Short term psych revision

Self-efficacy judgements

Verbal/social persuasion

Performance accomplishments

Vicarious experience

Emotional arousal

Self-efficacy = self-confidence in a particular situation

Anxiety - 3 dimensions

ANXIETY

COGNITIVE SOMATIC

BEHAVIOURAL

1. State Anxiety – Situation Specific. Role, Place, competition

2. Trait Anxiety – A General feeling of Apprehension

Theories linking anxiety & arousal to performance

Theory Source Comments

Inverted U Yearkes & Dodson (1908)

A difficult theory to test, predicts a relationship between arousal and performance as inverted U shape

Drive Theory Zajonc (1965) Over simplistic, fails to appriciate the different personalities of the performer and the context of the performer

Catastrophe model

Hardy (1996) Suggests that arousal has different effects on sports performance depending on cognitive anxiety. Arousal will increase performance when cognitive anxiety is low, but may lead to a sudden catastrophic decline in performance when cognitive anxiety is high

Processing efficiency theory

Eysenck & Calva

Anxiety may effect processing efficiency rather than task effectiveness. Anxious athletes have to work harder to maintain the same levels of performance they would display if they were not anxious.

Choking ‘The inability to perform to an athlete’s optimum performance – sudden impairment or failure of sports performance due to anxiety’

Why is it that sometimes the harder you try the worse you get!!!?Over concern about situation, competition, ability, team mates etc?

http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/front_page/13185266.stm

Draw the Catastrophe theory…

Graphs for theories

Aggression Vs Assertion

Aggression is defined as ‘intent to harm outside the laws of the

game’

AssertionAssertion is defined as ‘the is defined as ‘the use of use of legitimate forcelegitimate force within within

a game to win and a game to win and not not necessarily to harmnecessarily to harm’’

Where aggression is Where aggression is controlledcontrolled and and channeledchanneled it becomes assertion. it becomes assertion.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N1-25s4uwFQhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N1-25s4uwFQ

Instinct Theory (Freud 1933)Instinct Theory (Freud 1933)Aggression is an innate biological drive in Aggression is an innate biological drive in humans to dominate humans to dominate (nature)(nature)

Social Learning Theory (Bandura 1977)Social Learning Theory (Bandura 1977)We learn to be aggressive by watching We learn to be aggressive by watching others others (nurture)(nurture)Whatever aggression we are born with is Whatever aggression we are born with is culturally overriddenculturally overridden

What causes you to become aggressive?

Frustration/aggression hypothesisFrustration/aggression hypothesisDue to certain acts in sport we become Due to certain acts in sport we become frustrated as our goals are blockedfrustrated as our goals are blockedThus leading to aggressionThus leading to aggression

Questions…

1. Bandura suggested that self-efficacy is influenced by four factors. Identify and apply these factors to a sport of your choice. (8 marks)

2. As a coach of a sports team how would you raise an individuals level of self efficacy? (4 marks)

3. Discuss the possible relationships between anxiety and performance in sporting activities. (12 marks)

4. High levels of arousal have often been linked with stress. Sketch a graph showing the relationship between the performance of a complex skill and level of arousal. (2 marks)

5. Add a second curve to your graph showing how the performance of a simple skill might me affected by arousal. (2 marks)

6. With reference to sporting performance, explain how cognitive and somatic anxiety differ. (5 marks)

7. Using examples from sport, briefly describe the differences between aggression and assertion. (2 marks)

8. Explain in more detail what is meant by social learning when applied to aggression. (4 marks)

9. The aggressive cue hypothesis (Berkowitz, 1969), is a theory which explains why aggression may be explained by sports performers. Using an example from sport, describe the aggressive cue hypothesis. (4 marks)

Choking usually occurs when a performer is overly concerned with what others think about the performance

So we need to formulate strategies to overcome anxiety & as a result choking…

What do you do before a big event? Sporting or otherwise.

