161Hemists,269Henry’slaw,111,112Hevea(rubber),175,176,246;See

alsoRubber(Hevea)

69071.indb 504 4/25/08 10:43:59 AM

Index �0�

Heveabrasiliensis,174–177Heveaguyanensis,175Hibiscus,87Highlands coolhumid,humificationin,

114 decompositionoforganic

matter,75 transitionalzone(uplands);

SeealsoUplandsoils simultaneouspodzolization

andlaterization,76,110,130

Highlandsoils;SeealsoMountainsoils

alfisols;SeealsoAlfisols,highland(gray-brownpodzolicsoils)

applesandgrapes,355–356 dairyfarming,359–362 estatecrops,362–367 wheatcrops(gandum),

356–359 andosols,407 estateandindustrialcrops,

126 humusformationand

accumulation,elevationand,141–142

oxisols,absenceofplinthiteinprofiles,145,146

podzolization,74–75,110 podzols;SeeSpodosols ultisols,lowlandred-yellow

podzolicsoilsversus,130 vegetation,80Highmoorpeats,256,262Highmountain(cloudbelt)

forest,89–90

Highmountains,altitudeandclimate,67–72

High-pressuresystems,57Hillytopography,lowland

alfisols,215Histicepipedon,254Historicaldevelopmentof

Indonesiansoilscience,1–25

post-WorldWarIIperiod,6–8 highereducation,

establishmentof,8–9,10 KentuckyContractTeam

(KCT)andMidwesternConsortiumforInternationalActivities(MUCIA)projects,11–12

landuseandsoilconservation,20–25

nationalconferencesandscientificsocieties,19–20

newexperimentstations,17–19

pedology,13–14 soilfertilityandplant

nutrition,15,17 soilsurvey,14–15,16 pre-WorldWarIIperiod,2–6Histosols/peat,130;SeealsoPeat

soils/histosols(tanahgambut)

Hole-in-holecultivation,286,291Holocenevolcanicdeposits,116Horizons/profiles/pedon andosols,407–411,412,413,

414,419 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

304–306,310,311–312 lowlandalfisols,213–214,219,

221–222

69071.indb 505 4/25/08 10:43:59 AM


lowlandoxisols,134–135,142–146,161

brown,146–147 claymineralogy,162 particlesizedistribution,

153–154 lowlandpodzols,389 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,182,184–186,187,190

lowlandvertisols,232–234 mountainsoils alfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,337,339,341–343,347,348,349,353

brownpodzolicsoils,368,369,371,372–374,376

podzols/spodosols,380–382,387–389,391,392–396

tropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoil,335

peatsoils/histosols,254,264,265–266,270,279

soilclassificationsystems,121–122,123

soilformation,102 aluminumoxide/iron

oxideratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119,120

comparisonoftemperateandtropicalsoils,114,115

gray-brownpodzolicsoils,carbon/nitrogenratioincreases,114

oxic,95 spodic,74 zonaldivisionsof,121–125 SoilResearchInstitute

classificationsystems,121–122

Hornblende andosols,402,403,404 brownforestsoils,300 falseredlimestonesand

fraction,211 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,339 highlandbrownpodzolic


383,384 inceptisols,300 lowlandultisolacidictuffs,

180 oxisolsandfractions,134–135 podzols/spodosols,383Horticulturalcrops;Seealso

Agriculturaloperations highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,355–359 researchinstitutes,18–19 uplandsoils,inceptisols,

317–322 cabbages,317–319 fruits,321–322 potatoes,319–320 tomatoes,320–321Hotpepper(Capsicumannuum,

Capsicumfrutescens),202–203

Houstonclay,235Humasystem lowlandultisols,201,202–203 padi(uplandrice),289Humicacids/humicsubstances altitudeand,74 andosols,422–423 cationexchangecapacity,164 chelates,74;SeealsoChelates/

complexformation

69071.indb 506 4/25/08 10:43:59 AM

Index �0�

formationof;SeeHumusformation/humification


highlandpodzols/spodosols,381,394

humic/fulvicacidratios,422–423

andleaching,76 Miamisiltloam(alfisol),

120–121 mountainsoils,333,334 soilformation claycomplexformation,

105,106 athigheraltitudes,113 andironandaluminum

mobility,107–108 mineralizationversus

humification,110–111 podzolization,98 silicacomplexformation,

104Humicallophanesoil,400,411 classificationand

nomenclature,400Humicandosols,416Humic/fulvicacidratios,

422–423Humicgley,123Humicgray-brownpodzolic

soil,343,347,348,350Humiclatosols,142,148Humicrhodichapludox/

kandiudox,142Humidclimate grapecultivationproblems,

356 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,340,341

inceptisolformation,296 nonricecropsgrowninsawah

fields,169–170 andnutmegcultivation,

328–329Humidtemperateclimate,

altitudinalzones,299Humidtropics,130 gray-brownpodzolicsoils,

comparisonofCandC/NratioswithU.S.alfisols,115

lowlandoxisols/latosols,138–139,157

classification,149 climateareas,140 nitrogencontent,156 organicmatter,Ncontent,

CEC,basesaturation,andpH,155

lowlandultisols,182 peatformation,261,262 precipitation/evaporation

ratioandweatheringintensity,118

teaandcoffeerequirements,126–127

Humidity mobilizationandleachingof

micronutrientsinsoil,75–76,110

teaandcoffeerequirements,126–127

Humo-claycomplexes,highlandalfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoils,347

Humods,391Humults,189,192Humus acid,74

69071.indb 507 4/25/08 10:43:59 AM


brownpodzolicsoils,372Humuscontent andosols,400,407,408,

421–423 andlowlandoxisolCEC,157 andlowlandvertisolcolor,239Humusformation/humification andosols,423 highlandpodzols/spodosols,

381,394 lowlandoxisols elevationand,141–142 versusmineralization,

145–146 lowlandsoils,129 lowlandvertisols,239 mineralizationversus,110–111 strengthofsoilsolutionand,

120–121 uplandandhighlandoxisols,

146Humus-ironpodzol,387,388,391Hybridoilpalms,207–209Hybridricevarieties,167,205Hybridsugarcane,247Hydrargillite(gibbsite),104,105,

134–135,149,159,161,300,312–313,338,339,350

andosols,423 brownpodzolicsoils,371,378 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,351Hydroregime,oxisol/latosol

classification,149Hydrogensulfide,85,271–272,

282Hydrolhumiclatosols,149Hydrology,24,25Hydromorphicsoils,101

Hydromorphousprocess,alliticsoils,149

Hypersthene,180 andosols,404 highlandalfisols/gray-brown


highlandbrownpodzolicsoils,379


inceptisols,300,301 lowlandoxisols,133,134–135,

136,137Hypersthene-augiteassociation,

133,301,340,370,404

IIceage,116ICRAF(InternationalCenter

forSoilResearchandAgroforestry),201

Idenburgtop,50,392Illimerization,97,101,104–105,

113Illites,104IlluvialBhorizons,98,298IlluvialBthorizon,304Illuviation(chilluviation),311,

334,337,346,381,394,395–396

Ilmenite,180Imogolayers,418Imogolite,400,419,423,424–427,

431Imperatacylindrica(Cochongrass,

alang-alang),20,21,260Imperatagrasses,186,201

69071.indb 508 4/25/08 10:44:00 AM

Index �0�

Imperialpluck,365Imports,food dairyproducts,361–362 rice,126Inceptisols(brownforestsoils,

cambisols),99,294,296–313,314,341

brownpodzolicsoilsastransitionalsoils,375

chemicalcharacteristics,311–312

classificationandnomenclature,123

claymineralogy,312–313,314 climate,302–304 landuseandevaluation,

313–331 agriculturaloperations,

316–331;SeealsoAgriculturaloperations


evaluationofanalyticalproperties,313–315

mountainsoilcomposition,13 paddy-sawah,126 parentmaterialsof,299–301 particlesizedistribution,

309–311 percentoftotalarea,124 physicochemical

characteristics,309,310 podzoliclatosolsas

transitionalsoils,294–295 soilclassification,306–309 soilmorphology,304–306 uplandsoils,294Indicakapok,224Indicarice,167IndicaxJaponicaricevariety,167

Indigenouspopulations,23,35,201

Indonesiansoilclassificationsystem,123,151

podzolikcoklat,375IndonesianSoilResearch

Institute;SeeSoilResearchInstitute

IndonesianStandingCommitteeonSoilandLandClassification,14

Industrialcrops,classificationandnomenclature,126,250

INIRO;SeeInstitutNederlandsIndieschRubberOenderzoek

InstituteforHigherEducationinAgriculturalSciences,8

InstitutNederlandsIndieschRubberOenderzoek(INIRO),18

InstitutPertanianBogor(IPB),9,11–12,357

Integratedpestcontrol,317Intercrops albizia,327 inceptisols,319,327 lowlandalfisols,222–223 kapokestates,224 teakestates,226 lowlandultisols,203 paddyricefieldrotation,

169–170,174,176,246 rubber,176Intergrades andosol-latosol,142 oxisols,147Intermediateparentmaterials,

116,299,369,370

69071.indb 509 4/25/08 10:44:00 AM


InternationalCenterforSoilResearchandAgroforestry(ICRAF),201

InternationalPeatSociety(IPS),254

InternationalRiceResearchInstitute(IRRI),167

InternationalSoilReferenceandInformationCentre(ISRIC),268

InternationalUnionofSoilScience(IUSS),268

Intrazonalsoils,121,235,306 brownforestsoilsas,306 lowlandpodzols(padangsoil,

Bangkapodzols),382,389,390–391

tropicalpodzols,382Ionicforms,ironminerals,107IPB;SeeInstitutPertanianBogorIpomoeabatatis(sweetpotato),

169–170,203,245Ipomoeareptans(kangkung),170Iranmountains,39IrianJaya(WestNewGuinea),

47,48Iron Al/Feratios,119–120,241 basalts,34 chelates,74 humicacids,113 pHand,75 coastalswamps,85 falseredlimestonesand

fraction,211 leaching,76 lowlandalfisols,210 lowlandoxisols,134–135,138 classificationissues,154

elevationand,137 ferruginoushumiclatosols,

148–149 formationof,131 hematiteformation,138 mountainsoils,334 mountainsoils,podzols,391 peatsoils/histosols,288–289 pyrite,257,271,272 soilformation,131 ferralization,97 gleyization,101 laterization,97 podzolization,98 redoxconditionsand,109 translocationof,106–108,

120Iron-Bhorizon,109Ironconcretions,210,234,239 brownpodzolicsoils,371 highlandalfisols,338,339,340 inceptisols,300 lowlandoxisols,144–145,146,

147Ironcrustlayer,147Ironoxideminerals inceptisols,298 lowlandalfisolsandfraction,

211 lowlandoxisols,138,154 mountainsoils highlandalfisols/gray-

brownpodzolicsoils,350 tropicalgray-brown

podzolicsoil,335Ironpodzol,391Ironwood(Eusideroxylon

zwageri),80Irrigation lowlandalfisols,222

69071.indb 510 4/25/08 10:44:00 AM

Index ��

lowlandoxisols,163 lowlandvertisols,244,245 peatsoils/histosols,283,286 ricepaddyfields,165–166,170 teak,226–227Isoelectricpoint,417

JJacatra,2Jackfruit(Artocarpusintegra,

nangka),203,246Jakarta,6,54,55Jambi,205,263Jambukelutuk(Psidumguajava,

guava),172Japonicarice,167Jasmine(Jasminiumsambac),325Jasminetea,325Jati(Tectonagrandis,teak),79,82,

