Research method lesson 1 nu

National National University University Chapter 1Chapter 1Introduction to Introduction to

Research in Psychology Research in Psychology Steven Mendoza, Ph.D.,MSCPSteven Mendoza, Ph.D.,MSCP

Inquiro Philosophia apud Inquiro Philosophia apud LatineLatine - -- -

Veritas In Lucem emergit Veritas In Lucem emergit ““The truth emerges into lightThe truth emerges into light””

- - -- - -Veritas In Lucem non refujit Veritas In Lucem non refujit “The truth does not flee the light”“The truth does not flee the light”

- - - - Quid est veritas- Quid est veritas- “What is truth?”“What is truth?”

Discendo vivimus (Victus) Discendo vivimus (Victus) National University’s Motto National University’s Motto “Acquire Knowledge alive” “Acquire Knowledge alive”

Vivamus mea litteratum atque conosco Vivamus mea litteratum atque conosco ““Let us live my students AND learn”Let us live my students AND learn”

- - -- - -

SSemper conosco bene!emper conosco bene! “always learn well.”“always learn well.”

Before we begin to explore Before we begin to explore this academic subjectthis academic subject

Sumus Discipulus! We are scholars…Sumus Discipulus! We are scholars…

We are a scholar community and we need each We are a scholar community and we need each other.other.

In this class we will work in collaborative In this class we will work in collaborative approach to meet the goals for class, and to approach to meet the goals for class, and to delve in the in the academic subject of research.delve in the in the academic subject of research.

The Andragogy approach! The Andragogy approach!

My personal goal and My personal goal and mission here at National mission here at National

University is to:University is to: To informTo inform

To educateTo educate

And to inspire you to:And to inspire you to:

“ “Be all that you can be” Be all that you can be” (U.S. Army, 1986). (U.S. Army, 1986).

Mental Health ResearchMental Health Research

Acquiring Knowledge Acquiring Knowledge About the WorldAbout the World

Tradition or Tenacity: Tradition or Tenacity: I believe it is I believe it is true because it has always been true. true because it has always been true.

Intuition: Intuition: I believe it is true I believe it is true because I feel it is true.because I feel it is true.

Authority: Authority: I believe it is true I believe it is true because an because an ““expertexpert”” says it is true. says it is true.

Acquiring Knowledge Acquiring Knowledge About the WorldAbout the World

Personal Experience: Personal Experience: I believe it is I believe it is true because I experienced it. true because I experienced it.

Reasoning: Reasoning: I believe it is true I believe it is true because it is logically derived.because it is logically derived.

Empiricism: Empiricism: I believe it is true I believe it is true because I measured it.because I measured it.

Thus far….What are your thoughts?Thus far….What are your thoughts?

So how do we supposed to So how do we supposed to think as a think as a

Scholar/Practitioner in the Scholar/Practitioner in the behavior Sciences?behavior Sciences?

With Pseudo Science With Pseudo Science

Or Or

Science? And if so, then what is science?Science? And if so, then what is science?

Define science? What are your thoughtsDefine science? What are your thoughts

Acquiring Knowledge Acquiring Knowledge About the WorldAbout the World

ScienceScience: a way of acquiring : a way of acquiring knowledge through the continual knowledge through the continual interaction of empiricism and interaction of empiricism and reasoningreasoning– If we can’t devise a way to measure If we can’t devise a way to measure

something, then we can’t use science.something, then we can’t use science.

– As for example: In Clinical Psychology As for example: In Clinical Psychology Practice, the U.S. Government funded Practice, the U.S. Government funded programs need a measurement of human programs need a measurement of human behavior improvement! behavior improvement!

Psychology – Science and Psychology – Science and ArtArt

The science of psychology provides the The science of psychology provides the theory….Creating a framework….theory….Creating a framework….

The art of psychology involves The art of psychology involves applying applying that theory to help others.that theory to help others.

Therefore, in this class we will constantly Therefore, in this class we will constantly refer back to you as a refer back to you as a scholar/practitioner in search for truth.scholar/practitioner in search for truth.

