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http://ebookbrowse.com/search/strategic-management-lecture- notesZ BUSINESS RESEARCH Unit-1 Why Study Research Today in this dynamic world dramatic changes have been occurred in all areas of business. Previously business organizations focused on the production pr their product and don’t care for customers. But with the evolution in industrials sector and with the invention of new technology business needs and organization response has been changed. Now customers, suppliers, stakeholders, employees are all more informed and more sensitive about their interest. Information technology, globalization, and means of communication have impact on society and make drastic changes in society. All these changes required that a manager working in an organization must equip himself with more knowledge and information which can help him in decision making. A valued and judged decision depends on the available alternative and capability to make choices of best one. So in this complex environment organization needs to research new ways of doing business, solving problems, designing tools for measurement. All these things required that managers must have knowledge of research so that new techniques and tool can be used for quantitative and qualitative methods which can be successful for business. WHAT IS A RESEARCH Research is a simple process of finding solution to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the situational factors. BUSINESS RESEARCH An organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem undertaken with the purpose of finding answer or solution to it. Page 1 of 99
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Page 1: Research Method

http://ebookbrowse.com/search/strategic-management-lecture-notesZ

BUSINESS RESEARCH

Unit-1Why Study ResearchToday in this dynamic world dramatic changes have been occurred in all areas of business. Previously business organizations focused on the production pr their product and don’t care for customers. But with the evolution in industrials sector and with the invention of new technology business needs and organization response has been changed.Now customers, suppliers, stakeholders, employees are all more informed and more sensitive about their interest. Information technology, globalization, and means of communication have impact on society and make drastic changes in society. All these changes required that a manager working in an organization must equip himself with more knowledge and information which can help him in decision making. A valued and judged decision depends on the available alternative and capability to make choices of best one.So in this complex environment organization needs to research new ways of doing business, solving problems, designing tools for measurement. All these things required that managers must have knowledge of research so that new techniques and tool can be used for quantitative and qualitative methods which can be successful for business.

WHAT IS A RESEARCHResearch is a simple process of finding solution to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the situational factors.

BUSINESS RESEARCHAn organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem undertaken with the purpose of finding answer or solution to it.

Explanation: Business research comprises a series of steps designed and executed, with the goal of finding answers to the issues that are of concern to manager in the work environment. This means that for research following steps areTo know where the problem area exist in organizationTo identify as clearly and specifically as possible the problems that needs to be studied and resolveWhen problem has been identified then gather information, analyze the data, and determine the factors that are associated with problems and solve it by taking the necessary corrective measureSo research involves a series of well -thought-out and carefully executed activities that will enable the manager to know how organizational problems can be solved or at least considerable minimized.

Need and Importance of ResearchThere are four situations in which you can gain advantages having knowledge of research.

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1. Decision making require more information for sound decision. If you have knowledge of research you can gather more information and have multiple choices and alternative for decision making. When you have not knowledge of research you have limited choice. So research provides you skill and makes you superior in decision making and your decision will be valued and judged decision.

2. When higher executive in an organization requires some research work and if you have such knowledge then there is an opportunity for career building in this organization by taking this research tasks and make impressing to high executive. So research knowledge provides you impressing personality.

3. When being a manager you need some research work and you hire some researcher from outside, you can understand, evaluate the research design and communicate to other very easily. So research work provides you understanding and evaluating of other’s research work.

4. when you have research knowledge especially as marketing and finance analyst you have career opportunities in the market

There are other reasons1. research sharpen the sensitivity of manager to the numerous variables operating in a

situation and remind then frequently of the multicausality and multifinality of phenomena , thus avoiding the inappropriate, simplistic notions of one variable causing other

2. when manager understand research report about their organizations handed to them by professionals, they will be equipped to take intelligent, educated, calculated risk with known probabilities attached to the success or failure of their decisions

3. because manager become knowledgeable about scientific investigation, vested interest inside or outside the organization will not prevail

4. Manager knowing about research shared important information with consultant or researcher hired.

What Is The Purpose Of Study?Based on objectives research study can be classified into four types

1. Reporting: A type of study in which researcher only report to high executive on the problem. In these types of research usually data are available and researchers only gather information and analyze data fro reporting.

This type of research is useful in qualitative and clinical research.