• Set your own Set your own achievable goalsachievable goals• Use imageryUse imagery before a competition to review strategy and technique before a competition to review strategy and technique and create a sense of confidenceand create a sense of confidence• Use Use positive talkpositive talk, both in preparation and in competition, both in preparation and in competition• Practice relaxation sessionsPractice relaxation sessions – somatic (physical, progressive – somatic (physical, progressive muscular relaxation) and cognitive (mental, centering)muscular relaxation) and cognitive (mental, centering)• Use musicUse music prior to a competition to help maintain focus by controlling prior to a competition to help maintain focus by controlling negative thoughtsnegative thoughts• Behavioral coping skillsBehavioral coping skills – understand that pressure is a perception – understand that pressure is a perception not a fact, requires a change in attitude so that a pressure situation not a fact, requires a change in attitude so that a pressure situation becomes enjoyable.becomes enjoyable.• Performance monitoringPerformance monitoring – watch races and identify what they like – watch races and identify what they like when they produce a good performancewhen they produce a good performance• Simulation trainingSimulation training – practice under conditions that mimic anticipated – practice under conditions that mimic anticipated pressure situationspressure situations

Do large, supportive crowds help the home team in terms of motivation?

Varca (1980) “A crowd leads to increased arousal of performers”

Links to social facilitation, aggression, and arousal theories

Are players more aggressive away from home?

What about supporters? (Dysfunctional Behaviour – football hooliganism)

The crowd effect:

Social facilitation, social inhibition, evaluation apprehension, environmental conditions

The Crowd Effect Does the presence of ‘others’ influence arousal therefore,

affecting performance?

Social Facilitation

Zajonk (1965) “The influence other people can have on

performance”

Co-actors – teammates and opponents

(Interactive Others – direct interference)

Audience – spectators

(Passive Others – no direct interference)

Social Inhibition“The negative effect of an audience on

a performer”Effects – Arousal levels,

Competitive Drive, Speed of Performance

Triplett (1898) found that cyclists performance improved by 30%

when they were riding in a group

Ringelmann effect (1913) ‘performance improvement up to a certain number

but when group size gets too big ‘social loafing occurs – due to a loss

in motivation’

Drive theoryZajonk (1965) Link between

arousal and performanceAudience increases arousal

Learned behaviours tend to be our dominant response

---------------------Performance affected by the

following factors:

• Presence of others increases performers arousal

• Presence of others promotes performers dominant response

• Expert performer/simple skill = correct response

• Novice performer/complex skill = incorrect response

SOAudience + skilled performer =

improved performanceAudience + novice performer =

reduced performance

DominantResponse

How do you cope with crowds?• Practice selective attention

to cut out negative awareness of others

• Use cognitive visualisation, (imagery and mental rehearsal), to help focus

• Ensure skills are grooved to ensure successful dominant response under pressure

• Practice with simulated crowd

• Stress management and relaxation techniques

Evaluation Apprehension (Cottrell 1972)

‘The worry that those watching are assessing performance quality’

Leads to increased arousal and the resulting dominant performance!

The importance of CompetitionMartens et al (1998) – Theory of competitive

state anxiety

‘Competitive anxiety is defined as an individual’s tendency to perceive

competitive situations as threatening and to respond to

these situations by experiencing state anxiety’

The more important the competition the higher the level of state

anxiety An athlete’s perception of external

sources is the key to anxiety! (media, audience etc)

Strategies for Coping

(with competitive anxiety)

TASKRead the information on

pages 38 and 39. Give one specific

example of how each of the four techniques

may be used by a player in your chosen

sport

Environmental factorsThese include the physical and

climatic setting but also the crowd, competitors (teammates

and opponents), coaches and media

Novice performers perform best in low arousal environments

What does this mean?An aggressive or close crowd

might make a performer more anxious or more aggressive

A supportive crowd may reassure performers

Playing home or away may also have an effect on performance

Adverse climatic conditions (temp, wind, humidity) may also affect a performer (the more experienced

players will cope better)

Questions…

1.What is meant by social facilitation and what is its main effect? (3 marks)

2.What effects can be experienced by an individual if there is an audience present? (6 marks)

3.What is meant by evaluation apprehension? (2 marks)

4.As a coach of an individual who is affected adversely by the presence of an audience, how would you help him or her to overcome the negative influences? (4 marks)