89,225–227,232JatiluhurDam,21,166Jatiputih(albizia),316–317,322,

325–328Java,2 agriculturaloperations acreagesofmajor

Indonesianfoodcrops,125

cloves,441–442 coconutplantations,250 sugarcaneproduction

method,248 teacultivation,363 wheatcrops(gandum),357 andosols,401,403,404,405–

406,409,419 climate,64,65,67 lowlandoxisols,140

monsoons,59,60 evapotranspirationrates,118 experimentstation

establishment,4 geography,28,29 geomorphology,30,31–35 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,348 highlandbrownpodzolic

soils,369,370,371,376,378,379

lowlandalfisols,210,222 lowlandoxisols,131,140 lowlandultisols,197 lowlandultisols/red-yellow


lowlandvertisol/grumusolformation,229

lowlandvertisols,227–228,231 soilmaps,14 universitieswithagriculture

andsoilsciencedepartments,9,10

uplandinceptisols/brownforestsoils,310

vegetation coastalflora,87 mountainflora,89 subalpine,91Javacoffee,127,354JavaSea,181Jember,4JeponKenek,223Jeruksiam/jerukpaseh(Citrus

nobilis),173–174Jetstream,57Jeungjing(albizia),316–317,322,

325–328,364,437Jonggol,158,228

69071.indb 511 4/25/08 10:44:00 AM


Junghuhn,70Junglefowl(ayamhutan),439

KKacangpanjang(Vignasinensis,

longbeans),170KaiIslands,48Kalimantan(Borneo),38–41,181 acreagesofmajorIndonesian

foodcrops,125 climate,59,61,64,72 equator,53 geography,28,29 geomorphology,30 graniteparentmaterials,228 lowlandoxisols,131 lowlandpodzols,382,383,385 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,179,183,191,192,193,196,197

ricecultivation,204,205 shiftingcultivation,200–

201,203–204 peatsoils/histosols,261,262,

263 bulkdensityanalysis,

278–279 peatswampforest,260 rubberandoilpalm

cultivation,246 transmigrationprogram,23,

35 universitieswithagriculture


vegetation,80,85Kalkroodaarde,217Kandicgreatgrouplevel,345

Kandichorizons,184,216Kandidiudults,190,295Kandiudalfs,346Kandiudoxsoils,142Kandiudults,190,295Kangkung(Ipomoeareptans),170Kaolinite,104,105,149 andosols,423,425 brownpodzolicsoils,378 crystalline,160 disordered,159,160–161 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,350,351 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

312 lowlandoxisols,157,158,

159–161 lowlandvertisols,240 ultisolsversusalfisols,

195–196Kapok(Ceibapentandra,tani,

petani),174,203,213,223,224–225,246

KapuasRiver,39Karangpandan,140,341KaroHighlands,357Karst,32Kastanozem,209,215–216Kauripodzol,389,392,395Kauritrees(Agathisaustralis),389Kayuapi(Avicenniaspp.),85Kayupasang(oak,Quercusspp.),

82,88,89,304,314Kayupuspa(Schimanoronhae),89Kayusengon(albizia),316–317,

322,325–328KCT;SeeKentuckyContract

TeamprojectKediri,228Kedondong(Spondiasdulcis),203

69071.indb 512 4/25/08 10:44:01 AM

Index ��

KeiIslands,48Kelapagading(coconut,Cocos

nucifera),23,71,88,126,203,233,246,249–253,286,321,354

Kelapakopiyor(coconut,Cocosnuciferavar.pultaria),253

Kelapapuyuh(dwarfkelapa,Elaeisguineensis),252

Kelapasawit(oilpalm,Elaeisguineensis),126,176,199,206–209,246,250,288,290,291,322,323

Kembangpala,128Kembangpala(mace),329–330KendengHills,229KendengMountain,338,339,

350,351KentuckyContractTeam(KCT)

project,11–12,122KerinciPeak,38Ketapangtree(Terminalia

catappa),87,88Ketimun(Cucumissativis,

cucumbers),170Kihiyur(Castaneiajavanica),89Kinabohutan,250KinibaluMountain,39Köppenclimatesystem,54,61,

62,64,69;Seealsospecificclimatezones,e.g.,Amaclimates

andosols,405,406 brownpodzolicsoils,370,372 grapecultivation,356 highlandalfisols,340,341 inceptisols,302,303 lowlandalfisols,212,213 lowlandoxisols,138–139,140,

141

lowlandultisols,181–182,183 lowlandvertisols,230,231 peatsoils/histosols,263 podzols/spodosols,385,386,

391–392Krakataueruption,117Krawang,169Kretekindustry,127,223,

444–445KubreMountain,382,383,386,

388–389,391,394KuninganHighlands,357Kupang,59,212,213Kuroboku,400,407,411Kurosols,187

LLabradorite,339,350,351,379Lactucaindica,Latucasativa

(lettuce),170Lada(pepper,processed),127Ladangrice;SeeRicecultivation,

uplandrice(ladangrice,padigogo,padihuma)

Ladang(slash/burn,shiftingcultivation)system,20,24,44,200–204,205

Lahar,34,132,405Lakedepletion,25Lampung,127,181,205,248 coconutplantations,250 lowlandoxisols,131 lowlandultisols,179Lampungcoffee,436Lamtoro(Leucenaglauca),364Landappropriation,35Landuse,125–128 andosols,432–445

69071.indb 513 4/25/08 10:44:01 AM


agriculturaloperations,128,434–445



brownpodzolicsoils,379–380 highlandalfisols,352–367 agriculturaloperations,

353–367 analyticalproperties,

evaluationof,352 basicsoilpropertiesand,

352–353 inceptisols,313–331 agriculturaloperations,

316–331;SeealsoAgriculturaloperations,uplandsoils,inceptisols



lowlandalfisols agriculturaloperations,

222–227 evaluationofanalytical

properties,221 significanceofbasicsoil

properties,221–222 lowlandoxisols,161–177 agriculturaloperations,

165–177;SeealsoAgriculturaloperations,lowlandoxisols

analyticalproperties,evaluationof,161–164

significanceofbasicsoilproperties,164

lowlandultisols

agriculturaloperations,200–209



lowlandvertisols,242–253 peatsoils/histosols,282–291 agriculturaloperations,126,


evaluationof,282–283 basicsoilpropertiesand,

283–286 spodosols,396–397LandUseBureau,22Landsatimagery,82Laspondom,387Laterietgroundvankalksteen,

217Lateritefromlimestone,217Laterites/lateriticsoils,97,131;

SeealsoOxisols(latosols),lowland


ironcrustlayersand,147 lowlandalfisols(terrarosa) classification,216–217 asstageinformation,210 lowlandoxisolclassification/

taxonomy,148,149–150 podzoliclatosolsand,295 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolic

soilsversus,188,189Laterization(ferralitization),13,

94,97–98,101,103 aluminumoxide/ironoxide


69071.indb 514 4/25/08 10:44:01 AM

Index ��

brownpodzolicsoils,378 climateand,110 definition,76 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

309–311,313 lowlandalfisols,210,216 lowlandoxisols,147 lowlandsoilformation,130 inmonsoonzones,113–114 podzoliclatosols,295 simultaneouspodzolization


terminology,105 uplandsoils,293Laterizationzone,13LatimojongMountains,43Latosolicbrownforestsoils,309,

310Latosols(oxisols),13,131,311,

341;SeealsoOxisols(latosols)

associationwithvertisols,230,231

black,142 brownforestsoilclimatesin

Indonesia,303 classification/taxonomy/

nomenclature,95,98,123,130,131,148,149–150,154

aluminumoxide/ironoxideratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119

FAO-UNsystem,151 red-yellowpodzolicsoils

versus,188,190 soilformation,76,116Latucaindica,Latucasativa

(lettuce),170,317,355Laurantaceae,90

Lava/lavaflows,Java,32,34;SeealsoVolcanicmaterial

Lawofpolymerization,103Lawang,357LawuVolcano,229,300,301,310,

312,336,338,339,340,342,372,376

Layers,tropicalrainforest,78Leaching,73 brownpodzolicsoils,379 lowlandoxisols,156,162–163,

164 lowlandultisols/red-yellow


lowlandvertisols,244 monsoonclimateinfluence,

302–303 peatsoils/histosols,289 podzols/spodosols,381–382 soilformation lowlandoxisols,146 lowlands,76 podzolization,98 soilsolutionstrengthand,

118,119,120Leafblightdisease,176Legumetrees,364Lembang,359,361,409,422,423,

429Leontopodiumalpinium(Edelweiss

plant),91LesserSundaIslands(Nusa

Tenggara),30,43,46–47 andosols,401 climate,72 monsoons,59,60,61 weakdryseason,55Lessivage,101,104–105,107,294,

368

69071.indb 515 4/25/08 10:44:01 AM


Lettuce(Lactucaindica,Latucasativa),170,317,355

Leucenaglauca(petecina,lamtoro),365

Leuwilliang,339Lianas,78,88Libericacoffee,436Ligands;SeeChelates/complex

formationLimeapplication andosols,433 highlandalfisols/gray-brown


315 lowlandoxisols,164 lowlandultisols/red-yellow


lowlandvertisols,244 peatsoils/histosols,283–284,

289Limeconcretions,234Limecontent,lowlandvertisols,

235,239Limestoneformations,Ambon,

46Limestoneparentmaterials lowlandalfisols,210–211,

216–217,221 lowlandultisols,228 lowlandvertisol/grumusols,

229,242Limestoneplateinterbedding,

234Limestonereefs,32Limestonesoils,211–212Limestonetreatment,433 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

315

peatsoils,284Liparites/liparitictuffs,34,116 Ambon,46 andosols,402 brownpodzolicsoils,370,371,

373 highlandpodzols/spodosols,

383 inceptisols,299 lowlandultisols,179,199 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,192 soilformationfrom,116 Sumatra,38,228Litchi,171–172Lithologiceffect,191,387;Seealso

ParentmaterialsLithosol,123Litter highlandalfisols/gray-brown


396 peatformation,258–259,

261–262 shadesystem,437 tropicalbroad-leafrainforest,

315 tropicalrainforest,78Litterlayer;SeeOhorizon(litter

layer)Livestock,222,361;SeealsoDairy

farmingLivistonahasseltii,260Lixiviation,97,101,150,210Lixivium,red,150Loams Davidsonsoils,154 redMediterraneansoils,209Lombok,210

69071.indb 516 4/25/08 10:44:02 AM

Index ��

geography,29 geomorphology,30LompobatangMountain,44Longbeans(Vignasinensis,

kacangpanjang),170Lontarpalm(Borassusflabellifer),

249Lowhumicgleysoil,123Lowhumiclatosols,148Lowmoorpeats,255–256,262Low-pressuresystems,57,58Lowlands altitudinalzones,70 cloveproduction,127–128 Kalimantan,41 soilformation,75–76 sugarcanegrowth,127 vegetation,80,81Lowlandsoils,129–291;Seealso

specificsoiltypes alfisols,209–227 climate,212–213 landuseandevaluation,

221–227;SeealsoLanduse,lowlandalfisols


characteristics,218–221 soilclassification,215–218 soilmorphology,213–215 andosols,337,401–402,405,

422,423,433–434 decompositionoforganic

matter,75 histosols,253–291 climate,262–264 decompositionoflitter

andformationofpeat,261–262

landuseandevaluation,282–291;SeealsoPeatsoils/histosols(tanahgambut),landuseandevaluation


characteristics,270–282;SeealsoPeatsoils/histosols(tanahgambut),physicochemicalcharacteristics

soilclassification,267–270 soilmorphology,264–267 mineralnutritionstudies,15 oxisols,130–177 climate,138–142 landuseandevaluation,

161–177;SeealsoLanduse,lowlandoxisols


characteristics,153–161;SeealsoOxisols(latosols),lowland

soilclassification,148–153 soilmorphology,142–147 podzols/spodosols,386–387 Bangka,382,389,390 climate,385–386 formationof,382 padangsoils/tanahpadang,

382,389,390,394 parentmaterialsof,383,385 soilformation climateand,110,111 parentmaterial;SeeParent

materials teacultivation,363–364

69071.indb 517 4/25/08 10:44:02 AM


transitionalzone(uplands);SeeUplandsoils

ultisols,177–209 climate,181–182 highlandred-yellow

podzolicsoilsversus,130 landuseandevaluation,

161–177;SeealsoLanduse,lowlandultisols


characteristics,190–197;SeealsoPhysicochemicalcharacteristics,lowlandultisols

soilclassification,186–189 soilmorphology,182–186,

187 vertisols,227–253 climate,230–231 landuseandevaluation,

242–253;SeealsoLanduse,lowlandvertisols


characteristics,237–241 soilclassification,235–236 soilmorphology,232–235LusiRivervalley,230,245Luvisols,306,337,344–345