2. Descriptive: These types of research are carried out to discover answer of those questions which are not on surface and management wants to surface them. In these studies researcher develop a profile of group under investigation and define subject. There are involved one or more than one variable effecting the problem. Descriptive studies are carried out in planning, monitoring and evaluating the policies. In descriptive study researcher observe the phenomenon and does not describe the reason.

3. Explanation: This type of study is based on theory and explain the reason for the phenomenon

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For example production in an organization continuously declining and manager wants to know the reasons behind this decline. The study carried out will be explanation

4. Prediction: These types of study are also based on theory and male recommendation for future implementation of recommendation. This type of study is carried out in business in some specific course of action or for future value or prediction

Is Research Is Always Problem Based?One prominent author define research as a “systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypothesis about the presumed relations among such phenomena” According to this definition all researches either applied which is carried out to solve current problems and or basic or fundamental which is carried out to enhance knowledge or understanding for future problems are based on problems. We know that different types of studies that is reporting, descriptive, explanation and prediction are carried out to solve or predict future values or forecast. So we can say that research is always based some types of problems.

How Scientific Is Business Research?Development of scientific methods in business research lags behind the physical science. Physical scientists are more rigorous (stick with their hypothesis) in their concept and research procedure. They have resources and strong theory development. Government also support them Business researchers have limited resources and are not so strict in following the procedure and rules. Business research are business secret and to disclose these secret means to loose business so they are kept secret and not shared with outside world where as physical research has no such restriction.Physical investigations are conducted under controlled environment in a laboratory where as business environment are not favorable under controlled environment. Business research is done to measure attitude, values, behavior of people in organizations and all these characteristics are continuously with the change of environment. Even with these obstacles business research has make great contribution in scientific field. New techniques are being developed and rigorous research procedures are advancing rapidly. New techniques and tools that a manager can used in business for decision making are available which make a manager successful having knowledge of it otherwise failure of his business

What is good research?A good research use scientific methodCharacteristics of a scientific method are 1. Purposeful: researcher must know the purpose of his research and problems should be

defined clearly. There should be no ambiguity in defining problems. The limitation and scope of research be clearly defined

2. Research procedure clearly defined: researcher should defined the procedure which he adapted during data gathering and interpreting so that when ever in future researcher or

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management want to evaluate his research, can understand the procedure followed and adapted by him.

3. Procedural design clearly defined: researcher should mention the appropriate representative ness of population or sampling used in design. Which types of study is, sampling units, measuring units effect of study etc should be clearly defined

4. Researcher should represent his report with full confidence and any flaws and weakness in procedural design should be clearly mentioned. Report should reflect confidence and precision.

5. Reliability and validity of data collection method: researcher should analyze the data and mentioned the methods of data collection and analysis. Which sampling method he used. Validity and reliability of data should be checked

6. Objectivity: researcher should confine to his finding and be specific to his area of interest. Conclusions should be limited to justify by data.

7. Researcher Reputation: Experienced researcher are more reliable and their work is more valued

Research and Decision MakingBusiness research helps management in decision making. Managers are responsible for final outcome by making right decisions at work. Knowledge of research provided information about innumerable internal and external factors of varied nature operating in the work and organizational environment. Complicated technology is available for organization and manager knowing importance and use can make best decision for its use. In this global world rapid information and their manipulation can create problems for organizations, and manager who is final authority for recommendation for implementation of equipments depends upon sharpness of manager decision making. Management having information about customers, products, employees and competitors can make appropriate decision. Thus knowledge of research greatly enhance the decision making skill of the manager

TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

Applied Research:Research done with the intention of applying the results of the findings to solve specific problems currently being experienced in the organization

Basic / Pure/ fundamental ResearchResearch done primarily (mainly) to enhance the understanding of certain problem that commonly occur in organization setting, and seek methods of solving them, the findings of such research contributes to the building of knowledge in the various functional areas of business. Such knowledge generated is usually later applied in organizational setting for problems solving.

OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH Case Study:

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Case study involves in-depth, contextual analysis of similar situation in other organizations, where the nature and definition of the problems happen to be the same as experienced in the current situation.