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking and the Scholar and the Scholar

PractitionerPractitioner Critical thinkers: In reality it is a Critical thinkers: In reality it is a

scholar/practitioner in search for scholar/practitioner in search for truth!truth!– They Ask questionsThey Ask questions– Objectively define problemsObjectively define problems– Examine the available evidenceExamine the available evidence– Assess assumptions and biasesAssess assumptions and biases– Avoid emotional reasoning (Neutral) Avoid emotional reasoning (Neutral) – Separate facts from opinionSeparate facts from opinion

Critical Thinking as part of Critical Thinking as part of the National University’s the National University’s

missionmission Critical thinkers (continued):Critical thinkers (continued):– Avoid oversimplifyingAvoid oversimplifying– Consider alternative explanationsConsider alternative explanations– Tolerate uncertaintyTolerate uncertainty– Maintain an air of skepticism, but be open Maintain an air of skepticism, but be open

minded (i.e.. not cynical). minded (i.e.. not cynical).

SkepticismSkepticism: is a healthy reluctance to : is a healthy reluctance to accept new information without sufficient accept new information without sufficient evidence. Consider the Barnum Effect?evidence. Consider the Barnum Effect?

The Critical Thinking The Critical Thinking Process as a Process as a

Scholar/PractitionerScholar/Practitioner1.1. Ask questionsAsk questions2.2. Define the problemDefine the problem3.3. Examine the available evidenceExamine the available evidence4.4. Analyze assumptions and biasesAnalyze assumptions and biases5.5. Avoid emotional reasoningAvoid emotional reasoning6.6. Do not oversimplifyDo not oversimplify7.7. Consider other interpretationsConsider other interpretations8.8. Tolerate uncertaintyTolerate uncertainty9.9. And finally they seek truth to be liberated And finally they seek truth to be liberated

and be set free…..and be set free…..

Objectives of ScienceObjectives of ScienceGoals of Psychological Goals of Psychological

Sciences?Sciences? In succession: In succession:

To To describedescribe the subject matter. the subject matter.

To To explainexplain trends that have been trends that have been observed.observed.

To To predictpredict based upon the based upon the explanation.explanation.

To To controlcontrol the phenomena or the phenomena or InfluenceInfluence

Patriarch and the founder of Patriarch and the founder of PsychologyPsychology

Wilhelm Wundt Wilhelm Wundt (1832–(1832–1920) 1920) –– Founder of Founder of PsychologyPsychology

1874—1874—landmark text landmark text Principles of Principles of Physiological Physiological PsychologyPsychology 1879—1879—First First psychology lab at the psychology lab at the University of LeipzigUniversity of Leipzig

Use of the Scientific Use of the Scientific MethodologyMethodology

Scientific MethodScientific MethodA set of assumptions, attitudes, and A set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing generating evidence, and in drawing

conclusions. conclusions.

Us of the Scientific MethodUs of the Scientific Method Step Step 11: Formulate a specific : Formulate a specific

questionquestion that can be testedthat can be tested

Step Step 22: Design a study to collect : Design a study to collect relevant datarelevant data

Step Step 33: Analyze the data to arrive at: Analyze the data to arrive at conclusionsconclusions

Step Step 44: Report the results: Report the results

Defining the Steps of Scientific Defining the Steps of Scientific MethodMethod• STEP 1STEP 1

• Form a hypothesis Form a hypothesis • A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more

variables; a testable prediction or questionvariables; a testable prediction or question• STEP 2STEP 2• Use descriptive or experimental methodologiesUse descriptive or experimental methodologies• STEP 3STEP 3• Use statistics to analyze, summarize, and draw conclusions about the Use statistics to analyze, summarize, and draw conclusions about the

data they have collecteddata they have collected• STEP 4 STEP 4 • The rationale for testing the hypothesis The rationale for testing the hypothesis • Who participated in the study Who participated in the study • How participants were selected How participants were selected • How variables were operationally defined How variables were operationally defined • What procedures or methods were used What procedures or methods were used • How the data were analyzed How the data were analyzed • What the results seem to suggestWhat the results seem to suggest• Publish in a referred journal or present at scientific conferencePublish in a referred journal or present at scientific conference

Review of the Literature in Review of the Literature in academic psychology for academic psychology for

academic academic communication/creditcommunication/credit

Introduction to “Special Introduction to “Special Time”Time”

Instructions:Instructions:

Pull out a piece of paper, and in a Pull out a piece of paper, and in a succinct paragraph format please write succinct paragraph format please write down what you have learned thus far?down what you have learned thus far?

