Sociology Unit 1 Notes

Sociology the DisciplineUnit 1 Module 1 - Sociology, Culture & IdentityOrigins of Main Stream SociologyAmongst the academic disciplines known as the Social Sciences, Sociology is considered to be new, when compared to the older disciplines such as political science, anthropology, economics and psychology to name a few. The French essayist Emmanuel Joseph Sieys (1748-1836), was perhaps the first to use the term sociology. Auguste Comte later, re-conceptualised and introduced the term sociology in the way that we now know and appreciate it.Most early sociological thinkers approached the study of society in a similar manner as the natural sciences. They believed that generalized theories can be formulated, based on natural science research methodologies. This approach to sociological research is known as positive science - positivism.Socio-political Context- Modernists contend that sociology emerged out of two major revolutions of the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Starting with the French revolution of 1789 and then the Industrial Revolution of Europe. The new socio-political and economic orders that emerged due to these real life changes, birthed a new era in social life, giving rise to individualism, democracy, capitalism and the research for efficient systems of living and operating - (leading to the rise of rationalization).Political thinkers, philosophers and other academics, noted and began rationalizing the major changes that had begun to occur in the 'world'. In their quest to adequately classify and explain the new dynamics of social life, they developed various research methods and theories to explain social life. It is through this process that we note the development of the discipline of sociology.

Methods of Research MethodologyUnit 1 Module 1 - Sociology, Culture & IdentityMethodology/Research MethodsMethodology, may be defined as: The procedures involved in the investigation of facts and concepts. Methodology refer to how observers go about their observations and explanations of social reality.It can also be defined as the "norms" of scientific investigation.Methodology is not concerned with increasing the number of facts or accumulating data but is concerned with inquiry into the explanation of the procedures by which observations are made, how concepts are utilized, and how and to what extent explanations are made from a particular stated point of view.

Sociological research methods/ Methodology can be divided into two major groups:

I. Quantitative/Numerical Research

Research using methods allowing for the measurement of variables within a collection of people or groups and resulting in numerical data subjected to statistical analysis. By its very nature this is a form of positivism.

II. Qualitative/Word Research

Research using methods such as participant observation or case studies which result in a narrative, descriptive account of a setting or practice. Sociologists using these methods typically reject positivism and adopt a form of interpretive sociology.

Origins of Caribbean SociologyUnit 1 Module 1 - Sociology, Culture & IdentityOrigins of Caribbean SociologyAn OverviewCaribbean Sociology is said to have entered its first and golden age during the period of the 1950's - 1970's. Where a group of Caribbean intellectuals such as MG Smith, Edith Clarke, George Roberts, Leo Depres, RT Smith, Lloyd Brawaithe and Orlando Patterson all conducted extensive and intensive research on various aspects of Caribbean life, culture, practices and territories. With the aim of understanding the indigenous Caribbean cultures as well developing an indigenized sociological discourse for and by Caribbean people.

Today, Caribbean sociology has become more robust and there have been a burgeoning of works from the likes of contemporary minds such as Christine Barrows, Rhoda Reddok, Nasser Mustapha, Susan Craig, Rex Nettleford, Bill Riviere, Henry Paget, Elsa Goveia, Derek Gordon, Geroge Beckford, Angel Quintero Rivera et al...

Definition of CultureUnit 1 Module 1 - Sociology, Culture & IdentityCultureWhat is Culture? The term culture is varied in its definition, as such it cannot be limited to one singular explanation. Instead, we will briefly present a few definitions that capture the sociological understanding of the term.

Sir Edward B. Tylor, "That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."

To the interactionists culture refer to "systems of human meaning."Culture may also refer to the shared knowledge, beliefs and values of members of society and may be passed on from generation to generation through the process of socialization.