Action Research:Action research is sometime undertaken by consultants who want to initiate change processes in organization. In other words, action research methodology is most appropriate while effecting planned changes. Here, the research begins with a problem that is already identified, and gathers relevant data to provide a tentative problem solution. This solution is then implemented. The effects are then evaluated, defined, and diagnosed and research continue on an ongoing basis until the problem is fully resolved. Action research is constantly evolving project with interplay among problems, solution, effects or consequence, and new solution. A sensible and realistic problem definition and creative way of collecting data are critical to action research.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES1. Applied research is carried out to solve existing problems by investigating problems

and good managerial decision making2. the objective of basic research is to generate more knowledge and understanding of

the phenomena of interest and to build theories, based on the research results, such theories subsequently form the foundation of further studies of many aspect of phenomena

RESEARCH IN FUNCTIONAL AREA OF BUSINESS

In business research is conducted in functional area to solve problematic issue in, or interrelated among functional areas

ACCOUNTING1. Budget control system2. Practices and procedure are frequently examined3. Inventory control methods4. Accelerated depreciation5. Time series behaviors of quarterly earnings6. Transfer pricing7. Cash recovery rates8. Taxation methods are researched

FINANCE1. The operation of financial institution2. Optimum financial ratio3. Merger and acquisition4. Leveraged buyout5. Inter corporate financing6. Yield on mortgage7. Behavior of stock exchange

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MARKETING1. Product image2. Advertising3. Sale promotion4. Distribution5. Packaging6. Pricing7. After sale services8. Consumer preference9. New product development and other marketing aspects

MANAGEMENT1. Employees attitudes and behaviors2. HRM3. Impact of changing demographics on management practices4. Production operation management5. Strategy formulation information system

MANAGER RESEARCH RELATIONSHIPBeing knowledgeable about research and research methods help professional manager to:

1. Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting 2. How to discriminate goods from bad research3. Appreciate and be constantly aware of the multiple influence and multiple effects of

factors imposing on situation4. Take calculated risk indecision making, knowing well the probabilities associated

with the different possible outcome5. Prevent possible vested interest from exercising their influence in a situation6. Relates to hired researchers and consultant more effectively7. Combine experience with scientific knowledge which making decision

STYLE OF THINKINGDifferent people think problems differently. Scientific inquiry is a way by which people think

SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGEThere are different sources that provide help in scientific research. These are the sources through which a researcher reaches at his destination and find the answer of research question. These sources are:

EMPIRICISM: (empiric means based on experience only) People think or observes the thing on the basis of their past experience and method of logical deduction. Empiricism is often used in research where researcher face repeated problems and find the past solution will be implemented.

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RATIONALISMWe mean that reason is primary source of knowledge. Rationalist believes all knowledge can be deduced from known or basic truth nature

UNTESTED OPINION Untested opinion is a form of knowing that people stick to despite contrary evidence. “That is the way we always done it here” is phrase that confuses entrenchment and habit with efficiency

SELF EVIDENCE TRUTH:It could be deduced from known laws of nature for example people would die no matter what precaution were taken.

METHODS OF AUTHORITYWe rely on persons of authority to improve our confidence. Too often authority depends on status or positions rather that true expertise

LITERARY STYLEThe literary style is responsible for many classic case studies in social science. Case studies played a prominent role in the development of business knowledge

POSTULATION: assumption without proof

ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLE OF SCIENCE1. Direct observation of phenomena2. Clearly defined variable, methods and procedure3. Empirically testable hypothesis 4. Ability to rule out rival hypothesis5. The statistical rather that linguist justification of conclusion6. The self correctly process

THE HALLMARKS OR DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE

1. Purposiveness: Every research has a definite purpose. For example in organization manager wants to increase the commitment of employees. Then this research focuses on purpose of commitment.

2. Rigor: Rigor means careful, accurate and degree of exactness in research investigation. In example of employees manager may ask question from 12 to 15 to indicate employee’s commitment is not rigor. A rigorous research involves a good theoretical base and a carefully thought out methodology.

3. Testability: means that hypothesis developed can be testable and the data gathered support the logically developed hypothesis.

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4. Replicability: means that the result of tests of hypothesis should be supported again and yet again when the same type of research is repeated in other similar circumstances.

5. Precision and Confidence: Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to “reality” based on a sample. For example if we say that we results are close to 30 and 40 against actually 35 we say it precision but 20 to 40 is not precisionConfidence: refers to the probability that our estimations are correct that is when we say 95 % confidence there is chance of plus minus 5 of failure.

6. Objectivity: the conclusion drawn through the interpretation of results of data analysis should be objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of findings derived from the actual data, and not on our own subjective or emotional values. The more objective the interpretation the more scientific the research investigation becomes.

