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Unit 5 Personality

Structure:

5.1 Introduction

Learning Objectives

5.2 Personality Determinants

5.3 Personality Theories

William Sheldon

Catells 16 PF

MBTI

Big Five personality Model

Type A Type B5.4 Achieving Personality Fit

5.5 Summary

5.6 Terminal Questions

5.7 Answers

5.1 Introduction

The term 'personality' has been derived from the Latin term 'persona' which

means to 'speak through'. The Latin word denotes the masks worn by actors

in ancient Greece and Rome. Therefore, a very common meaning of the

term personality is the role which the person (actor) displays in the public

domain at large. Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and

development of a persons whole psychological system-it looks at some

aggregate whole that is greater than the sum of the parts. For psychologists,

personality includes:

i) Eternal appearances and behaviour

ii) The inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force, and

iii) The particular organization of measurable traits, both inner and

outer.

Allport (1937) defined personality as the dynamic organization within the

individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique

adjustments to his environment.

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Learning Objectives

After studying this unit you should be able to: State the determinants of personality

Describe the personality theories

Discuss the personality fit

Personality traits are the key antecedent of an individuals cognitions and

affective states that may influence his or her task and interpersonal or socio-

emotional role behavior (in teams). (Moynihan and Peterson, 2001)

Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of

characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her

cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations. (Ryckman,

2004)

According to Cattell (1965) that which permits a prediction of what a person

will do in a given situation.

Personality is the organized, developing system within the individual that

represents the collective action of that individuals major psychological

subsystems (Mayer, 2007).

Personality refers to those characteristics of the person that account for

consistent patterns of feelings, thinking, and behaving (Pervin, Cervone &

John, 2005).

Personality is the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the

individual that are organized and relatively enduring and that influence his or

her interactions with, and adaptations to, the intrapsychic, physical, and

social environments (Larson & Buss, 2005).

J.B Kolasa(1978) defines personality as "Personality is a broad,

amorphous designation relating to fundamental approaches of persons to

others and themselves. To most psychologists and students of behaviour,

this term refers to the study of the characteristic traits of an individual,

relationships between these traits and the way in which a person adjusts to

other people and situations".

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According to Gluck(1968) "Personality is a pattern of stable states and

characteristics of a person that influences his or her behaviour toward goalachievement. Each person has unique ways of protecting these states".

James D Thompson and Donald Van Houten(1967) define personality as

"a very diverse and complex psychological concept. The word 'personality'

may mean something like outgoing, invigorating interpersonal abilities ... but

we must also recognize and explain the fact that development results in

man acquiring a distinctiveness or uniqueness which gives him identity that

enables him and us to recognize him as apart from others. These

distinguishing characteristics are summarized by the term 'personality'.

From the above definitions we can say that personality is a very diverse and

complex psychological concept. It is concerned with external appearance

and behaviour, self, measurable traits, and situational interactions.

5.2 Personality Determinants

The factors affecting personality development are illustrated below:

1. Heredity

The relationship of heredity with personality is a well-accepted fact.

Traits like physique, eye color, hair color, height, temperament, energy

level, intelligence, reflexes, etc. are generally referred to describe the

influence of heredity in developing personality. The heredity approach

argues that the ultimate explanation of an individuals personality is the

molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. Robbins

(2003) has argued that the three different streams of research lend

some credibility to the argument that heredity plays an important part in

determining an individual's personality. The first looks at the genetic

underpinnings of human behavior and temperament among young

children. The second addresses the study of twins who were separated

at birth and the third examines the consistency in job satisfaction over

time and across situations.

2. Environment

Environment comprises of culture, family, social and situational factors.

The environmental factors influence personality of an individual since

they provide the basis of certain experiences which determine the

individuals view about life, both positive and negative.

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3. Culture

Culture establishes norms, attitudes and values that are passed on fromgeneration to generation and create consistencies over time. Every

culture expects and trains its members to behave in the ways that are

acceptable to the group. People from different cultural groups have

different attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition,

cooperation, artistic talent, etc. However, on the basis of culture, an

individuals personality cannot be always assessed, since individuals

within the same culture (but from different family and sub-cultural

background) have been seen to differ in their behavior. To a marked

degree, the child's cultural group defines the range of experiences and

situations he is likely to encounter and the values and personality

characteristics that will be reinforced and hence learned." Culture

requires both conformity and acceptance from its members.