Sociology a ScienceUnit 1 Module 1 - Sociology, Culture & IdentityIs Sociology a Science?Auguste Comte (1789-1857) asserted that human society obeys laws of behaviour.The assertion that sociology is a science is based on the concept of empiricism (numbers). This method or approach to sociological theorizing is known as positivism. Positivism aims at discovering patterned and regular events in the social world whose occurrence is either caused by another event, or strongly correlated with that event.Sociology itself has been defined as a body of organized knowledge developed through systematic enquiry, using techniques that approximate to those of natural science, yielding data of similar reliability and validity.To determine whether sociology is a science we will measure it's methods of research and theory formulation practices with the hypothetico-deductive method which has been dubbed as the scientific method.The hypothetico-deductive method follows these stages as outlined below:1. Observation2. Conjecture3. Hypothesis formulation4. Testing5. Generalization6. Theory formulationThis method requires the researcher to be neutral at all times. Researcher bias, opinions are not involved in the research process.Karl Popper (1963) - Falsification and DeductionArgued that there was a fundamental problem with the scientific method - induction. With induction the research observes social phenomena and then based on the patterns obtained makes theories about a particular social act.Instead he argues that deduction should be used, where various generalizations are formulated and then testing carried out to disprove them. Those that have not been falsified (disproven) would become theory..ESSAY ON SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE Can sociologists study society in the same way that scientists study the natural world?Sociologists study society as a 'social science' however the status of sociology as a science is easily questionable when compared to how acknowledged scientists study the natural world. In order to determine whether or not sociology can be accepted as a true science it is useful to make comparisons between the studies performed by both sociologists and natural scientists on their subjects of society and the natural world respectively. At its most fundamental level, the philosophy behind knowledge, reality and being must also be scrutinized as the knowledge which is so eagerly pursued by scientists is only relevant under certain philosophical conditions.The natural world can be accepted as what can be sensed and has matter. Scientists study the natural world using an empirical, experimental and factual approach. They investigate and analyse the workings of nature before testing each conclusion. A biologist can study the nucleus of a cell because it can be seen with a microscope and experiments show it to exist. A chemist can study hydrogen because it can be sensed through it's reactions with other chemicals. A physicist can study electricity because it can be seen to exist by lighting a bulb. They study these things in the pursuit of knowledge.Society is different from the natural world in that it is not a 'thing' with physical existence that can be investigated with our senses. Society consists of groupings of humans, and its study looks at the way these groupings behave. When a sociologist studies society they look at behaviour and the mind. Behaviour and the mind do not take physical form like an atom does, and so it can be argued that they do not exist, and so cannot be studied scientifically. Or perhaps they do exist as chemicals inside the physical entity that is the brain, and so can be studied scientifically like any other matter.With science, one of the main aims in seeking the 'facts' is keeping a high level of objectivity so that those facts which are sought are the same for all scientists, independent of their subjective inclinations. This objectivity would seem fairly simply, say, with study of inanimate objects. However, sociologists study people and people don't necessarily behave like inanimate objects - they may, for example, react differently to varying interviewing styles used in social research. Given a questionnaire, an interviewer may put particular emphasis on a certain answer in that questionnaire to encourage the respondent to give that answer. A level of bias is hence created, whilst such bias is perhaps far more difficult to leverage in the study of the natural world.If an expert natural scientists proclaims that "the mass of the substance x is 5g" it may be taken as a scientific objective fact. Any number of scientists could conduct a similar study and would return the same empirical result, giving additional experimental proof and backing to the first scientists study. A sociologist has a far greater struggle in their line of study, as the majority of result they may conclude will be difficult to prove and replicate in further studies.But whatever results are collected by both the sociologist and the natural scientists, any objectivity found is still subject to our philosophical understanding of reality, conditioned by the society and time in which we have come to live.An understanding of what reality actually is is crucial. Philosophically there are two main camps on epistemology - there are the idealists, and there are the materialists. Idealists (such as Plato and Hegel of the past) see every material thing having been created by a powerful God or spirit, and ideas govern the material world. Conversely, materialists see matter as primary, and ideas and the mind are a product of the matter in the brain.Most people believe that they have have 'free-will' - they can think for themselves, as an individual, independent of anything else of matter. However, this belief requires idealism in one's philosophy, yet modern science relies on a purely materialistic philosophy. Materialists would argue that any level of perceived free-will is not free-will and ideas are "nothing else than the material world reflected in the human mind, and translated into forms and thoughts" (Marx).The mode of thought which dominates the modern capitalist philosophy and science is called the metaphysics. The 'facts' are sought after, things are dealt with separately and statically, rather than in connection and in their movement. To some, however, this is sheer reductionism, and results in many contradictions which are ignored. Everything is reduced to just characteristics and functions.Marx and Engels found metaphysics as too limited in its scope to explain the laws governing human society and thought. They worked together to develop the method of dialectic materialism so that it could be used scientifically in relation to society. Using dialectics, society is understood not as superficial changes and existing in the now, but in its historical development and as an entity existing throughout human history which is undergoing organic developmental change. Under a dialectic philosophy, today's societies are seen as the result of a process of historical development. "Dialectical thinking stands in the same relationship to metaphysics as a motion picture to a still photograph. The one does not contradict the other, but compliments it. However, the truer, more complete approximation of reality is contained in the movie" (Sewell & Woods, 1983).Using the positivist approach adopted by Marx and Engels enables the establishment of laws of human behaviour in the same way natural scientists have established laws of the natural world. Their approach to dialectics was a development of the philosophical theory of Hegel, although they were the first to develop this theory in scientific terms, as was documented in Engels' Anti-Dhring (1877).Positivists view ideas, thought and mind as scientists see atoms, and should be "in the same state of mind as the physicist, chemist or physiologist when he probes into a still unexplored region of the scientific domain" (Durkheim 1964: xiv). Positivism shares many similarities to the empirical research methods employed by scientists, most notably in its objective attention to detail in the collection of data. In keeping objectivity, positivists can only study that which can be seen, measured and observed with the purpose of discovering what causes things to happen.Interpretivism (and behaviourism) opposes positivism, focusing on action theory. Human behaviour is taken to be meaningful and worthy of study beyond empiricism as it is far more than that. Interpretivists see ideas, thought and mind as mere social and mental constructs, so we cannot fully understand the world because we take our own individual view points to what is happening.Durkheim was a positivist - he thought it both possible and desirable for sociologists to be able to establish laws of human