Experimental DesignExperimental Design

The Tenets of ScienceThe Tenets of Science

Determinism Determinism – Is the belief that events have natural causesIs the belief that events have natural causes– Not----Not---- predeterminism predeterminism

EmpiricismEmpiricism– Reliance on real evidence to confirm, or Reliance on real evidence to confirm, or

refute claimsrefute claims

Scholar/practioner model: Always Scholar/practioner model: Always proceed with evidence based academic proceed with evidence based academic research!research!

The Tenets of ScienceThe Tenets of Science

Replicability Replicability – Findings must be repeatedly discoveredFindings must be repeatedly discovered

FalsifiabilityFalsifiability– Hypotheses and theories must be Hypotheses and theories must be

refutable through empirical researchrefutable through empirical research

ParsimonyParsimony– Simplest explanation for a phenomenaSimplest explanation for a phenomena

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

1.1. Assume a natural cause for the Assume a natural cause for the phenomenon (i.e.. determinism)phenomenon (i.e.. determinism)

2.2. Make an educated guess about the Make an educated guess about the cause (i.e.. generate a testable cause (i.e.. generate a testable hypothesis)hypothesis)

3.3. Test your guessTest your guess

4.4. Revise your hypothesisRevise your hypothesis

5.5. Retest your guessRetest your guess

6.6. Make a conclusionMake a conclusion

Theories, Concepts, Theories, Concepts, and Hypothesesand Hypotheses

Theory: Theory: a formal statement of how a formal statement of how concepts are relatedconcepts are related

Concepts: Concepts: the general category of the general category of ideas that are represented by our ideas that are represented by our variablesvariables

Hypothesis: Hypothesis: a prediction of how a prediction of how concepts are related that is often concepts are related that is often deduced from a theorydeduced from a theory

Building theories Building theories Please remember that, Please remember that, TheoryTheory

Is a tentative explanation that tries toIs a tentative explanation that tries to

integrate and account for the relationship ofintegrate and account for the relationship ofvarious findings and observations….various findings and observations….

Theories often reflect the Theories often reflect the self-correcting nature of self-correcting nature of the scientific enterprisethe scientific enterprise..

Conclusions of psychology rest on empirical Conclusions of psychology rest on empirical evidence gathered using the scientific method; the evidence gathered using the scientific method; the same is not true of same is not true of pseudoscientific pseudoscientific claimsclaims

Theories often reflect the Theories often reflect the self-self-correcting nature of the correcting nature of the

scientific enterprisescientific enterprise..

Conclusions of psychology rest Conclusions of psychology rest

on empirical evidence gathered on empirical evidence gathered

using the scientific method; theusing the scientific method; the

same is not true of same is not true of

pseudoscientific pseudoscientific claimsclaims

Remember this is step 2 of Remember this is step 2 of the research method: the research method: Descriptive academic Descriptive academic

researchresearch

Pseudoscience and UFOs?Pseudoscience and UFOs?

Do they exist?Do they exist?

Are they real?Are they real?

And if so what evidence do we have? And if so what evidence do we have?

What about videos? Can they be altered?What about videos? Can they be altered?

The Arizona experience…..R/Frontal Brain Tumor The Arizona experience…..R/Frontal Brain Tumor removal removal

Pseudoscience—The Pseudoscience—The Warning Signs (1845)Warning Signs (1845)

Strategy 1Strategy 1: Testimonials rather : Testimonials rather than scientific evidence than scientific evidence

Strategy 2Strategy 2: Scientific jargon : Scientific jargon without scientific substance without scientific substance

Strategy 3Strategy 3: Combining : Combining established scientific knowledge established scientific knowledge with unfounded claims with unfounded claims

Strategy 4Strategy 4: Irrefutable or : Irrefutable or nonfalsifiable claims nonfalsifiable claims

Strategy 5Strategy 5: Confirmation bias : Confirmation bias

Strategy 6Strategy 6: Shifting the burden : Shifting the burden of proof of proof