4. Family

One of the most important determinants of the personality of a person is

the immediate family. Families influence the behavior of a person

especially in the early stages of life. The nature of such influence will

depend upon the socio-economic level of the family, family size, race,

religion, parent's educational level and geographic location.

The parents play an especially important part in the identification

process, which is important to the person's early development.According to Mischel, the process can be examined from three different

perspectives.

i. Identification can be viewed as the similarity of behaviour including

feelings and attitudes between child and model. Parents being the

first model.

ii. Identification can be looked at as the child's motives or desires to be

like the model.

iii. It can be viewed as the process through which the child actually

takes on the attributes of the model.

From all three perspectives, the identification process is fundamental to

the understanding of personality development.

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5. Situation

Situational factors also play a crucial role in determining the personality of aperson. Every individual goes through different type of experiences and

events in his/her life. Some of the events and experiences, which an

individual goes through in his/her life, can serve as important determinants

of his/her personality. A trauma suffered by a person in the childhood can

sometime change the structure of his/her own personality.

6. Social Factors

There is increasing recognition given to the role of other relevant persons,

groups and especially organizations, which greatly influence an individual's

personality. This is commonly called the socialization process. Socialization

involves the process by which a person acquires, from the enormously widerange of behavioural potentialities that are open to him or her, those that are

ultimately synthesized and absorbed. Socialization starts with the initial

contact between a mother and her new infant. After infancy, other members

of the immediate family father, brothers, sisters and close relatives or

friends, then the social group: peers, school friends and members of the

work group - play influential roles.

Self Assessment Questions

1. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an

individuals personality is the molecular structure of the _____________

2. One of the most important determinants of the personality of a person is

the________ family

5.3 Personality Theories

5.3.1 William Sheldon, 1940's

William Sheldon (1940, 1942, cited in Phares, 1991) classified personality

according to body type. He called this a persons somatotype.

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Sheldon identified three main somatotypes:

Table 5.1 Sheldons Classification of Personality Types.

Sheldon'sSomatotype

Character ShapeSample

Picture

Endomorph[viscerotonic]

relaxed, sociable,tolerant, comfort-loving,peaceful

plump, buxom, developedvisceral structure

Mesomorph[somatotonic]

active, assertive,vigorous, combative

muscular

Ectomorph[cerebrotonic]

quiet, fragile, restrained,non-assertive, sensitive

lean, delicate, poormuscles

Somatotypes

In the 1940s, Sheldon proposed a theory about how there are certain body

types ("somatotypes") that are associated with certain personality

characteristics. William Sheldon (1898-1977) was an American psychologist

who devoted his life to observing the variety of human bodies and

temperaments. He taught and did research at a number of U.S.universities

and is best known for his series of books on the human constitution. He was

a keen observer of animals and birds as a child, and he turned this talent to

good effect by becoming an avid people-watcher, and out of his

observations he gradually elaborated his typology.He claimed that there are

three such somatotypes: endomorphy, mesomorphy, and ectomorphy.

Endomorphy focused on the digestive system, particularly the stomach

(endoderm); has the tendency toward plumpness, corresponds to

Viscerotonia temperament tolerant, love of comfort and luxury, extravert.

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Mesophorphy focused on musculature and the circulatory system

(mesoderm), has the tendency towards muscularity, corresponds to theSomatotonia temperament courageous, energetic, active, dynamic,

assertive, aggressive, risk taker.

Ectomorphy focused on the nervous system and the brain (ectoderm)

the tendency towards slightness, corresponds to Cerebrotonia

temperament artistic, sensitive, apprehensive, introvert.

On this basis, Sheldon created his very interesting Atlas of Men(Macmillan

Pub Co; 1970) in which all possible body types are graded in a scale from 1

(low) to 7 (high), based on the degree to which they matched these types;

with 4 as average). Each type is represented by a series of photos, and is

given a comical or descriptive name, like "saber tooth tiger" for extreme

mesomorph, "Baluchitherium" (the largest prehistoric land mammal) for

mesomorph and endomorph, "Male Mosquito" for the extreme ectomorph,

and so on. On this scale, the extreme or pure mesomorph has a score of

1-7-1, the pure endomorph 7-1-1, and the pure ectomorph 1-1-7. Most

people of course are a combination of types.