MMace(kembangpala),2,128,316,

329–330Madiun,231Madura geography,28

lowlandalfisols,210,212,213,214,219,222,223

lowlandvertisols,227 monsoons,60 soilmaps,14 vegetation,87Maduratobacco,223Magnesium basalts,34 citruscropsoilapplications,


313 lowlandvertisols,238,242,

244 peat/histosolexchangeable

bases,273 peatsoils/histosols,284Magnetite,134–135,180,211MahakamRiver,39,41Maize;SeeCornMakassar,44MakassarStrait,28Malabar-Pengalenganhighland,

406,409MalabarVolcano,336Malang,355,356,357,359,403,

406Malanghighland,359,403,405Malang-Pujonhighlands,407,

429Maluku(Moluccas),2,246 agriculture acreagesofmajor

Indonesianfoodcrops,125

clovetrees,127 coconutplantations,250 ricecultivation,205 shiftingcultivation,204

69071.indb 518 4/25/08 10:44:02 AM

Index ��

climate,65 cloveorigins,440 geography,29,30 geomorphology,44–46 lowlandultisols,179,197,

198–199,204,205 monsoons,60 nutmegspecies,328 universitieswithagriculture


vegetation,81,85,86,87Manganese,109,174Manganese-Bhorizon,109Manganesechelates,75Manganesemottles,146Mangoes(Mangiferaindica),171,

172–173,246Mangosteen(Garcinia

mangostana),172Mangroveforests,84,85Mangroveswamps,254,257,271,

272Manihotglaziovii,175Manihotutilissima(cassava,

yucca),156 acreagesofmajorIndonesian

foodcrops,125 lowlandalfisols,222–223 lowlandoxisols,163,169 lowlandultisols,202,203 lowlandvertisols,245 peatsoils/histosols,284,288Manilahemp(Musatextilis),206ManinjauLake,410,429Manisanpala(candiednutmeg),

330Manokwari,60,263Manures

fertilizationpracticetrends,355

golanmethod,244 green,164,176,200,244 vegetablecrops,170Maps soil,5,14–15,16 lowlandoxisols,132 methodologicalissues,7 revisionof,124 uplandsoils,309 vegetation,82,83Marga,228Margalites,236Margaliticsoil,227,228;Seealso

Vertisols,lowland calciumandmagnesium

content,242 particlesizedistribution,237 silica/sesquioxideratiosof

clayfractions,241Marlsoil,227,228,236;Seealso

Vertisols,lowlandMassactionlaw,112Massflow,micronutrients,75Massmovement,lowland

vertisols,243Matricpotential,280Medan,204,205,263,264,404Mediterraneanclimate,215–216Mediterraneansoils,99,123,130;

SeealsoAlfisols,lowland(redMediterraneansoils)

Meervlakte,49Mehlichmethod,charge

distributionanalysis,157–158

Melaleucasp.,81,260Melanization,97,102Menado,60,328

69071.indb 519 4/25/08 10:44:02 AM


Menangkabau,36,38MerapiVolcano,32MeratusMountains,40,41Merauke,65,205,250,263,264MerbabuVolcanocomplex,357Mergelgrond,236Merica(pepper,processed),127Mesothermalclimate,139Mesotrophicprocesses,256Metal–organiccomplexes;

SeeChelates/complexformation

Metamorphicrocks,383,385Metroxylon(sagopalm),81,86,

87,289Miamisiltloam(alfisol),119Micaschists,46,199Microbialactivity andcarbondioxide

production,112 peatformation,261,271,272Micronutrients citrusgrownonsandysoil,

174 mobilizationofelementsin

soil,75Micropedology,335,410,411,412MidwesternConsortiumfor

InternationalActivities(MUCIA)projects,11–12,122

Migrationpolicy/transmigrationprogram,22–23,34–35

Mills,rice,168Mimosaspp.,176Minahasa,43,44,53,132MinehassaCoconutFoundation,

250Mineralnutritionofplants,5,

15,17

Mineralreserve,379Mineralresources,Sumatra,37Mineralsoil,123Mineralization,organicmaterial,

258,293,394,423 andosols,423 highlandpodzols/spodosols,

394 versushumification,110–115,

145–146 lowlandoxisols,141,145–146,

164 uplandsoils,293Mineralogy,clay;SeeClays/clay

mineralogyMinerals,soilandparent

materials accumulationof,98;Seealso

Chilluviation(illuviation) altitudinalvariationsinsoil

formationandfertility,74 associationsof;See

Association,minerals brownpodzolicsoils,370 clay;SeeClays/clay

mineralogy highlandpodzols/spodosols,

383 inceptisols,299,300 Kalimantan,40 lowlandalfisolsandfraction,

211 lowlandoxisolsandfraction

composition,134–135 lowlandultisols,199 mobilization/translocationof,

98 leaching,73 soilformation,106–108 mountainsoils,333–334

69071.indb 520 4/25/08 10:44:03 AM

Index ��


podzols/spodosols,383,384,385

tropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoil,335

salinization,99–100 volcanicmaterials,34Miscanthussp.(solfataragrass),

421Mobilizationofclayand

minerals,98;SeealsoClaymobilization/movement/translocation;Translocation

aquoxlatosolformation,152 leaching,73;SeealsoLeaching soilformation,102,106–108Modalprofiles inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

304–306 lowlandoxisols,143,146–147 redMediterraneansoils,218Mohrsystem,4–5,62–65,69,70,

71Moistmonth,62Moisturecontent;SeeWater,soilMoistureregimes lowlandoxisols,141 peatsoils/histosols,277 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolic

soilsuborders,188–189Moisturetension,280–281MojosariInstitutPertanian

Bogor,357Mollicandosols,415Mollichorizons,415Mollisols(chernozems),99,124,

377 brownforestsoilsas,307

nitrogencontent,274Moluccas;SeeMaluku

(Moluccas)Monosilicicacid,104Monsoon(s) conceptof,55–59 westandeast,59–61Monsoonclimate,302–303 altitudinalvegetationzones,

84 altitudinalzones,71 andosols,407 brownpodzolicsoils,115 coffeerequirements,127 evapotranspirationrates,118 globalapplicationofconcept,

57 grapecultivation,356 highlandalfisols/gray-brown


308 Köppenclimatesystem;

SeeAmclimates;Amaclimates

latosol/oxisolclimateareas,140

lowland,130 Mohrsystem,65–66 NorthAmerican,57–58 oxisolorganicmatter,N

content,CEC,basesaturation,andpH,155

peatformation,261,262 soilformation,73,115 teacultivation,363–364 terminology,51–52 usticmoistureregime,216 vegetationeffects,89

69071.indb 521 4/25/08 10:44:03 AM


zonaldistributionofsoils,13–14

Monsoonforest climaxvegetation,78–79 vegetationprovinces,81–82Monsoonvegetation,60–61Monsoonzones,soilformation,

113–114Montanezone,70Montmorillonites;SeeSmectites/

montmorillonitesMorhumus,381Morphology,soil andosols,407–411,412,413,414 brownpodzolicsoils,372–374 classificationand

nomenclature,139 classificationonbasisof,344 classificationsystem,121–122 highlandalfisols,341–343 inceptisols,304–306 Indonesiansoilclassification

system,123,151 lowlandalfisols,213–215 lowlandoxisols,142–147 lowlandultisols,182–186,187,

188 lowlandvertisols,232–235 peatsoils/histosols,264–267 spodosols,387–389 USDAclassificationissues,

94–95Motherprune,364Mottledzone,144,146Mottling brownforestsoils,304 brownpodzolicsoils,373 mountainpodzols/spodosols,

388 oxisols,144,146

ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics,182,184,195

Mountainclimate highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,340 podzols/spodosolformation,

391–392 teaandcoffeeplantations,126Mountaincrops,126Mountainforest altitudinalvegetationzones,

84 clear-cutting,25 evapotranspirationrates,118 monsoonclimateinfluence,89Mountaingranulation,334,353,

418Mountainlands,tropical,70,71 mobilizationofelementsin

soil,74 podzolization,74–75 transitionalzone(uplands),76,

110,130;SeealsoUplandsoils

Mountainpeat,256–257Mountainrainforest,88–89,90,

421Mountainsoils,333–397 alfisols,337–367 climate,340–341 landuseandevaluation,

352–367 parentmaterialsof,338–340 physicochemical

characteristics,347–351 soilmorphology,341–343 andosols,402,407,422,423;

SeealsoAndosols brownpodzolicsoils,367–380 climate,370,372

69071.indb 522 4/25/08 10:44:03 AM

Index ��

landuseandevaluation,379–380

parentmaterialsof,369–370,371

physicochemicalcharacteristics,375–379

soilclassification,374–375 soilmorphology,372–374 claymineralogy,349–350 composition,13 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

308 podzols/spodosols,380–397 climate,385–387 landuseandevaluation,

296–297 parentmaterialsof,383–385 physicochemical

characteristics,392–396 soilclassification,390–392 soilmorphology,387–389 rainfall/evapotranspiration

ratiosandsoilformation,118

vegetation,80Mountains altitudeandclimate,67–72 geography,29–30 geomorphology,30MUCIA;SeeMidwestern

ConsortiumforInternationalActivities

MüllerMountains,39Mungbean(Phaseolusradiatus),

169,226,246MuriaVolcano,163Musaparadisiaca(banana),202Musaspp.(banana,pisang),163,

174,202,203,321–322,354Musatextilis(Manilahemp),206

Muscovite,199MusiRiver,37Myristicaargentea(papuanut),

328Myristicafragrans(nutmeg,pala,

pohonpala,bijipala),2,127,128,316,328–330

Myristicaspeciosa(bacannut),328Myristicasuccedanea(halmahera

nutmeg),44,328Myrtaceae,90

NNamlea,65Nangka(Artocarpasintegra,

jackfruit),203,246Nasi,168Nassau/Oranjemountains,48,

392Nationalconferences,19–20Nationalizationofcolonial

plantations,17NationalSoilScience

Conference,19NationalWatershed

DevelopmentProgramofIndonesia,21

Natrichorizons,216Naturalgas;SeeEnergy

resources(oil,naturalgas)

Nepheliumlappaceum(rambutans),171–172

NetherlandsEastIndies,2,3NewGuinea;SeePapua(West

Irian)NewZealandsoilclassification andosols,399,412–413

69071.indb 523 4/25/08 10:44:03 AM


kauripodzols,389 yellow-brownearths,187NiasYellowDwarf,252Nipahpalm(Nipafructicans),84,

85Nitrification,redoxconditions

and,109–110Nitrogencontent andosols,419,424 brownpodzolicsoils,376,379 highlandalfisols/gray-brown


310 lowlandalfisols,219,221 lowlandoxisols,155,156 lowlandultisols,191,198 lowlandvertisols,237 peatsoils/histosols,270,282Nitrogenfertilization paddy-sawah,166–167 redoxconditionsand,109–110 ricecultivation,205 rubber,176–177Nitrogenfixation,albizia,326Nitrogen–phosphorus–

potassium(NPK)fertilizers

highlandalfisols,355 lowlandvertisols,245 teacultivation,364 teak,226–227Nitrogen–phosphorus–

potassium(NPK)ratios,15,17

Nomenclature;Seespecificsoilsandclassificationsystems

Noncalcicbrownsoil,123,344Noncrystallineclays

andosols,413 lowlandoxisols,159 lowlandultisols,194–195Nonricecultivation lowlandoxisols,169–177 lowlandvertisols,244,248Nonsalinealkalisoils,100Nontronite,351NorthAmericanMonsoon,58NorthCarolinavarietiesof

tobacco,223NorthMinehassa,328Numforrs,48NusaTenggara(LesserSunda

Islands),30,43,46–47,65,67,79,82,125,210,213

andosols,401Nutmeg(Myristicafragrans,pala,

pohonpala),2 landuse,127,128 uplandsoils,inceptisols/

brownforestsoils,316,328–330

Nutrientcycling,78,199,315,353,396,437,438

Nutrients,soil highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoil,353 lowlandoxisols,163 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,198 slash/burnsystemand,202,