7. Generalize ability: Generalizability refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one organization setting to other settings.

8. Parsimony: means that our research framework will be simple not complex. A simple framework requires fewer variables to control that contribute to research and are economically beneficial for research.

FOUNDATION OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The Scientific Attitude: It is a phrase that if tool of thinking are the mind of science then the scientific attitude is the spirit. Scientific attitude compel the researcher to thinks scientifically about the thing. Searching, investigation gives the researcher to explore the things. If we look at all the discovery we see that these are all result of scientific thinking of researcher or scientists Understanding Theory: Theory, an assumption or system of assumptions, accepted principles, and rules of procedure based on limited information or knowledge, devised to analyze, predict, or otherwise explain the nature or behavior of a specified set of phenomena; abstract reasoning.

Sets of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena are theories.

Difference between Theory and HypothesisIt is very difficult to distinguish between theory and hypothesis because both involve concepts, definitions, and relationship among variables. The basic difference is the level of complexity and abstraction. Theories tend to be abstract and involve multiple variables, while hypothesis tend to be simple, two variable propositions involving concrete instances.

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Theory and ResearchIn research theory serves in many useful ways.

1. First as orientation, it narrows the range of facts we need to study2. Theory suggest that how the problems be studies and which way is most important for

better results3. Theory suggest for researcher the system for data gathering and classifying it in

meaningful way4. Theories summarize what can be observed and what is beyond the observation of

researcher.5. Theory can be used prediction of further facts

ModelModel is a representation of a system that is constructed to study some aspects of that system or the system as a whole.

CONCEPT: A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situation and the like. Classifying and categorizing objects or events that have common characteristics beyond the single observation create concepts

Source of concepts: 1. Shared usage developed concept2. Through personal experience3. Some concepts are unique to particular culture and are not easily translated

Importance to researchConcepts are basic to all thoughts and communication

1. We design hypothesis using concepts2. We devise measurement concept by which to test these hypotheses statements3. We gather data using these measurement concepts4. We invent new concepts to express ideas

The success of research depends on1. How clearly conceptualize and2. How well others understand the conceptive use

Problems in concept use:1. People differ in the meaning they include under the particular label. Different concept

like household, regular user, personality ( 400 definition of personality)Construct: is an image or idea specifically invented for given research and / or theory building purpose. Constructs are building by combing the simpler concept especially when the idea or image we intended to convey is not directly subject to observation.

2. Concepts and construct are easily confused

DEFINITION

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There are different types of definition; the most familiar are dictionary definition. In these a concept is defined with synonym. For example a customer is defined as patron: a patron in turn is defined as customer or client of an establishment

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION An operational definitional is one stated in term of specific testing criteria or operation. These terms have empirical referent ( that is we must be able to count, measure or in some other way gather the information through our sense)Whether the object is defined is physical (i.e machine tool) or highly abstract e.g achievement motivation) the definition must specify the characteristics to study and how they are to be observed. The specification and procedure must be so clear that any competent person using them would classify the object in the same way. The basic purpose of definition or operational definition is to provide an understanding and measurement concept.

VARIABLEA variable is any thing that can take on differing or varying values. The values can differ at various times for the same object or person, or at the same time for different object or person.

TYPES OF VARIABLESDependent Variable: the dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. The researcher’s goal is to understand and describe the dependent variable, or to explain its variability, or predict it. In other words it is the main variable that lends itself for investigation as a variable factor.

Independent Variable: An independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or negative way. That is, when the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present, and when each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable also.

Moderating Variable: the moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship. That is, the presence of a third variable (moderating variable) modifies the original relationship between the independent and dependent variable. Intervening Variable: An intervening variable is one that surface between the time the independent variable start operating influence the dependent variable and the time their

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New Product Success

Stock Market Prices

Independent VariableDependent Variable

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impact is felt on it. There is thus temporal quality or time dimension to the intervening variable. The intervening variable surfaces as function of the independent variable operating in any situation, and help to conceptualize and explain the influence of the independent variables on the dependent variable.

THOUGHT PROCESS:REASONING:Research problems are solved through reasoning. Every day we reason (think) with varying degree of success and communicate our message, called meaning, in ordinary language or, in special case, in symbolic, logical form.There are two type are reasoning Deductive Method: The process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a known factsExample: all high performers are highly proficient in their job. If Aslam is high performer we then conclude that he is highly proficient in his job.