a. Endomorphic Body Type:

soft body

underdeveloped muscles

round shaped over-developed digestive system

Associated personality traits:

love of food

tolerant

evenness of emotions

love of comfort

sociable

good humoured

relaxed

need for affection

b. Mesomorphic Body Type:

hard, muscular body

overly mature appearance

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rectangular shaped

thick skin upright posture

Associated personality traits:

adventurous

desire for power and dominance

courageous

indifference to what others think or want

assertive, bold

zest for physical activity

competitive

love of risk and chance

c. Ectomorphic Body Type:

thin

flat chest

delicate build

young appearance

tall

lightly muscled

stoop-shouldered

large brain

Associated personality traits:

self-conscious

preference for privacy

introverted

inhibited

socially anxious

artistic

mentally intense

emotionally restrained

Sheldon measured the proportions of hundreds of juvenile delinquent boys

and concluded that they were generally mesomorphs (Ornstein, 1993).

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Body types have been criticized for very weak empirical methodology and

are not generally used in psychology. The use of somatotyping (usingdifferent taxonomies) is used more often in alternative therapies and

Eastern psychology and spirituality.

Traits are underlying tendencies to behave in a consistent and distinctive

style and they describe the frequency or intensity of a person's feelings,

thoughts, or behaviors. Possession of a trait is, therefore, a matter of

degree.

Some of the most important research works on personality traits are

mentioned below:

5.3.2 Cattells 16 Personality Factor Model

Early research on personality traits resulted in isolating large numbers of

traits, which made it impossible to predict behavior. Cattells (1973) is one of

the most important personality trait theory, where the number of traits have

been reduced. Cattell referred to these 16 factors as primary factors.

Primary Factors and Descriptors in Cattell's 16 Personality Factor Model

(Adapted From Conn & Rieke, 1994).

Table 5.2 Cattlels 16 Primary Factors.

Descriptors of Low Range Primary Factor Descriptors of High Range

1 Reserve, impersonal,distant, cool, reserved,impersonal, detached,formal, aloof (Sizothymia)

Warmth Warm, outgoing, attentive toothers, kindly, easy going,participating, likes people(Affectothymia)

2 Concrete thinking, lowergeneral mental capacity,less intelligent, unable tohandle abstract problems(Lower Scholastic MentalCapacity)

Reasoning Abstract-thinking, moreintelligent, bright, highergeneral mental capacity, fastlearner (Higher ScholasticMental Capacity)

3 Reactive emotionally,changeable, affected byfeelings, emotionally lessstable, easily upset (LowerEgo Strength)

Emotional StabilityEmotionally stable, adaptive,mature, faces reality calm(Higher Ego Strength)

4 Deferential, cooperative,avoids conflict, submissive,humble, obedient, easily led,docile, accommodating(Submissiveness)

Dominance Dominant, forceful, assertive,aggressive, competitive,stubborn, bossy (Dominance)

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5 Serious, restrained, prudent,taciturn, introspective, silent

(Desurgency)

Liveliness Lively, animated, spontaneous,enthusiastic, happy go lucky,

cheerful, expressive, impulsive(Surgency)

6 Expedient, nonconforming,disregards rules, selfindulgent (Low Super EgoStrength)

Rule-Consciousness

Rule-conscious, dutiful,conscientious, conforming,moralistic, staid, rule bound(High Super Ego Strength)

7 Shy, threat-sensitive, timid,hesitant, intimidated(Threctia)

Social Boldness Socially bold, venturesome,thick skinned, uninhibited(Parmia)

8 Utilitarian, objective,unsentimental, toughminded, self-reliant, no-nonsense, rough (Harria)

Sensitivity Sensitive, aesthetic,sentimental, tender minded,intuitive, refined (Premsia)

9 Trusting, unsuspecting,accepting, unconditional,easy (Alaxia)

Vigilance Vigilant, suspicious, skeptical,distrustful, oppositional(Protension)

10 Grounded, practical,prosaic, solution orientated,steady, conventional(Praxernia)

Abstractedness Abstract, imaginative, absentminded, impractical, absorbedin ideas (Autia)

11 Forthright, genuine, artless,open, guileless, naive,unpretentious, involved(Artlessness)

Privateness Private, discreet, nondisclosing,shrewd, polished, worldly,astute, diplomatic(Shrewdness)

12 Self-Assured, unworried,complacent, secure, free of

guilt, confident, self satisfied(Untroubled)