behaviour. In his study of suicide, Durkheim found it to be the product of social forces external to the individual. People's behaviour is seen to be governed by external stimuli, and their ideas and feelings are irrelevant. As a result, the behaviour can be objectively rather than subjectively observed and measured, similar to how a scientist observes and measures the natural world.Interpretivists or anti-positivists suggest people people apply meaning to the world, and so sociology should not even try to be scientific. Human behaviour is taken to be meaningful and so cannot be understood in the same way as natural phenomena can be. In metaphysics, a tree is a tree, there is not meaning for it being a tree, it just is. Human thoughts and ideas aren't just thoughts and ideas, they have meaning. If someone is to commit suicide then there is a meaning for them to do that. Whilst the actions of 11th September 2001 are seen by most as an act of terrorism, to those committing the acts they most likely had an entirely different meaning. Likewise, the war on terrorism can be given contradicting meanings by different individuals and societies.To an interpretivist, reality is too complicated for numbers and quantitative analysis to be made. Qualitative methods are essential for a full understanding of social reality. Scientific objectivity cannot be upheld using these qualitative methods which require a level of subjective thought.Underlying everything is a problem of ontology. What makes something real? What makes an apple any more real than slavery? And what exactly is an apple - where does it begin, where does it end, where does it exist? Metaphysically the apple is that 'thing' that can be touched and sensed. Dialectically it isn't that easy - it's always changing, always flowing, can never be defined. Idealistically the apple is what one believes to be an apple, and that may only be a figment of one's imagination. The apple may just be a chemical reaction experienced in sensing it.By thinking dialectically slavery exists in the same way that an apple does, and can be explained equally scientifically, but using different scientific methods to those currently employed. In metaphysics everything must be objectively quantified to be scientific, but it may not always be possible - may never be possible.Valid knowledge is subjective. A basic mathematical equality is that '1 + 1 = 2', and that the result can not possibly be anything other than 2. However here it can simply and swiftly be disproved - take two drinks, add them both together and you have one drink - '1 + 1 = 1'. Similar reasoning can be taken further to show that the sum is never equal to two as to do so would involve making subjective definitions. So what is a 'fact' and a 'truth' that science is so intent on discovering, when one of the most basic mathematical principles on which science is based can be so easily disproved?Scientific method can be subjective and ambiguous, as Michael D. Sofka (1997) writes: "Reference is often made to 'The Scientific Method' as though it were one, well established, universal problem solving tool. The truth is, we do not have a good description of what scientists actually do, and we are not even close to universally prescriptions for what they should be doing." As a result, scientific method is merely an unscientific combination of common sense guesses and rules of thumb, and where one rule of thumb is contrary to another, the scientist subjectively chooses which one to follow.At the most simple level, the natural world is studied in order to unstrained the natural world, and society is studied in order to understand society. Differences begin to arise in the use of this knowledge.Knowledge of the natural world has many and varied uses: medicinal healing; computational devices; weapons of mass destruction. The list is endless and always growing as new discoveries are made.A problem arises in assessing the uses of a knowledge of society in that it doesn't manifest itself in physical form. With knowledge of society one can't make a toaster, for example. Nor can one make a society. The use is that enables people to understand why people do things, what makes them behave in certain ways. Proving whether this knowledge is true is difficult to demonstrate. With natural science, a toaster can be built, and if it works, then the science behind the toaster is believed to be objective and true. Because sociologists cannot manifest any physical entity with their knowledge, the truth of their knowledge can surely be nothing but subjective.Before any research method can be carried out there must be some theory, and in examining the objectivity of this in relation to social theory May notes that "It is commonly thought that if values enter the research process, this renders its findings void" (1997: 40). However in opposition to this he demonstrates that these values enable critical evaluation of how knowledge is produced and how it may be biased towards those who are able to "perpetuate their beliefs within society".May argues that although social theory can be used to interpret empirical data, "it also enables a more general orientation in relation to political, historical, economic and social issues, as well as providing a basis for critical reflection on the process of research itself and social systems in general" (1997: 27). This view suggests that whilst parts of sociology may be studiable similar to the natural sciences, it can also be studied in ways that the natural sciences are not.Sociology students are required to write essays and attend lectures on theory, and this is a prominent way in which sociology is taught. Emphasis is not necessarily on research and the results of this research, but on ways of thinking. Science, however, is taught with the emphasis on research and experimentation. Sociology provokes thought and qualitative analysis of ideas and opinions. Science involves learning formulas, structures and laws. Whilst sociology too can teach these things, it does so only as a small part of the whole.But sociology exists as a discipline which is not so restricted as the sciences. It can be both objective and subjective, as can the very nature of the 'thing' called society that it studies. To study it as a science is to take away half of its essence, as to is to study it as everything but a science.Perhaps the question should be not 'can' sociologists study society in the same way that scientists study the natural world, but 'do all'. Marx and Durkheim, two of three founding fathers of sociology, studied the discipline as a science, as have many others. Hence sociologists can (evidence here is in that they have) studied society like scientists study the natural world. By that line of thinking, it is irrelevant that many have also studied it as something other than a science.But if all sociologists study society as a science, then which academic body will have their thoughts provoked by and be able to qualitatively analyse society? Equally, if it is so important to make sociology a recognised science, then it must be split in two. That sociology which can be scientifically tested, and that which cannot be. Objective sociology based on facts, laws and common scientific principles; and subjective sociology which cannot study anything objectively because that's no longer in its field, and so anything subjective can no longer be researched in objective ways.Ridiculous of course, because this is twisting the question's intended interpretation. It's clear what it means to all that read it: "Look at natural science and how scientists study it, and do the same for sociologists and society. Look at the ways in which they study it, the methods they use, the theory the use. Then, using the research of sociologists to backup evidence and points, find out what similarities and differences there are. Ensure a rigid structure is kept throughout, with logical progression leading to a well thought out conclusion". But, as with sociology, science and life, it's a subjective interpretation because we are only human. Humans are inherently subjective.Through exploring the study of society and the natural world a number of contradictions, difficulties and problems have arisen. There is the problem of ontology, of the very essence of being, and how a philosophical theory is required to make interpretations. Objectivity is just the accumulation of many peoples' subjectivities, and so it's superiority over subjectivity in scientific methodologies is questionable. Society can only be fully studied as scientists study the natural world if one adopts a full philosophy of dialectic materialism. With any other current philosophy, there are unacceptable scientific contradictions which cannot be resolved and so negate the scientific integrity of any findings.