204 soilamendmentsand,199,

200 lowlandvertisols,242,244,245 peatformation,255 peatsoils/histosols,256,271,

273–275Nutrition,plant,5,15,17,75

69071.indb 524 4/25/08 10:44:04 AM

Index ��

OOhorizon(litterlayer),111 highlandpodzols/spodosols,

388 humification,113 humusironpodzol,388 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics,

182Oak(Quercus,Kayupasang),82,

88,89,304,314Ochricandosols,415,416Ochrichorizon,415Oilextractionrate(OER),oil

palm,208–209Oil(petroleum)fields;See

Energyresources(oil,naturalgas)

Oilpalm(Elaeisguineensis,kelapasawit),126,176,199,206–209,246,250,288,290,291,322,323

Oilpalm,dwarf(Elaeisguineensis,kelapapuyuh),252

OilPalmResearchCenter,18Oligoclase,180,299,300,384,403Oligotrophicpeat,256,268,270,

275Olivine,134–135,338,339Ombrogenouspeat,256,259,261,

272Ombrophilouspeat,256,261,270Onions,green(Alliumfistulosum),

170,317OphirMountain,23,38,404,428,

429Orangepekoetea,324Oranges,23Orchards,172–173

Organiccarbonsequestration,peatsoils/histosols,275–277

Organicfertilizers/soilamendments,176,244

lowlandoxisols,163–164 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,200 vegetablecrops,170Organicmatter,soil;Seealso

Humicacids/humicsubstances

altitudeand,74 andosols,405,410,417,419,

421–422 chelates;SeeChelates/complex

formation decomposition;See

Decomposition,organicmatter


highlandbrownpodzolicsoils,376,377,379

highlandinceptisols/brownforestsoils,310,312,313–314,316

highlandpodzols/spodosols,381–382,396

andleaching,76 lowlandalfisols,210,221 lowlandoxisols,156,162 elevationand,141 mineralizationof,164 reddish-brown,brown,and

redlatosols,155 lowlandultisols/red-yellow


limingeffects,200

69071.indb 525 4/25/08 10:44:04 AM


soilsuborders,188–189 virginconditions,199 lowlandvertisols,237,239 melanization,102 Miamisiltloam(alfisol),

120–121 mineralization;See

Mineralization,organicmaterial

mountainsoils,334 andnitrogencontent,274 inoxisols,103 redoxconditionsand,109 soilformation oxidationathigher

elevation,113 temperateregionversus

highlandandmonsoonregionsofIndonesia,114

uplandsoils,293Organicsoils;SeealsoPeatsoils/

histosols(tanahgambut) definition,253–254 peatsoils/histosols,253–254,

258 soilclassificationsystems,123 tropicalpeats,257Organo–metalcomplexes;

SeeChelates/complexformation

Organomineralhorizons,182Organosols,123Orthite,383,384Orthox,153Osmoticpotential,280Overpopulation;SeePopulation/

overpopulationOwen-StanleyRange,48Oxichorizons,95 depthof,142–143

formationof,102 lowlandoxisols,151–152,157Oxidation;SeeRedox

state/oxidationOxisols(latosols),129;Seealso

Latosols(oxisols) aluminumoxide/ironoxide


associationwithvertisols,230,231

coconutgrowthin,250 lowlandalfisolcomparison

with,210 paddy-sawah,126 percentoftotalarea,124 soilformationprocesses,76,

103 laterizationsubprocesses,

97–98 parentmaterials,116 suborders,141,151 terminology,USDA

classificationand,95,98,123,130,131

x-raydiffraction(XRD)analysis,195,197

Oxisols(latosols),highland,145,146

Oxisols(latosols),lowland,130–177

climate,130,138–142 landuseandevaluation,

161–177 lowlandultisols,

distinguishingfrom,179 parentmaterials,132–138 mineralogicalcomposition

ofsandfraction,134–135 quartzcontent,132–133

69071.indb 526 4/25/08 10:44:04 AM

Index ��

physicochemicalcharacteristics,153–161

chargecharacteristics,157–159,240


claymineralogy,159–161,162,240

lowlandultisols/redyellowpodzolicsoilsversus,190

particlesizedistribution,153–154

podzoliclatosolsastransitionalsoils,294–295

soilclassification,148–153 soilmorphology,142–147Oxygen,gleyization,101

PPaceklik,244PacificRingofFire,28Padang(towninWestSumatra),

9,10,23,31,38,53,131,186,187,204–205,263,265,269,290,382,404,410

PadangBulan,429Padangsoils(lowlandpodzols,

tanahpadang),382,389,390,394

Paddyricefields(sawah);SeeRicecultivation,paddyricefields(sawah)

Paddysawa,126Paddysoils iron-Bandmanaganese-B

horizonformation,109 productivitystudies,15,17 redoxconditions,110

Padigogo/padihuma,205–206,289,290;SeealsoRicecultivation,uplandrice(ladangrice,padigogo,padihuma)

Pala(nutmeg,Myristicafragrans,pohonpala,bijipala),2,127,128,316,328–330

Palajawa(nonrice)crops,244Palaquiumsp.,260Palawija(nonricecrops),169,244,

248;SeealsospecificcropsPalembang,36,37,202,263,264,

382Pallidzone,146Palms aren(Arengasaccharifera),249 coconut;SeeCoconut(Cocos

nucifera,kelapagading) lontar(Borassusflabellifer),249 oil;SeeOilpalm(Elaeis

guineensis,kelapasawit) peatswampforest,260 sago(Metroxylon),81,86,87,

289Palmsugar,248–249Palmwine,249Paluvalley,67Paludification,261Pamusiranproject,327–328Pandanusspp.,186Pangrango-GedehVolcano,133,

335Papaya/papayasemangka

(Caricapapaya),172,173,174,203,354

Papua(WestIrian) alpineconditions,91 climate,64,65,72 coconutplantations,250

69071.indb 527 4/25/08 10:44:04 AM


geography,28,29 geomorphology,30,47–50 highlandpeats,256–257 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,179,197 ricecultivation,204,205 shiftingcultivation,200–201 lowlandvertisols,231 nutmegspecies,328 peatsoils/histosols,261,262,

263,264 podzols/spodosols,392 transmigrationprogram,23 vegetation,81Papuanut(Myristicaargentea),

328Parabraunerde,344Paracrystallineclays,220,312,

350,351 andosols,400,413Parastemonsp.,260Parentmaterials andosols,401,402–405,408 highlandalfisols/gray-brown


highlandbrownpodzolicsoils,369–370,371,373,378

highlandversuslowlandred-yellowpodzolicsoils,130

inceptisols,298,299–301 lowlandalfisols,209,210–212,

221 lowlandoxisols,132–138 andcolor,141,156 particlesizedistribution,

136,137–138 lowlandultisols,179–181,191,

199

andanionexchangecapacity,193–194

andbasesaturation,192 lowlandvertisols,228–230,

231,237–238,242 peatsoils/histosols,258–262,

265 podzoliclatosols,295–296 andsoilformation,115–117 spodosols,383–385Parinariumsumatranum,265Particleaggregation,lowland

ultisols,199–200Particlesizedistribution andosols,417–420 highlandalfisols,347 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,348 highlandspodosols,392 inceptisols,309–311 lixiviation,101 lowlandalfisols,218,219 lowlandoxisols,133,136,137,

153–154 lowlandultisols,190–192 lowlandvertisols,237–238 peatsoils/histosols,270 spodosols,392PasarMinggu,136,137,140PasirMadang,313,314,441,442PasirMuncang,136PasirSarongge,406Pasuruan,4,228,247PB-36,205–206Peanut,169,244,284PeatSoilResearchInstitute,19Peatsoils/histosols(tanah

gambut),253–291

69071.indb 528 4/25/08 10:44:05 AM

Index ��

acreageandgeographicdistributioninIndonesia,124,256–258

climate,262–264 decompositionoflitterand

formationofpeat,261–262

definitionoforganicsoils,253–254

geographicdistribution,254–255

Kalimantan,41 Papua(WestIrian),50 Sumatra,37 landuseandevaluation,

282–291 agriculturaloperations,126,


evaluationof,282–283 basicsoilpropertiesand,

283–286 parentmaterialsof,258–262 percentoftotalarea,124 physicochemical

characteristics,270–282 acidityofpeat,270–273 aluminumcontents,275 carboncontentandorganic

carbonsequestration,275–277

nutrientstatus,273–275 physicalproperties,277–282 reclamationprograms,

327–328 soilclassification,267–270 soilmorphology,264–267 typesofpeats,255–256 wildfiresin,130,202

Peatswampforest,254–255,259–260,265–266,267

Pedochemicalweathering,191Pedogenesis;SeeSoil

formation/pedogenesisPedology,5,13–14Pedon(soilprofile),

62,73;SeealsoHorizons/profiles/pedon

Peds,claydeposition,106Pekalongan,247Pemanukan,168PemanukanRiver,168Pematang,372,386PeneplainofKalimantan,39Pengalenganhighlands,34,323,

339,357,361,364,403,404,422,423,429,434

Pepper,2,288 black(Pipernigrum),127 hot(Capsicumannuum,

Capsicumfrutescens),202–203

Peptidization,clay,105,381 andosols,418Percolation claymigration,105,106 lowlandalfisols,219–220 Miamisiltloam(alfisol),

120–121 inmonsoonzones,113–114 pHofwater,112–113 silicamovement,103 andweathering,117–118Perhumidclimate,231Peridotites,40,43,46Permanentchargedsoils,193,

240,244,428Permeability

69071.indb 529 4/25/08 10:44:05 AM



lowlandoxisols,162 lowlandultisols,198,200 lowlandvertisols,243 silicification,103–104Perox,151Pestcontrol,integrated,317Pesticides,22Petani(Ceibapentandra,kapok,

tani),174,203,213,223,224–225,246

Petarice,167Petecina(Leucenaglauca),364Petrographicanalysis,lowland

oxisols,133Petroleumresources;SeeEnergy

resources(oil,naturalgas)

pH,soil aluminumandiron

translocation,120 andosols,419,420,428,433 calcificationand,114 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,346,347,348,349,352,353

highlandbrownpodzolicsoils,376–377

highlandpodzols/spodosols,392–393

inceptisols/brownforestsoils,310,313

classification,308–309,311 limingeffects,315–316 lowlandalfisols,210,218,219 lowlandoxisols limeapplicationand,164 reddish-brown,brown,and

redlatosols,155

lowlandultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,191,192,195–196,198,199

limeapplicationand,199,200

slash/burnsystemand,202 lowlandvertisols/grumusols,

229,237,238,240,242 peatsoils/histosols,282,

283–284 formationof,256,270–271 water,270–271Phaeozems,297,306Phaseolusradiatus(greenbean),

245Phaseolusradiatus(mungbean),

169,226,246Philippineteak,225Phosphatefixation,396,430–431,

432Phosphorus/phosphatecontent highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,352 lowlandalfisols,221 lowlandultisols,198 lowlandvertisols,239,242,244 peatsoils/histosols,271,273,

274,282,284Phosphorus/phosphatefertilizer andosols,434 paddy-sawah,166–167 ricecultivation,205 rubber,176–177Physicalproperties andosols bulkdensityandporosity,

420–421 chargecharacteristics,

428–432

69071.indb 530 4/25/08 10:44:05 AM

Index ��

particlesizedistribution,417–420

soilreaction,420 peatsoils/histosols,277–282 bulkdensity,278–280 waterretention,280–282Physicochemicalcharacteristics andosols,417–432 highlandalfisols,347–351 chemicalcharacteristics,