Strategy 7Strategy 7: Multiple outs: Multiple outs

Why We Do ResearchWhy We Do Research

To evaluate a theoryTo evaluate a theory

To satisfy our curiosityTo satisfy our curiosity

To demonstrate a new techniqueTo demonstrate a new technique– Determine if new ways of doing things Determine if new ways of doing things

are better than the old waysare better than the old ways

Why We Do ResearchWhy We Do Research

To demonstrate a behavioral To demonstrate a behavioral phenomenonphenomenon– Need to demonstrate behavior under Need to demonstrate behavior under

precise conditions before the precise conditions before the phenomenon can be confidently added to phenomenon can be confidently added to the body of knowledgethe body of knowledge

To investigate the conditions To investigate the conditions influencing behavioral phenomenainfluencing behavioral phenomena

Approaches to ResearchApproaches to Research Descriptive vs. Explanatory researchDescriptive vs. Explanatory research

– Descriptive: describes a population of Descriptive: describes a population of measurements.measurements.

– Explanatory: answers Explanatory: answers ““whywhy”” questions. questions.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative researchQuantitative vs. Qualitative research– Quantitative: measures differences in Quantitative: measures differences in

amount Qualitative: describes amount Qualitative: describes differences in kinddifferences in kind

Research StrategiesResearch Strategies DescriptiveDescriptive—strategies for observing and—strategies for observing anddescribing behaviordescribing behavior• Naturalistic observationNaturalistic observation• Case studiesCase studies• SurveysSurveys• Correlational methodsCorrelational methods

ExperimentalExperimental—strategies for inferring—strategies for inferringcause and effect relationships among cause and effect relationships among variablesvariables

Approaches to ResearchApproaches to Research

Basic vs. Applied researchBasic vs. Applied research– Basic: simply satisfies researcher’s Basic: simply satisfies researcher’s

curiositycuriosity

– Applied: applies the knowledge to Applied: applies the knowledge to somehow benefit humankindsomehow benefit humankind

Approaches to ResearchApproaches to Research

Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal researchresearch– Cross-sectional: studies individuals of Cross-sectional: studies individuals of

different ages at one point in time.different ages at one point in time. Cohort effect Cohort effect – same-aged individuals who – same-aged individuals who

will share variables related to their history.will share variables related to their history.

– Longitudinal: studies a single age Longitudinal: studies a single age cohort over a number of years.cohort over a number of years.

Approaches to ResearchApproaches to Research Field vs. Laboratory researchField vs. Laboratory research

– Field research takes place in a more Field research takes place in a more natural setting.natural setting.

– Laboratory research allows better Laboratory research allows better control over variables.control over variables.

– Tradeoff among Tradeoff among artificiality, control artificiality, control over variables,over variables, and and generalizabilitygeneralizability..

Steps in Planning and Steps in Planning and Doing ResearchDoing Research

Selecting a research topic:Selecting a research topic:

– From life experienceFrom life experience

– From existing researchFrom existing research

– From common senseFrom common sense

– Based on a new technology Based on a new technology

Steps in Planning and Steps in Planning and Doing ResearchDoing Research

Generating testable hypothesesGenerating testable hypotheses– Operationalize your concepts, i.e.. make Operationalize your concepts, i.e.. make

them measurable.them measurable.

Classifying variablesClassifying variables– Define your independent, dependent, Define your independent, dependent,

and controlled variablesand controlled variables..

Selecting an appropriate designSelecting an appropriate design– Consider time, money, facilities, the kind Consider time, money, facilities, the kind

of variables you intend to measure.of variables you intend to measure.

Planning the method and carrying it Planning the method and carrying it outout– Focus on the details.Focus on the details.

Steps in Planning and Steps in Planning and Doing ResearchDoing Research

Steps in Planning and Steps in Planning and Doing ResearchDoing Research

Analyzing resultsAnalyzing results– Use the appropriate statistical analysis.Use the appropriate statistical analysis.

Drawing conclusionsDrawing conclusions– Interpret the results and draw Interpret the results and draw

conclusions.conclusions.

Sharing your findingsSharing your findings– Publish in journals or present at Publish in journals or present at

conferences.conferences.