PositivismUnit 1 Module 1 - Sociology, Culture & IdentityPositivismThis sociological method favours quantitative methods of conducting research. Some advocates of Positivism includes: Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons.Positivism adheres to the notion that sociological study should be confined to observable or directly measurable phenomena. There are four major aspects of positivism: social facts, statistical data, correlation, causation.1. Social Facts: refer to information or phenomena that can be objectively observed and classified. To Comte sociologists should not be concerned with the internal meanings, motives, feelings and emotions of individuals, since these mental states exist only in the person's consciousness, they cannot be observed and so they cannot be measured in any objective way. Durkheim agreed with Comte and stated that the first and most fundamental rule is - 'consider social facts as things'. Therefore the institutions of society, eg belief systems, customs i.e. the facts of the social world should be considered as things in the same way as the objects and events of the natural world.2. Statistical Data: Positivists beleive that it is possible to classify the social world in an objective way. For example, membership in clubs and organizations, rates of social actions (eg marriage, suicide, divorce), juvenile delinquency and high school drop-outs.3. Correlation: refers to the relationship between one thing (variable) and another (variable).4. Causation: This makes the links between correlations. If there is a strong link between two or more types of social phenomena, then it is possible for one of these phenomena tocausethe other to take place/occur.

FamilyUnit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & EducationThe Family is generally regarded to be a universal institution. This means that it can be found in most known human societies. G.P. Murdock made this generalization after conducting studies on approximately 250 societies.The Family may be defined as a socio-economic unit usually consisting of a conjugal pair - male and female - who share residence, and other familial duties, which includes, (but it not limited to) child or geriatric care, economic, cultural and sexual functions.Anthropologists contend that the family perhaps may be the oldest social institution, known to human civilizations. It is important to note that families vary due to cultural, economic and political factors. As such there are varying definitions and notions of the term 'family'. Some are stated below:The Family refer to :- A group of people related by blood (consanguine relationship). People related by marriage (the married conjugal pair constitutes a family) or adoption (this can apply to the parent-child relationship, or sibling relationship). A group of people who share common residence, name, economic and affective functions.

Functionalist Functions of the FamilyUnit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & EducationFunctionalist Functions of the FamilyA Functionalist Perspective1. Sexual2. Reproductive3. Economic4. EducationalSexual - To Murdock, the sexual function is a fundamental role of the family. It helps to satisfy the sexual needs of both partners. Further, he asserts that it helps to strengthen stronger emotional ties between the conjugal pair, which serves to unite them both physically and affectively.Reproductive - Functionalists believe that the family unit provides a stable environment for the reproducing of offspring. Without this function, society (humanity) would cease to exist.Economic - This refers to the provision of all material needs (which usually requires the use of money). Functionalists argue that the family unit helps to meet the basic and non-basic material needs of its members through economic co-operation.Education - Thus refers to the transmission of culture via the process of socialization (from adults to children) or it may also refer to the stabilization of the adult personality (adult to adult interaction usually characterized by liberality, in a privatized atmosphere).

Family TypesUnit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & EducationFamily TypesFamily types can be divided into two major classifications:1.Polygamous2.Monogamous

Polygamous families may be described as families in which either spouse is allowed to have more than one spouse simultaneously. (Mustapha, 2007) In the instance where the male has more than one wives, this is known as polygyny. Where the woman has more than one husband, this is known as polyandry.

Monogamous families are those families in which the marriage is limited to one spouse. This conjugal relationship is usually recognized by a legal contract and is the dominant marriage form of modern industrial society. (Mustapha, 2007).

The various household/types arrangements as we know it, originate from either the polygamous or the monogamous family type. We shall briefly examine a few:

A. Nuclear Household traditionally is defined as a social unit consisting of a mother, father and their children (biological or adopted), living under the same roof. With the changes in contemporary, theReconstituted family, can categorized as a variation of this family type.B. Extended Household may include intergenerational or intragenerational nuclear families living together under the same roof.C. Single Parent Household refer to a lone parent and their child/ren living under the same roof.

Ethnic FamiliesUnit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education

Ethnic Families

The Caribbean is characterised by a multiplicity of cultures, which translates into various kinship patterns. History have dictated the course of cultural mixing colonialism, slavery, indentureship have all contributed to the variety of family forms that currently exist in the Caribbean.

Ethnic groups includes:AfricansEast IndiansEuropeansChinese

Afro-Caribbean family systems/kinship patterns bear the following characteristics: Matrifocality (Clarke 1957, Frazier 1939 & Herskovits, 1964) Common-Law or Visiting Conjugal relations (Clarke 1957) Male Marginality (Herskovits, 1964) Extended (Frazier 1939 & Herskovits, 1964)

East Indian Caribbean family systems/kinship patterns bear the following characteristics: Patriarchal Endogamic Marital Conjugal relations Extended (Klass 1961)

European family systems/kinship patterns bear the following characteristics: Patriarchal Nuclear/Extended Marital Conjugal relations Endogamic

Chinese family systems/kinship patterns bear the following characteristics:

Patriarchal Nuclear/Extended Marital Conjugal relations Endogamic (Brereton 1993)

ReligionUnit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & EducationThe term religion is multifaceted, and cannot be limited to one singular definition. However, we shall present a few of the more encompassing explanations. Religion is a theological, philosophical, anthropological, sociological, and psychological phenomenon of human kind. Human recognition of superhuman controlling power and especially of a personal God entitled to obedience. Concise Oxford Dictionary (1990) Any specific system of belief and worship, often involving a code of ethics and a philosophy. Webster's New World Dictionary (Third College Edition). A unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is things set apart and forbidden which unite into one single moral community called a church all those who adhere to them. Durkheim 1912.Sociologists, hold differing views on the origins and functions of religion. To the functionalists, religion serves to maintain social order, and equilibrium in society. To the Marxists, religion is a tool of the ruling class, used to subjugate/keep in check the ambitions of the working class. To the feminists religion is also a tool of both the capitalists and men used to keep women in their place of subordination. For the Interactionists, religion, helps to give meaning to life. Social beings use this Institution to make sense of a naturally senseless world.