347–349 claymineralogy,349–351 particlesizedistribution,

347 highlandbrownpodzolic

soils,375–379 inceptisols,309 lowlandalfisols,218–221 chemicalcharacteristics,


218,219 lowlandoxisols,153–161,162 lowlandultisols,190–197 chargecharacteristics,

193–194 chemicalcharacteristics,


190–192 lowlandvertisols,237–241 peatsoils/histosols,270–282 acidityofpeat,270–273 aluminumcontents,275 carboncontentandorganic

carbonsequestration,275–277

nutrientstatus,273–275

physicalproperties,277–282 spodosols,392–396 chemicalcharacteristics,


392Pinangpalm(Arecacatechu,

betelnuts),85,86Pineapple,284,288Pines brownpodzolicsoils,379,380 kauripodzols,389 vegetation,71–72Pinusforests,80Pinusmerkusii(damarbatu),17,

71–72,89,380Pinusmerkusii/sumatrana(damar

batu,tusamtapanuli),17,72,89,380,397

Piperbetel(betel),223Pipernigrum(pepper),127Piperspp.,186Pisang(Musaspp.,banana),163,

174,202,203,321–322,354Pisangraja/pisangambon/

pisangambon-lumut(bananavarieties),321–322,354

Plagioclasefeldspars,299Plagioclaseminerals,134–135,

299,379,403,412Plains,geomorphology,30Planosols,123,306Plantbreeding/hybrids arabustacoffee,436 oilpalm,207–209 rice,167,205 sugarcane,247 tea,324,367

69071.indb 531 4/25/08 10:44:05 AM


Plantnutrition,5,15,17Plantations,2;Seealsospecific

crops classificationand

nomenclature,126 colonial,nationalizationof,17 mountainregions,334–335 teacultivation,362–367Plasticity/shrink–swell

propertes/cracking lowlandalfisols,212 lowlandoxisols,162 lowlandvertisols,227,238,

242–243Plates,limestone,234Pleistoceneagedeposition,138,

181,402Pleistoceneterrarossa,216Plinthickandidiudults,thermic,

190Plinthite,108,144,145,146,158Plinthization,109Plorariumalternifolium,260Pluckingsystem,teaharvesting,

365–367Plutonicrocks,43Pod(Russian),380,390PodokGedeh,341Podzol-Bhorizon,381,389Podzol-braunerde,307,375Podzolic(prefix),294,367Podzoliclatosols,341 climate,140 lowlandoxisolclassification

issues,154 uplandsoils,294–296Podzolicsoilzones,118,297–298Podzolicsoils brown;SeeBrownpodzolic

soils

brownforestsoilsand,298,303

claymigration,311 gray-brown;SeeGray-brown

podzolicsoils(alfisols)Podzolikcoklat,375Podzolization,94,106–107,294 claymobilization,311–312 lowlandsoils,130 latosolswithclay

accumulationinBhorizons,154

ultisols,178 mountainsoils,333,336–337,

392 alfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,346,349 brownpodzolicsoils,369,

374,375 spodosols,380,392 simultaneouspodzolization


soilformationprocesses,98 terminology,74–75,105 inuplandsoils,76,293 inceptisols/brownforest

soils,297,304,308,309–310

podzoliclatosols,295Podzolizationzone,13Podzolizedlateriticsoil,189Podzols brownpodzolicsoilsas

transitionalsoils,368,370,372;SeealsoBrownpodzolicsoils

changeswithelevation/altitude,13

69071.indb 532 4/25/08 10:44:06 AM

Index ��


etymology,380,390 highland/mountain,336;See

alsoSpodosols gray-brown;SeeAlfisols,

highland(gray-brownpodzolicsoils)

humusironpodzolandironpodzols,391

lowland Bangka,382,390 climate,385–386 formationof,382 padangsoils/tanahpadang,

382,389,390,394 parentmaterialsof,383,385 red,191,288 red-yellow;SeeUltisols,

lowland(red-yellowpodzolicsoils)

soilformation;SeePodzolization

terminology/taxonomy,96,98,381

yellow,188,192–193Pohon(tree),swampforest

species,260,265Pohonkenari(Canarium

commune/Canariumindicum),329

Pohonpala(Myristicafragrans,pala,nutmeg,bijipala),2,127,128,316,328–330

Poleforest,259Polevegetation,286Pollengrass,91Polyathiaglauca,260Polymerization,lawof,103Pontianak,263

Population/overpopulation,24 Java,34–35 transmigrationprogram,

22–23,34–35Pores/porosity alfisols,218 andosols,420–421 claydeposition,106 inceptisols,316 ultisols,200Porphyticrhyolite,369Positivecharges,193–194PosoLake,43Potassium basalts,34 highlandalfisols,352 lowlandalfisols,221 lowlandultisols,198,199,200,

207 lowlandvertisols,239,242,244 peatsoils/histosols,271Potassiumfertilizer rice,167,205 rubber,176–177Potassiumnitrate,mangoflower

budtreatment,172–173Potato(Solanumtuberosa),17,75,

315,317,319–320PPN;SeePusatPerkebunan

NegaraPrecipitation;See

Rainfall/precipitationPrecipitation/evaporationratio,

117–121Pressurepotential,280Priangan,323Primaryminerals,97,101,148,

162,211,335,350,352,371,379

Productivity

69071.indb 533 4/25/08 10:44:06 AM


lowlandoxisols,163 paddysoils,15,17ProefstationOostJava,247ProefstationWestJava,247Profiles,soil(pedon),


Properties,soil;SeeLanduseProvinces,vegetation,79–83 EastIndonesian,80–81 SouthIndonesian,81–83 WestIndonesian,80Pruning,teaplants,364Pseudo-gleyformation,109Pseudo-podzolization,368;See

alsoLessivagePseudosand,334Psidiumguajava(guava,jambu

kelutuk),172Pueraria,176Pujon,350,351Pujon-Malanghighlands,407,

429Pulp,397Pulp,albiziauses,327–328Pumica,418Puncakhighland,34PuncakJaya,50,392PuncakTrikora,50,392Pureredlimestonesoils,211–212Pureterrarossasoils,221PusatPenelitianBioteknologi

Bogor,17PusatPenelitiandan

PengembanganPerkebunan,18

PusatPenelitiandanPengembanganTanahdanAgroklimat,4

PusatPenelitianKelapaSawit,18

PusatPenelitianPerkebunanBogor,17

PusatPerkebunanNegara(PPN),17

Pyriculariaoryzae,206Pyrite,257,271,272,282

QQuartz-containinglaterite,189Quartzcontent andosols,403 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,338,339 highlandbrownpodzolic


383,384 inceptisols,300,301 lowlandoxisols,132–133,134,

135,136–137 lowlandultisols,179,180 lowlandvertisols,229,237–238 podzoliclatosols,296 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics

versuslaterites,188,189Quartzsandstone,383Quartz-schists,385Quartzite,383,385Quaternaryformations geomorphology,30 Kalimantan,41 lowlandoxisols,132 NusaTenggara,47Quaternaryvolcanicmaterials lowlandoxisols,133 lowlandvertisol/grumusol

formation,229

69071.indb 534 4/25/08 10:44:06 AM

Index ��

Quercusspp.(oak,kayupasang),82,88,89,304,314

Quinine(cinchona),334,354

RRadermacheragigantae,260Rainforest altitudinalvegetationzones,

84,88–89 brownpodzolicsoils,370 climaxvegetation,77–78 geography Java,32 Kalimantan,39 lowlandoxisols,138–139 lowlandultisols,182 monsoonclimateindicators,

61 mountain,88–89,90,421 secondarygrowth,201,203 tropical andosols,405,421 climaterequirements,

63–64,65 climaxvegetation,77–78 deforestation,shifting

cultivationand,201 Kauritrees(Agathis

australis),389 lowlandoxisols,138–139 lowlandultisols,182 mountainpodzols,387–389 terminology,72 tropicalbroad-leaf,314–315Rainfall/precipitation altitudeand,68 andosols,406,407 brownpodzolicsoils,372

climateclasses equatorialclimate,53 monsoons,57,58 precipitation/evaporation


tropicalclimate,54 climateclassesbasedonwet/

dryseasons,61–67 Mohrsystem,62–65 SchmidtandFerguson

system,65–67 highlandalfisols/gray-brown



296,303 andlowlandalfisol

productivity,221–222 lowlandoxisolareas,140 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,183 lowlandvertisol/grumusol

occurrence,230,231 oxisol/latosolclassification,

149 peatsoils/histosols acidityofpeat,270–271 formationof,256,262,263,

264 peatsystems,261–262 precipitation/evaporation

ratio,117–121 andsoilformation calcification,99 indifferentclimatetypes,

73 salinization,99–100 teacultivation,363–364

69071.indb 535 4/25/08 10:44:06 AM


Rainfallzones,68,69Rainwaterstorage,166Rainyseason;SeeWet/dry

seasonsRaisedbedcrops,245Rajamandala,228Rambutans(Nephelium

lappaceum),171–172RamsarConvention,254Randublatung,231Rangkasbitung,179,181Rattanplants,78,88Reclamation,peatsoils/

histosols,287Recyclingagriculturalwaste,18Redearth(roodeaarde),149,

217,297;SeealsoOxisols(latosols),lowland

Redearth(roodeaarde)formation

inceptisols,297 rubification,101Redearthstage,149Redearthsonlimestone,220Redlaterite,150Redlateriticlimestonesoils,217Redlateriticquartzsandsoil,

189Redlateriticquartzsoil,189Redlateriticsoils alfisol/redMediterraneansoil

names,217 oxisol/latosolnames,150 soilsequenceinhillycountry,

215 ultisol/red-yellowpodzolic

soilnames,189Redlatosols/oxisols acidityof,154,155 chargecharacteristics,157–159

claymineralogy,159–160,161,162

elevationand,141 lowlandoxisolprofiles,143,

145 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicmorphology,184

mineralogicalcompositionofsandfraction,135

nitrogencontent,156 orchards,173–174 organicmatter,Ncontent,


parentmaterialsof,156 particlesizedistribution,136,

153 silica/sesquioxideratiosof

clayfractions,241Redlimestonesoil,211,217Redlixivium,150RedMediterraneansoils,

209,217,218;SeealsoAlfisols,lowland(redMediterraneansoils)

vertisolsinassociationwith,227–228

Reddish-brownlateriticsoils,295

Reddish-brownlatosols/oxisols,136

chargecharacteristics,157–158 claycontent,153 claymineralogy,160,161,162 elevationand,141 organicmatter,Ncontent,


69071.indb 536 4/25/08 10:44:07 AM

Index ��

Reddish-yellowlatosols/oxisols,134

Redoxstate/oxidation andfoodcropproductionon

peatsoils,288–289 highlandalfisols,338 highlandpodzols/spodosols,


313 andnitrogenfertilization,

109–110 peatsoils/histosols,261,282,

287,288–289 redoxpotential,276–277 soilformation,271–272 soilformation,107,108–110Redpodzolicsoils,188,191Redquartzsoil,189Red-yellowlatosols/oxisols chargecharacteristics,157–158 claymineralogy,162 elevationand,141 particlesizedistribution,136 sandcontent,153Red-yellowMediterraneansoils

(alfisols),99,123,130;SeealsoAlfisols,lowland(redMediterraneansoils)

classificationandnomenclature,217–221

colordifferences,214Red-yellowpodzolicsoils

(ultisols),13,295;SeealsoUltisols,lowland(red-yellowpodzolicsoils)

aluminumoxide/ironoxideratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119,120

Bantam,179


elevationinhillyrollingtopography,188

lateriticsoilclassification,150 lowlandpodzolsand,389,390 parentmaterialsof,181 physicochemical

characteristics,191 podzolikcoklat,375 soilformation highlandversuslowland,

130 parentmaterials,116 zonalsoils,386Reeflimestone,210–211,229Reforestationprograms,21,25,

353Regosol,123Regreeningprograms,21,325Regursoil,227,236Rejuvenation lowlandoxisols,147,152,163 lowlandultisols,182,184,192,