Apprehension Apprehensive, self doubting,worried, guilt prone, insecure,

worrying, self blaming (GuiltProneness)

13 Traditional, attached tofamiliar, conservative,respecting traditional ideas(Conservatism)

Openness toChange

Open to change, experimental,liberal, analytical, critical, freethinking, flexibility (Radicalism)

14 Group-oriented, affiliative, ajoiner and followerdependent (GroupAdherence)

Self-Reliance Self-reliant, solitary,resourceful, individualistic, selfsufficient (Self-Sufficiency)

15 Tolerated disorder,unexacting, flexible,undisciplined, lax, self-conflict, impulsive, careless

of social rues, uncontrolled(Low Integration)

Perfectionism Perfectionistic, organized,compulsive, self-disciplined,socially precise, exacting willpower, control, self

sentimental (High Self-ConceptControl)

16 Relaxed, placid, tranquil,torpid, patient, composedlow drive (Low ErgicTension)

Tension Tense, high energy, impatient,driven, frustrated, overwrought, time driven. (HighErgic Tension)

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5.3.3 The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

The MBTI classifies human beings into four opposite pairs (dichotomies),base on their psychological opposites. These four opposite pairs result into

16 possible combinations. In MBTI, Individuals are classified as (McCrae

and Costa, 1989) :

a. Extroverted or introverted (E or I).

b. Sensing or intuitive (S or N).

c. Thinking or feeling (T or F).

d. Perceiving or judging (P or J).

These classifications are then combined into sixteen personality types.

For example:

a. INTJs are visionaries. They usually have original minds and great drivefor their own ideas and purposes. They are characterized as skeptical,

critical, independent, determined, and often stubborn.

b. ESTJs are organizers. They are realistic, logical, analytical, decisive,

and have a natural head for business or mechanics. They like to

organize and run activities.

c. The ENTP type is a conceptualizer. He or she is innovative,

individualistic, versatile, and attracted to entrepreneurial ideas. This

person tends to be resourceful in solving challenging problems but may

neglect routine assignments.

Activity 1

5.3.4 The big five model

Many researchers argue that five basic dimensions underlie all other

personality dimensions (e.g; McCrae and Costa, 1990; Digman, 1997). The

five basic dimensions are:

1. Extraversion. Comfort level with relationships. Extraverts tend to be

gregarious, assertive, and sociable. Introverts tend to be reserved, timid,

and quiet.

Visit the following site to get more details about using MBTI.http://www.myersbriggs.org/

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2. Agreeableness. Individuals propensity to defer to others. High

agreeableness people cooperative, warm, and trusting. Lowagreeableness people cold, disagreeable, and antagonistic.

3. Conscientiousness. A measure of reliability. A high conscientious

person is responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent. Those

who score low on this dimension are easily distracted, disorganized, and

unreliable.

4. Emotional stability.A persons ability to withstand stress. People with

positive emotional stability tend to be calm, self-confident, and secure.

Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous, anxious,

depressed, and insecure.

5. Openness to experience. The range of interests and fascination with

novelty. Extremely open people are creative, curious, and artistically

sensitive. Those at the other end of the openness category are

conventional and find comfort in the familiar.

Extraversion

Extraversion (also "extroversion") is marked by pronounced engagement

with the external world. Extraverts enjoy being with people, are full of

energy, and often experience positive emotions. They tend to be

enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals who are likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's

go!" to opportunities for excitement. In groups they like to talk, assert

themselves, and draw attention to themselves.

Introverts lack the exuberance, energy, and activity levels of extraverts.

They tend to be quiet, low-key, deliberate, and less dependent on the social

world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness

or depression; the introvert simply needs less stimulation than an extravert

and more time alone to re-charge their batteries.

Sample Extraversion items

I am the life of the party.

I don't mind being the centre of attention. I feel comfortable around people.

I start conversations.

I talk to a lot of different people at parties.

I am quiet around strangers. (reversed)

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I don't like to draw attention to myself. (reversed)

I don't talk a lot. (reversed) I have little to say. (reversed)

I keep in the background. (reversed)

b. Agreeableness

Agreeableness reflects individual differences in concern with cooperation

and social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others.

They are therefore considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to

compromise their interests with others. Agreeable people also have an

optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest,

decent, and trustworthy.

I am interested in people.

I feel others emotions.

I have a soft heart.

I make people feel at ease.