Types of ReligionsUnit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & EducationReligious belief systems may be classified into the following: Animism Naturism Polytheism Monotheism

Animism - belief in the existence of individual spirits that inhabit natural objects and phenomena.

Naturism - worship of nature

Polytheism worship of many gods.

Monotheism worship of one god

General DefinitionsUnit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & EducationPrimogeniture - The right of the eldest child, especially the eldest son, to inherit the entire estate of one or both parents.Polygamous- root word greek (poly -many), (gamos- marriage); many marriages. It refer to the practice of plural marriages, usually involving one spouse who is common to several other conjugal partners.Monogamous- (mono - one) ; one marriage. Marriage to one conjugal partner at a time. The commitment usually ends either with death or divorce.Reconstituted family can be a nuclear unit consisting to individuals who had previously been married. Various factors may account for the formation of a reconstituted household, which include divorce or death.Conjugal- refer to/ relates to marriage or the relationship of spouses; with all the attendant responsibilities that are culturally implied in this role. Thus it may include functions relating to sexual gratification, economic co-operation, affectivity etc...Social Control - refers to the modes of regulating people's behaviour. These regulations may take the form of formal regulations, which occur as state laws, official institutional rules and other civil regulatory codes eg traffic laws. They may also take the form of informal directives such as customs, group attitudes and practices etc...The Difference between formal and informal social control Informal social control usually occur as social values: this can be translated as customs, traditions and norms. Informal sanctions make take the form of disapproval as ridicule, sarcasm or criticism. Extreme cases of sanctions may include social discrimination and exclusion.Inductive method - The inductive method starts with manyobservationsof nature, with the goal of finding a few, powerful statements about how nature works (lawsandtheories).Deductive method - The deductive method starts with a few true statements (axioms) with the goal of proving many true statements (theorems) that logically follow from them.Value free - in sociology this suggests that sociological research can be executed without researcher bias. That is it can be objective. It assumes that researchers can be neutral and devoid of biases.

Functions of ReligionUnit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education

Functions of Religion

Functionalist Assmptions :Overview Durkheim view religion as a combination of belief and practice. He further emphasized the difference between the sacred (that which is holy) and the profane (not holy). Durkheim, noted that conflicts can arise between different religions, since there may be a clash in their beliefs and practices. (Jorgensen et al., 1997) p.622 Preserves social order Integrates people into communities/society fosters the collective conscience Maintains value consensusMarxistsMarx believed that religion was created by the ruling class, to perpetuate their ideologies and to control the masses, by allowing them to believe they have no control over their social conditions. Marx believed that religion is dangerous, since it prevents the development of class consciousness. Thus to him, religion is an illusion (not real/a distortion), that dulls the pain of the oppressed. Religion acts as a drug, a sedative, to ease suffering; it is the opium of the masses. Religion is the impotence of the human mind to deal with occurrences it cannot understand. (Marx 1818-1883). Masks exploitation Distracts from social problems and conflict Justifies and legitimizes ruling class ideology. Maintains social order by hiding conflict and exploitation

Interactionists

To Weber religion deals with the problem of theodicy this refers to the problem of understanding why evil exists (suffering, disaster) if there is a God. (wikipedia.org) In other words, religion seeks to explain why evil exists although God is good. Weber explains that religion answer the questions that arise from the theodicy problem such as why did my relative die, why am I here, why are we poor or sick? (Jorgensen et al., 1997) p.622

Provides meaning in a meaningless world Provides answers for fundamental questions

Origins of Caribbean ReligionsUnit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & EducationCaribbean Religion - An Overview

Caribbean academics contend that the multi-ethnic nature of the region, have loaned itself to the diversity of religious beliefs. Further, this diversity, have also resulted in the phenomenon of syncretism. Each of the Caribbean religions has its own unique history of development. In this section we shall attempt to briefly outline the history of each of these religions.

1.Christianity originated in varying forms or versions over several centuries in the region. SeeDoctrines and Beliefs Roman Catholicism was the first doctrinal form of Christianity to officially infiltrate the Caribbean. It was introduced as a result of the exploration and settlement of the Spanish conquistadores, from as early as 1493. Catholic missionaries under the Royal decree of the Spanish Crown came to help convert the indigenous populations to the Holy Catholic Faith. Protestant Christianity came with the British explorers during the early 1620s. seehttp://caribbean-guide.info/past.and.present/religion/protestant/for a summary on breakdown of Christian denominations in the Caribbean.