198,199Relativehumidity,71,91Relocation(transmigration)

policy,22–23,34–35Rembang,32,227Rembanghills,229Rembangplains,230,245Rembang-Tubanhills,215,220,

229,231,233Rendzina,123,215,233,234,235,

237,241Reophilous(temperateregion)

peats,256,257,258,269Research earlyexperimentstations,3–4,

5–6

69071.indb 537 4/25/08 10:44:07 AM


InternationalRiceResearchInstitute(IRRI),167

newexperimentstations,17–19

ResearchInstituteforEstateCrops,3

ResearchInstituteofBiotechnologyforEstateCrops,169

ResearchInstituteofSumatraPlantersAssociation(RISPA),18

Reservoirs,166Resettlementprogram,22–23,

201Respiration,112Reynososystem,248Rheophilouspeat,256Rhizophora(bako-bako,bakau),

84,85Rhodichapludox/kandiudox,

142Rhodickandiudults,295Rhodustalfs,216Rhyolites/rhyolitictuffs,34 inceptisols,299 lowlandultisols,179,180 porphytic,369 Sumatra,38,228Riau,29,264Rice InternationalRiceResearch

Institute(IRRI),167 mineralnutritionstudies,15Ricecultivation acreagesofmajorIndonesian

foodcrops,125,126 earlyexperimentstation

focus,5–6 intensificationof,24

paddyricefields(sawah) gleyingin,108 highlandalfisols/gray-

brownpodzolicsoil,353–354

intensificationofcultivation,24

intercrops/rotationcrops,169–170,174,176,246–247

lowlandalfisols,222 lowlandhistosols/peat,

288–289 lowlandoxisols,165–169 lowlandultisols,204–205 lowlandvertisols,244,245 nonricecropsgrownin,

169–170 peatsoils/histosols,

288–289 soiltypes,126 sugarcanegrowth,246–247 waterresources,22 transmigrationprogram,23 uplandrice(ladangrice,padi

gogo,padihuma),126 lowlandalfisols,222–223 lowlandoxisols,169 lowlandultisols,202,203,

205–206 peatsoils/histosols,288,

289,290 uplandsoils,169 waterresources,22Ricemills,168RiceResearchStation,

Sukamandi,6Ricinuscommunis(castor),245RISPA;SeeResearchInstitute

ofSumatraPlantersAssociation

69071.indb 538 4/25/08 10:44:07 AM

Index ��

Riverdeposits;SeeAlluvialsoils/sediments

Robustacoffee,436Rockfragments brownpodzolicsoils,371 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,339 inceptisols,300 lowlandoxisols,147Rodekalkgrond,217Rodekwartsgronden,189Rodelateritischekwartz

zandgrond,189Roodeaarde(redearth),217,297Rootcrops,202Rootrespiration,112Rotationcrops(intercrops),

paddyricefields,169–170,174,176,246

Rotlehm,101Roughpluck,365Rubber(Hevea),2,23,126,199,

246,250 experimentstation

establishment,3 Heveabrasiliensis,174–177 Heveaguyanensis,175 lowlandultisols,203,206 peatsoils/histosols,288,

290–291 transmigrationprogram,23Rubification,97,101Rubrozem,149Rumputangin(Spinifexlittoreus),

88

SSabang,250

Saccharum(tebu);SeeSugarcane(Saccharum,tebu)

Saccharumofficinarum,247Saccharumspontaneum(glagah),

247Sagopalm(Metroxylonspp.),81,

86,87,289SahulShelfarea,29SalakVolcano,133,300,301,310,

341,404Saline-alkalisoils,100Salinesoils(aridisols),96,99,100Salinization,94,99–100Saltdamagetocrops,100–101Sand inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

299,312–313 lowlandalfisols,211 lowlandoxisols mineralogicalcomposition

of,134–135 particlesizedistribution,

137,153 lowlandsoilmapping,133 peatsoils/histosols,277 podzols/spodosols,383Sandalwood(Exocarpuslatifolia

andSantalumalbum),82Sandstone,46,181,383,385Sandyparentmaterials,lowland

podzols,385Sandysoils citrusmicronutrient

deficiency,174 loam,Davidsonsoils,154SangiIsland,328Sangihe,45Sanidine,180,300,301,371,379,

383,384

69071.indb 539 4/25/08 10:44:08 AM


Saninten(Castaneaargintea,Castaneasp.),89,314–315,353

Santalumalbum(sandalwood),82Saprists,269Sarangan,341,372Satelliteimagery,82Savannahclimate,139Savannahforest,79Savannahs climateclasses,65 NusaTenggara,47 vegetationprovinces,82Sawah,126,165–166;SeealsoRice

cultivation,paddyricefields(sawah)

nonricecropsgrownin,169–170

sugarcaneasintercrop,246Sawi(Brassicarugosa),170,317,

355Sawofruit(Achraszapota),172,

246Schimanoronhaetree(kayu

puspa),89Schists,40,43,46,49,199,385Schmidt-Fergusonquotient(Q),

65–67SchmidtandFergusonsystem,

65–67 altitudinalzones,69–70 brownpodzolicsoils,372 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,341 inceptisols,303 lowlandoxisolareas,140 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,183 lowlandvertisols,230 peatsoils/histosols,263

SchoutenIsland,48SchwanerMountains,39Scientificsocieties,19–20Secondaryforest andosols,408 shiftingcultivationand,201,

203Secondarysilica,392Sedges(Cyperaceaesp.),255,257,

269Sedimentarydeposits,30,383,

385Sediments alluvial;SeeAlluvial

soils/sediments peatformation,259Self-mulchingsoils,227,238Sequences,soil profile;See

Horizons/profiles/pedon topographic alfisols,215 vertisols,227–228Serang,179,181Serpong,181Sesquioxideratios;SeeSilica/

sesquioxideratiosSesquioxides highlandbrownforestsoils,

304 highlandbrownpodzolic


381 highlandspodosols,395 lowlandalfisols,210,220 lowlandoxisols,157,158,159 soilformation,97,103Shadesystem,329,364,365,

437–439,443

69071.indb 540 4/25/08 10:44:08 AM

Index ��

Shadetrees/shadesystems,326Shales,46,181,383Shallots(Alliumcepa,bawang

merah),170Sharecropping,rice,167–168Shiftingcultivation(ladang,

slash/burnsystem),20,24,44,200–204,205,397

Shoreaspp.,260Short-range-orderclays,413Shrinkage;SeePlasticity/shrink–

swellpropertes/crackingShrubvegetation,388SiakRiver,166SibartongMountain,383,387SibayakMountain,3,25,38,206,

318,359,401,404,405,409Silautpeatarea,264–267,271–

272,275,285Silica aluminumsources,107 aquoxlatosolformation,152 desilicification,75–76,102–103 ferralization,97 laterization,97 lowlandalfisols,210 lowlandoxisols,131 lowlandultisols,190 lowlandvertisols,229 organic,lowlandoxisols,

134–135 secondary,392 silicification,103–104,105 solubility,lawof

polymerizationand,103 volcanicmaterials,34Silica/sesquioxideratios brownpodzolicsoils,378 highlandspodosols,394,395,

396

lowlandalfisols,220 lowlandoxisols,148 lowlandvertisols,240,241 soilformation,103Siliceousmaterial,volcanictuff,

133,136,137,299Silicification,103–104,105,152Silt,277Silt-loamtexture,347Singkarak,Lake,25Singkarakricevariety,205–206Singkep,29Sisal(Agavesisalana),174,206Skins,clay,106Slash/burn(ladang,shifting

cultivation)system,20,24,44,200–204,205,397

Slate,385Smallholders,126 clovecultivation,441 dairyfarming,359–360 peppergrowth,127 teacultivation,362Smalllandholders’crops albizia,327 classificationand

nomenclature,126 coconut,250 lowlandvertisols,245–246 nutmeg,328–329 peatsoils/histosols,289–290 tea,322,323–324Smectites/montmorillonites,104,

105 andosols,433 brownpodzolicsoils,378 cationexchangecapacity,157,


312

69071.indb 541 4/25/08 10:44:08 AM


lowlandalfisols,221 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,195 lowlandvertisols,227,232,

234,239,240 ultisolsversusalfisols,

195–196Smonitza,235SnowMountainrange,81,91,

392Societies,scientific,19–20Sod-podzolicsoils,344Sodicsoils(aridisols),100Sodication,100Sodium,100–101,238,261,273Soilamendments,163–164,170,

176,200,244Soilclassification;See

ClassificationofsoilsSoilconservation,20–25Soilformation/pedogenesis,

94–121;SeealsoParentmaterials

altitudinalvariationsin,74–76 andosols,402 climateand,72–76 altitudinalvariations,74–76 mineralizationversus

humification,110–115 precipitation/evaporation


factorsin,93–94 FAOandWRBsystem

terminology,130 highlandsoils alfisols,337–338,346 brownpodzolicsoils,368,

369,374,375 mountainregions,333–334

lowlandsoils,129,130 alfisols,209–210 oxisols,131,145–146,147 peatsoils,255 parentmaterialsand,115–117 precipitation/evaporation

ratioandweatheringintensity,117–121

processes,contemporaryconcepts,102–110

aluminumandirontranslocation,106–108

claytranslocation,104–106 desilicification,102–103,104 redoxreactions,108–110 silicification,103–104,105 processes,previousconcepts,

96–102 publications,14 soilclassification,122 transitionalzones/upland

soils,293 inceptisols/brownforest

soils,308–311 podzoliclatosols,295–296Soilmaps;SeeMapsSoilmorphology;See

Morphology,soilSoilprofile(pedon),


Soilproperties;SeeProperties,soil

Soilreaction,242,420;SeealsopH,soil

SoilResearchInstitute,4,7,19,132,269

albiziagrowingprograms,325–326

69071.indb 542 4/25/08 10:44:08 AM

Index ��

conferencesandseminarssponsoredby,19,20

lowlandoxisolclassification/taxonomy,150–151

mountainsoilclassification,309

podzolikcoklat,375 spodosols,390 soilmaps;SeealsoMaps alfisolsonsoilmap,346 revisionof,124 soilsurveys,14SoilscienceinIndonesia;See

HistoricaldevelopmentofIndonesiansoilscience

Soilsolutionstrength,117–118,119

Solbrunacides(France),307,311Solbrunlessivé,306–307,337,

344Solbruns,296Soldurallitic,149Solanumlycopersicum(tomatoes),

317Solanummelongea,(eggplant,

terong),170Solanumtuberosa(potato),317Solfataragrass(Miscanthussp.),

421Solodization,99–100Solods(aridisols),100Solokrice,205Solonchaks(aridisols),99,123Solonetz,123Solonetzicsoils,238Solonization,99SouthIndonesianvegetation

province,81–83Soybean,125,169,244,245,246Sphagnum,257,269

Spicecrops,250SpiceIslands,127,328;Seealso

Maluku(Moluccas)Spicetrade,2Spices,126,246Spinach(Amaranthusspp.,

bayem),170Spinifexlittoreus(rumputangin),

88Spodichorizon,389 formationof,74,102,106,107,

108,113 mountainpodzols,381,390Spodosols brownpodzolicsoil

classification,375 brownpodzolicsoils;See

Brownpodzolicsoils classificationand

nomenclature,380–381 climate,385–387 landuseandevaluation,

296–297 mountainsoils,380–397 parentmaterialsof,383–385 percentoftotalarea,124 physicochemical

characteristics,392–396 soilclassification,390–392 soilformation,106–107,108 soilmorphology,387–389 terminology,74–75,381,390Spondiasdulcis(kedondong),203Stabilization,lowlandultisols,

200Stemonurussp.,260Steppes,NusaTenggara,47Stoniness,lowlandalfisols,221,

222Structure,soil

69071.indb 543 4/25/08 10:44:09 AM


grumusols,232 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoiland,353 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,199–200 lowlandvertisols,243–244 mountainsoils,334Subalpinezone,70,72,84,90–91Subaridclimate,55Subhumidclimates,alfisols,216Submontanezone,70Subsidence,peatsoils/histosols,