I sympathize with others feelings.

I take time out for others.

I am not interested in other peoples problems. (reversed)

I am not really interested in others. (reversed)

I feel little concern for others. (reversed)

I insult people. (reversed)c. Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness concerns the way in which we control, regulate, and

direct our impulses. Impulses are not inherently bad; occasionally time

constraints require a snap decision, and acting on our first impulse can be

an effective response. Also, in times of play rather than work, acting

spontaneously and impulsively can be fun. Impulsive individuals can be

seen by others as colourful, fun-to-be-with, and zany. Conscientiousness

includes the factor known as Need for Achievement (NAch).

The benefits of high conscientiousness are obvious. Conscientious

individuals avoid trouble and achieve high levels of success through

purposeful planning and persistence. They are also positively regarded by

others as intelligent and reliable. On the negative side, they can be

compulsive perfectionists and workaholics. Furthermore, extremely

conscientious individuals might be regarded as stuffy and boring.

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Unconscientious people may be criticized for their unreliability, lack of

ambition, and failure to stay within the lines, but they will experience manyshort-lived pleasures and they will never be called stuffy (i.e. dull, boring,

unimaginative).

Sample Conscientiousness items

I am always prepared.

I am exacting in my work.

I follow a schedule.

I get chores done right away.

I like order.

I pay attention to details.

I leave my belongings around. (reversed)

I make a mess of things. (reversed)

I often forget to put things back in their proper place. (reversed)

I shirk my duties. (reversed)

d. Neuroticism

Neuroticism, also known inversely as Emotional Stability, refers to the

tendency to experience negative emotions. Those who score high on

Neuroticism may experience primarily one specific negative feeling such as

anxiety, anger, or depression, but are likely to experience several of these

emotions. People high in Neuroticism are emotionally reactive. Theyrespond emotionally to events that would not affect most people, and their

reactions tend to be more intense than normal. They are more likely to

interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as

hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for

unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood.

These problems in emotional regulation can diminish a neurotic's ability to

think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress.

At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in Neuroticism are

less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm,

emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom fromnegative feelings does not mean that low scorers experience a lot of positive

feelings; frequency of positive emotions is a component of the Extraversion

domain.

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Causes of Openness

Openness is heritable, like all of the major personality dimensions, withestimates clustering around 0.4. One environmental cause of increased

openness appears to be exposure to tertiary (College) education.

Locus of control

A persons perception of the source of his/her fate is termed locus of control.

Locus of control was formulated within the framework of Rotter's (1954)

social learning theory of personality. Rotter (1975) pointed out that

internality and externality represent two ends of a continuum, not an

either/or typology. Internalstend to attribute outcomes of events to their own

control. Externals attribute outcomes of events to external circumstances.

For example, college students with a strong internal locus of control maybelieve that their grades were achieved through their own abilities and

efforts, whereas, those with a strong external locus of control may believe

that their grades are the result of good or bad luck, or to a professor who

designs bad tests or grades capriciously; hence, they are less likely to

expect that their own efforts will result in success and are therefore less

likely to work hard for high grades.

Individuals who rate high in externality are less satisfied with their jobs, have

higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated from the work setting, and are

less involved on their jobs than are internals. Internals, facing the same

situation, attribute organizational outcomes to their own actions. Internals

believe that health is substantially under their own control through proper

habits; their incidences of sickness and, hence, of absenteeism, are lower.

Internals generally perform better on their jobs, but one needs to consider

differences in jobs. Internals search more actively for information before

making a decision, are more motivated to achieve, and make a greater

attempt to control their environment, and hence, internals do well on

sophisticated tasks. Internals are more suited to jobs that require initiative

and independence of action and want autonomy and independence in their

jobs. Externals are more compliant and willing to follow directions and beled, and do well on jobs that are well structured and routine and in which

success depends heavily on complying with the direction of others.

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Activity 2

Machiavellianism

Machiavellianism is the term that some social and personality

psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to deceive and

manipulate others for personal gain. The concept is named after

Renaissance diplomat and writer Niccol Machiavelli, who wroteIl Principe

(The Prince).

Christie and Geis (1970) developed a test for measuring a person's level of

Machiavellianism. This eventually became the MACH-IV test, a twenty-statement personality survey that is now the standard self-assessment tool

of Machiavellianism. An individual high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic,

maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means.