2.Hinduism came to the region with the indentured East Indian immigrants during the period 1838 1917. The colonial government attempted to repress East Indian religious practices, in an effort to westernize them. Thus Hindus converted by changing their names and professed to be Christians, to ensure that their children obtained educational and employment opportunities. However, in-spite of these repressive political tactics, Hinduism continued to thrive. At the turn of the 20th century with the economic fortunes of the oil boom, there was a revival of the outward religious practices of the Hindus. Temples were built, pujas were held and the festivals such as Divali and Phagwa were celebrated with a bit of grandeur.Doctrines and Beliefs

3.Islam was first brought to the Caribbean by the enslaved Mandingo peoples of Africa. However, it was unable to spread due to the strong arm Colonial Government policy of seasoning the slaves. With the arrival of the East Indentures, Islam was revived.Doctrines and Beliefs

4.African Syncretic Religions African religions came to the New World with the enslaved Africans. However, their indigenous religious practices were outlawed during colonial enslavement and labelled a pagan and barbaric. Africans, in an effort to avoid punishment as well as to maintain connection to the spirit world, adapted to the New World regime by synchronizing their traditional indigenous beliefs with elements of Christianity. In so doing, they helped to retain some elements of their ancestral religious practices. Variations of African Syncretic religious beliefs emerged throughout the Caribbean, however they held general similarities. Some of these African Syncretic religions includes :

Vodun Pocomania Shango Revivalism Kumina Orisha

5.Rastafarianism- During the 18th century a religious force had developed in the USA which looked to the biblical references to Ethiopia as a means of challenging the myth that blacks were destined to be beasts of burden. These blacks were part of the Ethiopian movement. (Campbell, 1993, p. 47). This Ethiopian movement laid the ideological background for the development of Pan-Africanism, and in turn the New World religion known as Rastafarianism. Under the leadership of Pan-Africanist Marcus Garvey (circa.1930s), Afro-Caribbean people began taking pride in their ancestral culture, and to resist white colonial domination. Through the preach of a black liberation theology, many young unemployed blacks, yielded to the call. As such the movement took on a religious momentum of its own. By 1950 Rastafarianism, had developed into a spiritual doctrine, which perpetuated a political agenda of resistance!Doctrines and Beliefs.

EducationUnit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & EducationEducation An Overview

Education takes place in a set of organizations. It is a set of social institutions, of social processes, fulfilling certain social functions, and illustrating social tensions and conflicts. It takes place in a collection of buildings, fitted with specific personnel. (Savvas et. al 1997)

The activities of educating or instructing; activities that impart knowledge or skill. The general understanding of the term relates to activities that go on in schools, colleges, and universities. Thus education involves learning or socialization. Education is not limited to a school environment. Learning or education can take place in any possible context; e.g. at a camp, on the playing field, at a debate competition, via electronic media etcMustapha 2007 notes that in traditional societies, most forms of education took place through informal mechanisms involving the family, clan and tribe. However, he notes that as societies changed, these informal institutions were no longer able to provide adequate specialized knowledge, necessary for younger members to be well integrated into the wider society.

The changes in society have necessitated changes in the educational system. In this section we shall examine the theories of Education as well as the development of education in the Caribbean region by looking at selected countries.

Functions of EducationUnit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & EducationFunctions of Education Theoretical Perspectives Summarized

Education Functionalist Perspective :

Promotes social order in society (Durkheim) Allows for effective role allocation (Davis and Moore) Foster the collective conscience, thorough the transmission of norms, morals and values. (Parsons) Creates a skilled labour force (Durkheim)

Marxist Perspective:Bowles and Gintis Mechanism of social control Creates labourers for the capitalist system Socializes individuals into the status quo justifying the un-equal class divisions. Allows for alienation of students, which is later translated into alienation in the work place.

Interactionist Pespective:Hargreaves, Cicourel, Lacey , Kituse & Becker et.al Allows for labelling of students eg. Good bad, smart, dull. Streaming for the labour force. Influenced life chances, in terms of opportunities for monetary and non-monetary vocations.

History and Development of Caribbean EducationUnit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & EducationDevelopment of Education in the Caribbean

Pre-Emancipation: Education limited to white and males specifically Female education was limited to domestic science (whites) No formal education (in reading, writing and numeric) for the enslaved.

Post-Emancipation: Emergence of limited formal education for the newly freed. Usually initiated by the missionary societies. State funded educational institutions were limited during the immediate post-emancipation era. Economic loss from declining sugar profits was blamed for this inadequacy. In Jamaica, the 1898 Lumb Report recommended that both boys and girls should be taught agriculture science in such a manner as to overcome the prevalent distaste for these pursuits so essential to the economic standards of Jamaica and its citizens. (Leo-Rhynie, 1997) Blacks had developed a dislike for agricultural enterprise and preferred education in areas lending to office work.

1900-Political Independence:

Nationalist politicians understood that education was essential to national progress and productivity. National policies were implemented to improve the quality and increase opportunity for education amongst the masses. 1950 saw the development of the first regional university amongst the British West Indies the University of the West Indies, with three campuses spread throughout the region, located at Mona Jamaica, Cave hill Barbados and St Augustine Trinidad. For the first time in the history of the BWI, Anglophone students desirous of pursuing university education had the option of obtaining their Bachelor degree within the region.

Functions of Stratification and MobilityUnit 1 Module 3 - Social Stratification & Social MobilitySocial StratificationFunctionalistswould consider the following issues in theorizing about the phenomenon of social stratification:1. What is thefunctionof social stratification?* To maintain social order* To ensure that all roles are filled* Roles are filled by those best suited to efficiently execute them. 2. What are thefunctions of a class system?* To classify and rank roles according to merit and importance* To encourage individuals to invest time and effort in education, and skills acquisition for the functionally more important roles.