277,285,287,289Subsoil cationconcentration,108 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,191 lowlandvertisols,234Sugar,palm(gulararen,gula

mangkok),248–249,253SugarExperimentStation,

Pasuruan,247Sugarcane(Saccharum,tebu) altitudinalzones,71 areasgrownin,127 classificationasestatecrop,

250 experimentstation

establishment,4 lowlandalfisols,222 lowlandvertisols,244,246–248 mineralnutritionstudies,15,

17SugarcaneExperimentStationof

WestJava,247SukamandiRiceResearch

Station,6Sulawesi acreagesofmajorIndonesian

foodcrops,125

climate,65,67,72 climateclasses,64 copraproduction,250 geography,28,29 geomorphology,41–44 lowlandoxisols,131–132 lowlandultisols,179,200–201,

204,205 monsoons,59 universitieswithagriculture


vegetation,81,91Sulfurbacteria,271,272Sulfur-richsoils,109,261Sumatra,2 acreagesofmajorIndonesian

foodcrops,125 agriculture coconutplantations,250 coffee,127 estatecrops,207 oilpalm,246 peppergrowth,127 rice,204 rubber,176,246 shiftingcultivation,200–

201,203–204 tea,127,363 wheatcrops(gandum),357 altitudinalzones,71–72 andosols,401,403,405,420,

429,433–434,435 climate,64,65,72 equator,53 evapotranspirationrates,118 experimentstation

establishment,3–4 geography,28,29 geomorphology,30,35–38

69071.indb 544 4/25/08 10:44:09 AM

Index ��

highlandbrownpodzolicsoils,369,370,371,376,377,378,379

highlandpodzols/spodosols,382,383,384,386,391,394,395–396

lipariticandrhyoliticparentmaterials,228

lowlandoxisols,131 lowlandpodzols(padang

soil),382,390 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,179,181,183,186,191,192,193,196,197,198–199

estatecrops,207 ricecultivation,204 shiftingcultivation,200–

201,203–204 monsoons,61 peatsoils/histosols,261,262,

263 peatswampforest,260 soilmaps,15 soilsurveys,5 transmigrationprogram,

22–23,35 universitieswithagriculture


vegetation,80,81 coastalflora,85 mountainflora,89SumatranTropicalPineForest,

397Sumba,46Sumbawa,29,46Sundalandmass,39SundaShelfarea,29,31,84SundaStrait,28,33,117,181

Sundalandheatherforestsystem,382

Superphosphate,205Surakarta,228Surfacearea,138Surfacehorizon,andosols,400Surfacepotential,105Surfacesoils andosols,407,408 highlandpodzols/spodosols,

394Sustainableagriculture,201Svedjebruk,202Swampforest,peat,254–255,

259–260,265–266,267Swamps coastalflora,85 Kalimantan,41 Papua(WestIrian),50 peatformation,256–257,271 peatswampforest,definition,

254–255 Sumatra,37Sweetpotato(Ipomoeabatatas),

169–170,203,245Swiddenagriculture,201–202

TTaiga(borealforest),298TalaudIsland,328Talisseestate,250Talpetatesoils,414TamanSari,341,372Tampanuli,370,383Tanahadat,35,201Tanahgambut;SeePeatsoils/

histosols(tanahgambut)

69071.indb 545 4/25/08 10:44:09 AM


Tanahpadang(padangsoils,lowlandpodzols),382,389,390,394

Tangerang,168,181TangkubanPrahuVolcano,351,

412,420Tani(Ceibapentandra,kapok,

petani),174,203,213,223,224–225,246

TanimbarIslands,48Tapanuli,376,387,388Taro,203Tasikmadu,140,231TawangManggu,305,341Taxonomy,soil;SeeClassification

ofsoilsTea(Camelliasinensis/theifera,

Theasinensis),2,126,174,250

andosols,434 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,354,362 lowlandultisols,206 mountainsoils,334 shadesystem,437 soilconservationprograms,

326 uplandsoils,inceptisols/

brownforestsoils,316,322–325

Teak(Tectonagrandis,jati),89 lowlandalfisols,225–227 lowlandvertisols,232,246 tropicalmonsoonforests,79 vegetationprovinces,82Tebu(sugarcane);SeeSugarcane

(Saccharum,tebu)Tectonagrandis;SeeTeak(Tectona

grandis,jati)Tectonahamiltoniana,225

Tectonaphilippiniensis,225Tegal,169Tegalans(fallowlands),222,224TelukCenderawasih,48Temperateclimates/temperate

regions alfisols,115,210 andosols,405 Braytestcalibration,352 brownpodzolicsoils,370 comparisonofCandC/N

ratioswithtropicalsoils,115

humificationin,114 peats,256 podzoliclatosolsand,295 podzols/spodosolformation,

391 podzols/spodosolshorizons,

394,395 precipitation/evaporation

ratioandweatheringintensity,118

red-yellowpodzolicsoils,181–182,188

subhumidclimates,216 ultisols,198Temperateregioncrops andosols,434 athigheraltitudes,75 highlandalfisols/gray-brown


316 uplandcultivation,170 uplandsoils,inceptisols/

brownforestsoils,317–321

Temperateregionforests,314–315

69071.indb 546 4/25/08 10:44:09 AM

Index ��

Temperateregion(reophilous)peat,256,257,258,269

Temperature altitudeand,68 andnutmegcultivation,

328–329 subalpinezone,91 brownpodzolicsoils,370 equatorialclimate,53 inceptisolformation,296,297 latosol/oxisolclimateareas,

140 lowlandoxisols,141 andsoilformation comparisonoftemperate

andtropicalsoils,116 ultisols/red-yellow

podzolics,182 uplandsoils,293 teaandcoffeerequirements,

126–127 tropicalclimate,54 uplandsoils,inceptisols/

brownforestsoils,316Tengger,357Tensionzones,178,179,293 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

309 lowlandultisols,197 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolic

soils,189Tephrosiaspp.,176Terminaliacatappa(Ketapang

tree),87,88Terminology;Seespecific

soilsandclassificationsystems

Ternate,45Terong(Solanummelongea,

eggplant),170

Terrarossasoils,209;SeealsoAlfisols,lowland(redMediterraneansoils)

Terraroxasoils,131,209Tertiaryformations geomorphology,30 Kalimantan,41 lowlandoxisols,132 lowlandultisols,181 lowlandvertisol/grumusol

formation,229 pleistocenevolcanicmaterials

mixedwith,181Tertiaryhills,lowlandvertisol/

grumusolformation,229Tertiaryorigin,lowlandultisol

parentmaterials,179TexturalBhorizons,123,188,

341,344;SeealsoArgillic(Bt)horizons

Texture brownpodzolicsoils,375–376 Davidsonsoils,154 highlandalfisols/gray-brown



316 lowlandalfisols,211–212,218 lowlandoxisols,137,153 lowlandultisols,190–192,198 lowlandvertisols,237–238 peatsoils/histosols,277–278 soilsequenceinhillycountry,

215Theasinensis;SeeTea(Camellia

sinensis/theifera,Theasinensis)

69071.indb 547 4/25/08 10:44:10 AM


Theobromacacao(cacao),224,250,326

ThermicplinthicKandidiudults,190

Thermicrhodickandidults,295Thermograms(DTA);See

Differentialthermalanalysis

Thinsections,335,410,411,412Thorp-Smithzonalsystem,13Tidallowlands,254Tidalswamps,257,272Tidore,45Tiftonsoil,190Timber,78,82,132,260 albizia,327,438 shiftingcultivation,202 teak,223,225–227 treefarming,397 uplandsoils,inceptisols/

brownforestsoils,316Timberline,72,90,91,353Timor,46,210,357 geography,29 monsoons,59 vegetationprovinces,82Tirs,234,235Tlekunghighlands,357TobaLake,37,397Tobacco,206,250 andosols,433–434 lowlandalfisols,222,223 lowlandvertisols,244Tomatoes(Solanumlycopersicum),

317Tomatoes,uplandsoils,

inceptisols,320–321Topogenouspeat,256Topography

lowlandalfisolparentmaterials,211

lowlandalfisols,215 lowlandpodzolformation,

387 lowlandvertisol/grumusol

formation,229 lowlandvertisols,231 peat/histosolclassification,

268–269 soilsequenceinhillycountry,

215Toposequence,lowlandvertisols,

227–228Topsoils inceptisols,298 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

306 margalitesversusrendzinas,

233–234Torrox,139,141,151,152Totalelementanalysis,lowland

alfisols,220Tourmaline,211TowutiLake,43Toxicity,peatsoils/histosols,

274–275Toxins,peatformation,255Tradewinds,52,59Transformation,silicification/

desilification,104Transitionzones,altitudinal lowlandoxisolsoilprofile,

144–145 simultaneouspodzolization


uplandsoils,293 podzoliclatosols,294–295Transitionalpeat,256

69071.indb 548 4/25/08 10:44:10 AM

Index ��

Transitionalsoils brownpodzolicsoils,368,375 podzoliclatosols,294–296Translocation aluminumandiron,102,

106–108,119,120 clays;SeeClaymobilization/

movement/translocation minerals,99 organicmatter,107 podzolization,98 soilcolloids,99Transmigrationprogram,22–23,

34–35,201,288Transport,parentmaterials,

137–138Treefarming albizia,325–328 peatsoils/histosols,283,286,

291 spodosols,397 uplandsoils,inceptisols/

brownforestsoils,316–317

Triassicformations,Ceram,46Triplesuperphosphate,205Tristianaobavata/sumatrana,260Trop-(prefix),346Tropaquents,142Tropi-(prefix),269–270Tropicalblacksoil,235Tropicalbrownearth,149Tropicalchernozem,227;Seealso

Vertisols,lowlandTropicalclimate,59 altitudinalvegetationzones,

84 conceptof,54–55 terminology,51–52

Tropicalgray-brownpodzolicsoil,343,347,348,349;SeealsoGray-brownpodzolicsoils(alfisols)

Tropicalhumidclimate terminology,72 watermovementinsoil,73Tropicalmonsoonclimate;See

alsoMonsoonclimate altitudinalvegetationzones,

84 altitudinalzones,71 soilformation,73Tropicalmonsoonforest climaterequirements,64 climaxvegetation,78–79Tropicalmonsoons,57Tropicalpeats,257,262,269Tropicalpodzols,intrazonal,382Tropicalrainforest;SeeRain

forestTropicalsavannah,65Tropicalsavannahforest,79Tropicalsoils,U.S.systemand,

142Tropicalspodosols,391Tropicalzone,70Tropofluvents,142Troporthents,142Troposaprist/tropisaprists,

269–270Tropudox/tropudults/

tropudalfs,142Trumaosoils,414Tuban,32,212,213,219,231,232,

233,237,241Tuffs;SeeVolcanicmaterialTumartapanuli(Pinusmerkusii),

17,72,89,380,397Turfsoil,227,235

69071.indb 549 4/25/08 10:44:10 AM


Tussockgrass,91Two:Onelayerclays,220–221 brownpodzolicsoils,378 highlandalfisols/gray-brown


lowlandvertisols,227,238,240

UUdox,139,151,152Udults,189Ultisols,highland/upland,130,

296 kandicgreatgroupdiagnostic

features,345 podzoliclatosols,296Ultisols,lowland(red-yellow

podzolicsoils),129,130,177–209

argillic(Bt)horizons,154 climate,130,181–182 cloveproduction,127–128 landuseandevaluation agriculturaloperations,

200–209 basicsoilpropertiesand,

199–200 evaluationofanalytical

properties,197–199 lowlandalfisolcomparison

with,210 lowlandoxisolclassification

issues,154 lowlandpodzolsand,389,390 parentmaterialsof,179–181 percentoftotalarea,124 physicochemical

characteristics,190–197

chargecharacteristics,193–194


claymineralogy,194–197 particlesizedistribution,

190–192 quartzcontent,132–133 soilclassification,186–189 soilformation aluminumoxide/iron

oxideratios,U.S.versusIndonesia,119,120

parentmaterials,116 soilmorphology,182–186,187 USDAclassificationissues,

95–96Umbricandosols,433Umbrisols,375Universities cooperativeprogramswith

U.S.universities,11–12 post-WorldWarIIperiod,8UniversityofIndonesia,8,9Uplandrice;SeeRicecultivation,

uplandrice(ladangrice,padigogo,padihuma)