High Machs manipulate more, win more, are persuaded less, and persuade

others more. High Mach outcomes are moderated by situational factors and

flourish when they interact face to face with others, rather than indirectly,

and when the situation has a minimum number of rules and regulations,

thus, allowing room for improvisation. High Machs make good employees in

jobs that require bargaining skills or that offer substantial rewards for

winning.

Self-esteem ( SE)

Self-esteem is defined as the degree to which people like or dislike

themselves (Robbins, 2003). Individuals with high self-esteem tend to take

more risks in job selection and are more likely to choose unconventional

jobs in contrast to people with low self-esteem. Low SEs are more

susceptible to external influence than are high SEs. Low SEs are dependent

on the receipt of positive evaluations from others. In managerial positions,

therefore, low SEs will tend to be concerned with pleasing others.

Self-monitoringIt refers to an individuals ability to adjust his or her behavior to external,

situational factors. Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable

adaptability. They are highly sensitive to external cues, and are capable of

behaving differently in different situations, and presenting striking

Visit the following site to identify your Big Fivehttp://similarminds.com/big5.html

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contradictions between their public persona and their private self. Low self-

monitors cannot disguise themselves in that way. They tend to display theirtrue dispositions and attitudes in almost every situation resulting in a high

behavioral consistency between who they are and what they do. High self-

monitors tend to pay closer attention to the behavior of others. High self-

monitoring managers tend to be more mobile in their careers and receive

more promotions. High self-monitor is capable of putting on different faces

for different audiences.

5.3.5 Type A and Type B personality

Type A personality is a set of characteristics that includes, being impatient,

excessively time-conscious, insecure about one's status, highly competitive,

hostile and aggressive, and incapable of relaxation (Friedman & Rosenman

1974).

i. Are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly:

ii. Feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place;

iii. Strive to think or do two or more things simultaneously;

iv. Cannot cope with leisure time; and

v. Are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how

much of everything they acquire.

Type B personality is rarely hurried by the desire to obtain an increasing

number of things or participate in events demanding an ever-decreasingamount of time (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974). Never suffer from a sense

of time urgency with its accompanying impatience;

i. Feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or

accomplishments unless such exposure is demanded by the situation;

ii. Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at

any cost; and

iii. Can relax without guilt.

Self Assessment Questions

3. Cattell referred to these 16 factors as _____________ factors.

4. The MBTI classifies human beings into _____________ opposite pairs

5. Locus of control was formulated within the framework of Rotter's

___________ theory of personality

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5.4 Achieving Personality-Job- Fit

According to Holland (1997), workers are not passive victims of theirenvironments, but actively seek potentially compatible work environments. If

an individuals personality and the work environment fitthat is, if the

personality is congruent with the work environmentthe individual will most

likely enjoy the work and develop and grow in the career. Matching people

to the organizational culture at the time of hiring should result in higher

employee satisfaction and reduced turnover. Holland has proposed Six

themes of people and work environments, within which all jobs can be

classified:

1. Realistic

2. Investigative

3. Artistic4. Social

5. Enterprising

6. Conventional

The above-mentioned classification is shown in more details in the following

chart:

Table 5.3: Personality Job Fit

Type PersonalityCharacteristics

Congruent Occupation

Realistic: Prefers physicalactivities that require skill,strength, and coordination

Shy, genuine,persistent, stable,conforming, practical

Mechanic, drill pressoperator,assembly-line worker, farmer

Investigative: Prefers activitiesthat involve thinking,organizing, and understanding

Analytical, original,curious,independent

Biologist, economist,mathematician, news reporter

Social: Prefers activities thatinvolve helping anddeveloping others

Sociable, friendly,cooperative,understanding

Social workers, teacher,counselor, clinicalpsychologist

Conventional: Prefers rule-regulated, orderly, andunambiguous activities

Conforming, efficient,practical,unimaginative,inflexible

Accountant, corporatemanager, bank teller, fileclerk

Enterprising: Prefers verbalactivities in which there are

opportunities to influenceothers and attain power

Self-confident,ambitious,

energetic, domineering

Lawyer, real estate agent,public relations specialist,

smallbusiness manager

Artistic: Prefers ambiguous andunsystematic activities thatallow creative expression

Imaginative, disorderly,idealistic,emotional, impractical

Painter, musician, writer,interior decorator

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Self Assessment Questions

6. Holland has proposed _________ themes of people and workenvironments, within which all jobs can be classified

7. _____________ person prefers verbal activities in which there are

opportunities to influence others and attain power.