3. Why issocial stratificationnecessary?- To ensure that society continues to exist.

Altogether, Davis and Moore contend that:

Social inequality is an unconsciously evolved device by which societies insure that the most important positions are filled by the most qualified persons. Hence every society, no matter how simple or complex, must differentiate persons in terms of both prestige and esteem, and must therefore possess a certain amount of institutionalized inequality. (Mc-Graw-Hill, 1980)

Criticisms:1. Anthropologists contend that social stratification or institutionalized inequality is not necessarily inevitable, nor universal. Instead they suggest that some hunting /gathering societies do not appear to have structured inequality.

2. Tumin presents the following arguments in opposition to Davis and Moores postulations: Academics have difficulty in defining positions as more or less important. There are several essential/functionally important jobs that are not prestigious. Any form of social inequality, has the tendency to discriminate against persons in lower ranks of the strata. Individuals in lower stratas have fewer opportunities in comparison to those from higher stratas to realize/develop their talents. Some members of the upper strata may be so positioned simply by virtue of birth/ascription and not necessarily due to merit.

Caribbean StratificationUnit 1 Module 3 - Social Stratification & Social MobilityCaribbean Stratification

Overview

The Caribbean stratification system has been influenced by its history of Colonialism, Plantation Slavery and Indentureship. Although, most of these territories are currently politically independent nation-states, the legacy of their history have continued to impact upon their individual social structure.

Caribbean Theories of Stratification

Plantation SocietyThis theory of Caribbean society, though based on the original plantation model of, can be applied to contemporary Caribbean societies. Upper Class/caste/ruling elites (traditionally white) own wealth, means of production and political power Intermediate Class/caste (mulatto/browns) usually educated, own some wealth, (desire but) lack political power Working Class/caste ( blacks) slaves, uneducated, lack wealth and political power.Academics contend that the Upper Class on the contemporary Caribbean continues to be whites. These either descents of the old planter class aristocracy (eg. The Beke of Martinique descents of French planters own most of the islands supermarkets, hotels, land, transportation, control import prices,) continue to own and control a significant proportion of the territorys wealth, and as such wield great economic, social and political power. The non-white populations continue to be situated at the lower end of the social strata. They constitute the public servants and unskilled workers in the society.

Plural Society Smith argues that most societies in the Caribbean are plural societies where there exists significant cultural diversity and race antagonism Various ethnic groups have their own socio-economic institutions but not their own political system It is the cultural and race diversity that causes the discord between the cultural groups. Social inequality exists between ethnic groups. These inequalities are transient depending on the social actor. Factors of colour, religion, culture, economic background, education all influence positioning within the social strata.

Creole Society Is described as a hybrid/syncretic/new society. The stratification system is informed by an ascriptive-particularistic value system (Braithwaite) Ryan contends however that the ascriptive-particularistic value system that informed the pre-independence era, gave way to meritocracy in the post-independence era. Some elements of the ascriptive value system continue to exist.

Closed/quasi caste stratas ----------- Flexible/Open class based stratas

Colonialism ------------------------- Self-Governance

Social mobility in the CaribbeanUnit 1 Module 3 - Social Stratification & Social MobilitySocial Mobility in Caribbean SocietyAn Overview

East Indian Social Mobility:In the larger island territories such as Jamaica, Trinidad and Guyana, which received East Indian labourers, these workers were, designated to the lowest position in the social structure. East Indians are no longer situated at the bottom of the social structure as a social grouping, but rather, there is a tendency towards a multi-ethnic placement that has been influenced by, economics, gender, age, health, educational attainment etc.

Indeed East Indians have acquired a great deal of economic power (through entrepreneurship, public and private sector employment) and have come to challenge thetraditional political dominance of Afro-descended Caribbeaners. This is most notable in territories such as Trinidad and Guyana.

African Social Mobility:The African population of the Caribbean has been largely descended from the formerly enslaved populations. For almost 400 years enslaved blacks were stereotyped as inferior. They held no political power, no wealth, no citizenship and were denied to actively and openly participate in their own cultural tradtions. All of these factors relegated them to the base position within the caste-type socially stratified social structure.After Emancipation Africans abandoned the estates, in a bid to seek out and create a socially and economically independent life. The intent to uplift themselves and following generations from the bottom of the social strata. Most Africans sought to educate their children thus generating distaste for agriculture and a preference for non-manual labour. This gave rise to the educated black middle class of the twentieth century. Africans rose to political dominance in most of the island territories and maintained such power from the 1960s unto the present.

Summary of Caribbean Social Mobility:CLR James observed that in the West Indies, education has been a powerful factor in the formation of the middle classes. However, although some black proletariats have been able to pull themselves up from the masses through education into the middle class, they can never rise to the bourgeois class.

Today, with the changes in contemporary lifestyle, which includes the democratization of Caribbean nations, and the influence of meritocratic values over the traditional particularistic ones (particularly in the public domain) the social structure has become more complex. This complexity may also be due to the expansion and diversification of the economy and educational curriculum now available in the West Indies.Contemporary researchers have noted that there has been a tendency towards fluidity of movement within the middle strata. It must be noted however those in spite of these visible and tangible socio-economic changes, inequality continue to exist throughout the region.

According to Gordon:They show that those Jamaicans whose parents were agricultural labourers, domestic and unskilled manual workers had virtually no chance of ending up at the top of the middle strata.Only four out of 1,000 males with agricultural labouring origins, for example, were likely to end up in this top stratum, despite the vaunted expansion of the educational system and the opening up of new positions.