Uplandsoils,293–331 andosols,337 brownpodzolicsoils,368,370 inceptisols,296–313,314 agriculturaloperations,

316–331;SeealsoAgriculturaloperations,uplandsoils,inceptisols

analyticalproperties,313–315

basicsoilproperties;SeealsoLanduse,inceptisols

69071.indb 550 4/25/08 10:44:10 AM

Index ��


claymineralogy,312–313,314


313–331 parentmaterialsof,299–301 particlesizedistribution,

309–311 physicochemical

characteristics,309 soilclassification,306–309 soilmorphology,304–306 oxisols,absenceofplinthitein

profiles,145,146 podzoliclatosols,294–296 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics,

130,179,296 vertisols/margalitic,231Uplands altitudeandclimate,67–72 altitudinalzones,70 estateandindustrialcrops,

126 ricecultivation(padihuma),

126,169,202,203,289 soilformation,76 humusformationand

accumulation,elevationand,141–142

simultaneouspodzolizationandlaterization,76,110,130

temperateregioncropsathigheraltitudes,170

transitionalzone,293,294–295 tropical,71Urbanization,25Urea,205

U.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID),11

U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)classificationandtaxonomycategories

andosols,400–401,414–415,416

brownpodzolicsoils,115,368,374–375

highlandalfisols/gray-brownpodzolicsoils,337–338,344,345


inceptisols/brownforestsoils,298,304,307

limitationsof,122,124,139,141

lowlandalfisols/terrarosasoils,216

lowlandoxisols/latosols,130,131,141,142–143,150–151,152,153

lowlandultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,130,184–186,188–189

lowlandvertisols,236 methodologicalissues,7 peatsoils/histosols,130,254,

268,269–270 podzoliclatosols,115,296 revisionofoldersystem,

94–102,104–105 tropicalsoils,tropu-series,

142U.S.soils alfisols,115,119,120–121,216 brownforestsoils,307–308 brownpodzolicsoils,368,369 gray-brownpodzolic,340

69071.indb 551 4/25/08 10:44:11 AM


Miamisiltloam(alfisol),119,120–121

oxisols,157 peatsoils/histosols,284–285 soilformation,116,118–119 thermicrhodickandidults/

Davidsonsoils,295 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics/

Tiftonsoil,190 vertisols,houstonclay,235U.S.taxonomicsystem latosols/oxisols,76 terminology,74–75USDA;SeeU.S.Departmentof

Agricultureclassificationandtaxonomycategories

Usox,139Ustalfs,216Usticmoistureregimes,141,216Ustox,141,151,152Ustults,189

VVanSteenissystem,70,72van’tHofflaw,116Variable-chargesoils,193,195,

240,428Vegetablecrops;Seealsospecific

vegetables andosols,434 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoil,354 lowlandoxisols,163,169,170,

171Vegetation,77–91 altitudinalzones,84–91 cloud-beltforest,89–90 coastalflora,84–88

rainforestandmountainrainforest,88–89

subalpine,90–91 andosols,408 climateclasses,64,65 climax,61,77–79 tropicalmonsoonforest,

78–79 tropicalrainforest,77–78 tropicalsavannahforest,79 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,342,352–353

highlandbrownforestsoils(inceptisols),314

highlandbrownpodzolicsoils,373,377,379

highlandpodzols/spodosols,381–382,387–389

humusironpodzol,388 lowlandalfisols,213 lowlandultisols,186 monsoon,60–61 provinces,79–83 EastIndonesian,80–81 SouthIndonesian,81–83 WestIndonesian,80 andsoilerosion,21Vegetationmaps;SeeMapsVereenigdeOostIndische

Company(VOC),2,28Vermiculite,164Verplichte,435Vertisols percentoftotalarea,124 upland,231Vertisols,lowland,227–253 climate,127,230–231 geographicdistribution,

227–228

69071.indb 552 4/25/08 10:44:11 AM

Index ��

grumusols,130 landuseandevaluation,

242–253 agriculturaloperations,

244–253;SeealsoAgriculturaloperations,lowlandvertisols



evaluationofanalyticalproperties,242


characteristics,237–241 chemicalcharacteristics,


237–238 soilclassification,235–236 soilmorphology,232–235 soilsequenceinhillycountry,

215 terminology,236Vignasinensis(longbeans,

kacangpanjang),170Virginconditions,lowland

ultisols,199Virginiatobacco,223,244Vitric,diagnosticcritierion,416Vitricandosols,416Vitricmaterials,415,416 andosols,415 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,339 inceptisols,299,300,301VOC;SeeVereenigdeOost

IndischeCompany

Volcanicglass,134–135,384,403 brownpodzolicsoils,371 highlandalfisols/gray-brown

podzolicsoils,339 inceptisols,299,300,301Volcanicmaterial andosols,400,401,402,403,

404,415,420 basaltictuffs,44 brownpodzolicsoils,370,371,

372,373,378 highlandalfisol/gray-brown

podzolicsoilparentmaterials,338,339,350


liparitictuffs,38,116 lowlandalfisolparent

materials,210,211,221 lowlandoxisols,132,133,

135–137,147,163 rejuvenation,152 terminology,150 lowlandultisols/red-yellow


lowlandvertisol/grumusolformation,229,239,242

mineralogicalcompositionof;Seespecificmaterials

podzoliclatosols,295 soilformationfrom,117 lipariticversusdacitic,

116;SeealsoDacites/daciticparentmaterials;Liparites/liparitictuffsandsoilfertility,74

Volcanoes,27,30 Java,32,34 Maluku,45

69071.indb 553 4/25/08 10:44:11 AM


NusaTenggara,47 Sulawesi,43,44 Sumatra,38Vorm–snoei,365

WWaduks,166Wallacea,29Wallaceline,29Warmfronts,58Wasterecycling,18Wasteland,slash/burnsystem

and,201Water peatformation,256 peatsoils/histosols,261–262,

277Water,soil andosols,420 carbondioxidedissolutionin,

111,112,120 lowlandoxisols,141 lowlandvertisols,242–243 movementof claymigration,105,106 micronutrientmassflow,75 monsoonareas,114 oxisol/latosolclassification,

149 peatsoils/histosols,270–271,

277,280–282 availablewater,281–282 andcropproduction,

282–283 moisturetension,280–281 andredoxreactions,109 soilformation inmonsoonzones,113–114

strengthofsoilsolutionandweathering,117–118

ultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoilsuborders,188–189

ustoxsoils,141Watermovement;Seealso

Leaching;Percolation;Translocation

inlowlandvertisols,243 andsoilformation,73–74Waterpotential,280Waterresourcesand

managementissues,20–22,25

Waterretention/wetness andosols,420 peatsoils/histosols,280–282 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolic

soilsuborders,188 USDAclassificationcriterion,

188Watertable,peatsoils/histosols,

283,284–286WayangVolcano,338,339,340Weakdryseason,55Weatheredclay,lowland

ultisols/red-yellowpodzolicsoils,200

Weathering,102 allophane,423 aluminumoxide/ironoxide


andosols,418 highlandalfisols,338 highlandbrownpodzolic

soils,378,379 inceptisols/brownforestsoils,

309–310 lowlandoxisols,131,156

69071.indb 554 4/25/08 10:44:11 AM

Index ��


andclaymineralogy,161 claymineralogy,161 andclaymineralogy,162 modalprofiles,143 parentmaterials,138 lowlandsoils,129 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolicsoils,191,198 mountainregions,333 pedochemical,191 percolatingwaterand,112–113 podzoliclatosols,295 soilformation,101,116–121 carbondioxideinsolution

and,111 desilicification,75–76 geochemical,191 precipitation/evaporation

ratiosandweatheringintensity,117–121

temperatureand,116Weatheringintensity,117,

118–121Weberline,29Weeding,clean,176WestIndonesianvegetation

province,80WestIrian;SeePapua(West

Irian)WestJava annualprecipitation,54,55 climate,72 inceptisols,303 lowlandoxisols,140 lowlandultisols,179,183,196 lowlandvertisols,230–231 sugarcanegrowth,247 teaandcoffeeplantations,127

teacultivation,363Westmonsoon,59WestNewGuinea(IrianJaya),

47,48WestPapua,7 acreagesofmajorIndonesian

foodcrops,125 geography,28 highlandpodzols/spodosols,

383,386,391,394,395,396 nutmegspecies,328 peatsoils/histosols,261,262,

263Wet/dryseasons;SeealsoDry

seasons altitudinalvariations,68,69 climateclassificationsbased

on,61–67 Mohrsystem,62–65 SchmidtandFerguson

system,65–67 equatorialclimate,53 lowlandalfisols,212,215–216,

223–224 lowlandvertisols,230,238 monsoons,60,61 peatsoils/histosols,262,263 red-yellowpodzolics,181–182 ultisols/red-yellowpodzolics,

181–182Wetlands,peatformation,257,

268Wetness;SeeWater

retention/wetnessWheatcrops(gandum),354,

356–359Whitealkalisoils(aridisols),99Whitepepper,127White-splitdisease,330

69071.indb 555 4/25/08 10:44:12 AM


Wildfiresintropicalpeatlands,130,202,260,287

Wind cloud-beltforest,90 equatorialclimate,52 frontalborders,58 monsoons,55 subalpinezone,91WisconsinIceAge,116WisselLake,231WorldReferenceBase(WRB)for

SoilResources,98,129,130,267–268

andosols,400,415,416–417 brownforestsoils(cambisols),

296;SeealsoInceptisols(brownforestsoils,cambisols)

brownpodzolicsoils,367,375 cheluviation/chilluviation,


306–307 lowlandpodzolsasintrazonal

tropicalpodzols,382WurmIceAge,116

XXerults,189X-raydiffraction(XRD)analysis lowlandoxisols/latosols,159 lowlandultisols/red-yellow

podzolics,197 lowlandvertisols,239

YYapen,48YayasanKelapaMinehassa,250Yellow-brownearths,187Yellowearth,149Yellowmargalites,235Yellowpodzolicsoils elevationinhillyrolling

topography,188 organiccarboncontent,

192–193Yellowish-redlatosols/oxisols,

160Yields,crop apples,355 coffee,437 lowlandoxisols,163–164 lowlandvertisols,244 mineralnutritionstudies,15,

17 oilpalm,207,208 rice,166–167,205 rubber,177 tea,367 uplandrice,205–206Yucca(Manihotutilissima,

cassava),125,156,163,169,202,203,222–223,245,284

ZZeolite,134–135Zetapotential,105Zincapplicationtocitruscrop,

174Zincchelates,75Zircon,180,211,383,384Zola(Russian),380,390

69071.indb 556 4/25/08 10:44:12 AM

Index ��

Zonaldistributionofsoils monsoonclimate,13–14 Thorp-Smithsystem,13Zonaldivisionsofsoilforming

processes,110,121–125Zonalgeography,Papua(West

Irian),48–49Zonalsoils brownforestsoilsas,306 brownpodzolicsoils,368–369,

370,375 elevationand,386 highlandpodzols/spodosols,

382

lowlandoxisols,148 podzoliclatosols,294–296Zones,climate,61–67 altitudinalvegetationzones,

67–72 Mohrsystem,62–65 SchmidtandFerguson

system,65–67 soilformation;SeeClimate

effectsonsoilformationandproperties

transitional,simultaneouspodzolizationandlaterization,76,110,130

69071.indb 557 4/25/08 10:44:12 AM

69071.indb 558 4/25/08 10:44:12 AM

Soils in the humid tropics and monsoon region of indonesia

Science

sol brun lessiv

asian financial

van den eelaart

soil survey

exploratory

modern instrumental

isotopic groundwater

state forest