5.5 Summary

Let us sum up what we have discussed in this unit:

The term 'personality' has been derived from the Latin term 'persona' which

means to 'speak through'. The factors affecting personality development are

Heredity, Environment, Culture, Family, and Situation. Personality Traits areunderlying tendencies to behave in a consistent and distinctive style and

they describe the frequency or intensity of a person's feelings, thoughts, or

behaviors. Possession of a trait is, therefore, a matter of degree. Early

research on personality traits resulted in isolating large numbers of traits,

which made it impossible to predict behavior.

According to Sheldon(1940) there is a link between physiological traits and

characteristics of an individual with his behavior. There are basically three

types-endomorph, mesomorph and ectomorph. Cattells (1973) is one of

the most important personality trait theory, where the number of traits have

been reduced. Cattell referred to these 16 factors as primary factors. The

MBTI classifies human beings into four opposite pairs (dichotomies), base

on their psychological opposites. These four opposite pairs result into 16

possible combinations. Many researchers argue that five basic dimensions

underlie all other personality dimensions (e.g; McCrae and Costa, 1990;

Digman, 1997). The five basic dimensions are Extraversion, Agreeableness,

Conscientiousness, Emotional stability, and openness to experience. A

persons perception of the source of his/her fate is termed locus of control.

Locus of control was formulated within the framework of Rotter's (1954)

social learning theory of personality. Rotter (1975) pointed out that

internality and externality represent two ends of a continuum, not an

either/or typology. Internals tend to attribute outcomes of events to their own

control.

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Machiavellianism is the term that some social and personality psychologists

use to describe a person's tendency to deceive and manipulate others forpersonal gain. Self-esteem is defined as the degree to which people like or

dislike themselves (Robbins, 2003). Self-monitoring refers to an individuals

ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors. Individuals

high in self-monitoring show considerable adaptability. Type A personality is

a set of characteristics that includes, being impatient, excessively time-

conscious, insecure about one's status, highly competitive, hostile and

aggressive, and incapable of relaxation. Type B personality is rarely hurried

by the desire to obtain an increasing number of things or participate in

events demanding an ever-decreasing amount of time.

According to Holland (1997), workers are not passive victims of theirenvironments, but actively seek potentially compatible work environments. If

an individuals personality and the work environment fit that is, if the

personality is congruent with the work environment the individual will most

likely enjoy the work and develop and grow in the career. Matching people

to the organizational culture at the time of hiring should result in higher

employee satisfaction and reduced turnover.

5.6 Terminal Questions

1. Describe the determinants of personality.

2. Explain The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.3. Explain the personality dimensions mentioned in big five model.

4. Explain Type A and Type B personality.

5. Based on Hollands approach, explain personality-job-fit.

5.7 Answers

Answers to Self Assessment Questions

1. Genes

2. Immediate

3. Primary

4. Four

5. Social learning

6. Six

7. Enterprising

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Answers to Terminal Questions

1. Refer section 5.22. Refer section 5.3

3. Refer section 5.3

4. Refer section 5.3

5. Refer section 5.4

Glossary

Words Meaning

Agreeableness A person's ability to get along with others.

Culture Broadly, social heritage of a group (organized community orsociety). It is a pattern of responses discovered, developed, orinvented during the group's history of handling problems whicharise from interactions among its members, and between themand their environment

Extraversion The quality of being comfortable with relationships; the oppositeextreme, introversion, is characterized by more social discomfort

Family Social unit of two or more persons related by blood, marriage, oradoption and having a shared commitment to the mutualrelationship. See also household

Locus ofcontrol

The extent to which people believe their circumstances are afunction of their own actions versus external factors beyond theircontrol

Personality The relatively stable set of psychological attributes thatdistinguish one person from another.

Suggested Reading

Read the book

The Prince. (Penguin-London) by Machiavelli, Niccolo (2004)

Additional References

http://www.thepersonalitysystem.org/PFAAssets/Miscellaneous/Assertin

g%20the%20definition%20of%20personality.pdf http://dakota.fmpdata.net/PsychAI/PrintFiles/PersTheories.pdf

http://similarminds.com/big5.html

http://www.myersbriggs.org/

http://www.kheper.net/topics/typology/somatotypes.html