The empirical evidence suggests that although the social stratification system have moved from the tendency to be caste like to that of being class oriented hence the noticeable mobility between social stratas, we note that individuals of the uppermost parts of the social structure continue to maintain their position, whilst those at the bottom, struggle to move up and maintain second place.

Plural SocietyUnit 1 Module 3 - Social Stratification & Social MobilityPlural Society

Many of the societies which have problems of multicultural governance are former multi-ethnic colonies. A theory of such colonial and post-colonial societies draws particularly on the work of J.S.Furnivall and M.G.Smith.According to Furnivall different ethnic groups in a plural society meet only in the market place. This market place however lacks the characteristics which Durkheim envisaged in his concept of organic solidarity. It lacks the shared values which organic solidarity requires and involves brutal conflict and exploitation. The sense of solidarity on which morality depends is to be found within the different ethnic groups when they go home from the market place. Within these groups there is intense solidarity and moral unity.Furnivall worked in Burma but wrote about Java drawing on the work of the Dutch economic theorist, Boeke. Boeke writes that in the economy of Netherlands India there is a materialism, rationalism and individualism and a concentration on economic ends far more complete and absolute than in homogeneous Western lands As he sees it this is a capitalism quite different from that which grew slowly over hundreds of years and maintained its moral roots.M.G..Smith wrote originally about Grenada but his theory of the plural society has been widely used in the analysis of colonial and post-colonial societies in the Caribbean. Smith is aware of the general sociological theory of Talcott Parsons and its assumption of four mutually supportive institutions. In the Caribbean, however he argues that there are several co-existing ethnic groups each of which has a nearly complete set of social institutions. Setting his argument within the context of a review of social anthropological theories used in studying the Caribbean, he sees the various ethnic groups as having their own family systems, there own productive economies, their own languages and religion but not their own political system. In the political sphere they are all controlled by one dominant segment... To put this in more concrete terms Blacks are descended from Slaves, Indians from indentured labourers. The groups have remained distinct and have their own institutions. They exist however politically under the domination of an outside power. Thus the defining feature of a plural society is seen as this process of the domination of all ethnic groups by the colonial power. New problems arise when the colonial power withdraws.Whereas Furnivall sees the different ethnic groups as bound together by the economic fact of the market place, Smith sees them as bound together by a political institution, the colonial state.One crucial institution in the Caribbean was the slave plantation. The history of plantations is traced by Max Weber in his General Economic History to the manor. But the Caribbean slave plantation comes into existence when capitalism directs horticultural production to the market. Similar developments occur in mining. M.G Smiths theory has to take account of this. In fact he sees the plantation as one form of political institution.M.G.Smith collaborated with the South African, Leo Kuper in producing a series of essays on Africa and also turned his attention to the United States in his book Corporations and Society, The case of South Africa is of special interest calling for an analysis of a society based upon rural labour migrating to the gold mines. The United States has developed as neither homogeneous nor plural but heterogeneous.Smith has to deal with the question of social class. This is easy enough for he has only to say that each group has its own internal class structure. He does, however, have to compare his own theory to that of Marx. He cannot accept that group formation occurs between those having the same or different relations to the means of production, nor that in the social production of the means of life men enter into circumstances which are independent of their will For Smith the culture of ethnic groups in a plural society is not simply determined in this way. The plural segments in colonial society operate according to a different dynamic which it is the purpose of Plural Society theory to explain.

Rex has attempted to set out a theory of the plural society which does justice to Marxian and other theories as well as those of Smith. This involves first of all recognizing that such societies go though several phases of development, pre-colonial, colonial and post colonial. In the colonial phase relations to the means of production are important, even though they are more varied than Marxist categories suggest involving such structures as the encomienda in Spanish America. At the same time however groups have a relationship to each other reminiscent of the mediaeval estate system in Europe different groups having the cultures, rights and privileges which attach to their function. In the post-colonial phase there would be according to this theory a number of developments. One would be the subordination of peasants to the large estates or latitudinal, a second would be the replacement of the former colonial power by a group able to take over its powers, a third would be a change in which new primarily economic centres replaced the colonial power, and so far as resistance and struggle within the new system is concerned.Fanonism laying emphasis upon the national struggle would take precedence over class struggle.The application of plural society theory to capitalist societies based upon mining produces a different set of problems. There rural agricultural reserves are expected to provide social back-up so that males of working age can live in segregated compounds or locations and be intensively exploited. This is a situation very much like that described by Furnivall.

Definition of Stratification and MobilityUnit 1 Module 3 - Social Stratification & Social MobilitySocial StratificationThis refer to the classification or categorization of people into groups, with specific commonalities. Such groupings may include : economic status, prestige, culture, race, religion, age, gender or any other characteristic.Social Stratification exists in every known human society. This classification system may be informed by the values of the society. Particularistic values, tend to create closed stratification systems. Whilst universal values create a more transient or open stratification system.Social Mobilityis the change in the social status of an individual. The termsocial, relates to any aspect of life affected by peer to peer relations and interactions.Mobilityis indicative of movement. Thus the concept of social mobility addresses the issue of movement of an individual within the social stratification system.In the Caribbean social stratification is unique, since individual members may hold multiple stations within the same social strata. What does this mean? Let take for example a young professional Afro-Caribbean woman. Most Caribbean territories are characterized by stratification structure that is rooted in a synthesized universalistic and particularistic value system.Under the universalistic/meritocratic value system, this individual's rank may be different to her ranking under the particularistic/traditional value system. Further, the individual's placement in both instances can be mutually exclusive.