Inductive Method:Induction is a process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusion. In other words, in induction we logically establish a general proposition based on observed facts.Example: production processes are prime feature of factories or manufacturing plants. We therefore conclude that factories exist for production purposes

Combining Induction & DeductionInduction and deduction processes are used in research reasoning in a sequential manner. It is also called double movement of reflective thought. Deduction occur when we observe a

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Training Game

Coach

Team Work

MV

DVIV

Intervening Variable

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fact and ask, “Why is this” answer this question we advance a tentative explanation (hypothesis). The hypothesis is a good if it explains the event or condition (fact) that prompted the question. Deduction is the process by which we test whether the hypothesis is capable of explaining the fact.

1. You push the light switch and find no light2. You ask the question “Why no light”3. You infer a conclusion (hypothesis) to answer the question and explain the fact that

the bulb is burned out4. You use this hypothesis to conclude (deduce) that the light will not go on when we

push the switch. We know from experience that a burned out bulb will not light.5. A new bulb put in the lamp will result in light when the switch is pushed6. We put in the new bulb and push the switch. The light goes on.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The theoretical framework is the foundation on which the entire research project is based. It is logically developed, described and elaborated network of association among the variable deemed relevant to the problem situation and identified through process as interviews, observation, and literature survey.

Proposition: A statement about concepts that may be judged as true, or false to observable phenomena.

HYPOTHESIS A hypothesis can be defined as a logically assumed relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement. Relationships are assumed on the basis of the network of association established in the theoretical framework formulated for the research study. By testing the hypotheses and confirming assumed relationship, it is expected that solution can be found to correct the problem encountered.

A proposition formulated for empirical testing is called hypothesis. Hypothesis also described as statements in which we assign variables to cases.

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Fact 1

Fact 2

Hypothesis

?

(Induction)

(Deduction)

(Deduction)

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Example: If the pilots are given adequate training to handle midair crowded situations, air-safety violation will be reduced

STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESES: FORMAT

1. IF-THEN STATEMENT Example: 1 Employees who are more healthy will take sick leave less frequentlyExample: 2 If employees are more healthy, then they will take sick leaves less frequently

2. DIRECTIONAL AND NON DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES If relationship between two variable terms as positive, negative, less than, more than and like then these are directional hypotheses

Example: the grater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of employeesIt is a directional hypothesis

Example: there is relationship between age and job satisfaction It is a non directional hypothesis

3. NULL AND ALTERNATE HYPOTHESES

The null hypothesis is a proposition that states a definitive, exact relationship between two variables. That is, it state that the population correlation (Population and sample means=0) between two variables is equal to zero or that the difference in the means of two groups in the population is equal to zero ( or some definitive number). In general, the null statement is expressed as no (significant) relationship between two variables or no (significant) difference between two groups. The alternate hypotheses, which is the opposite of the null, is the statement expressing as relationships between two variables or indicating difference between groups

Null Hypotheses HO: m= wWhere HO is null hypothesesm is mean motivational level of menw is mean motivational level of women

Alternate for the above is

HO: m> worHO: m< w

The role of Hypothesis: In research hypothesis play very important role

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1. It guides the direction of study.2. It limits the researcher what shall be studied and what shall not be3. It identify facts that are relevant and those that are not4. It suggest which form of research design is most appropriate5. It provide a framework for organizing the conclusion that result

Good Hypothesis A good hypothesis fulfill the three condition:

1. Hypothesis be adequate for its purpose. For descriptive hypothesis, this means it clearly states the condition, size, or distribution of some variable in term of values meaningful to research task. For exploratory hypothesis, it must explain the facts that give rise to the need for explanation.

2. Hypothesis must be testable: 3. Hypothesis must be better than its rival

BUILDING BLOCK OF SCIENCE IN RESEARCH

Deductive Method: The process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a known factsExample: all high performers are highly proficient in their job. If Aslam is high performer we then conclude that he is highly proficient in his job.

Inductive Method:Induction is a process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusion. In other words, in induction we logically establish a general proposition based on observed facts.Example: production processes are prime feature of factories or manufacturing plants. We therefore conclude that factories exist for production purposes

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BUILDING BLOCK OF SCIENCE

HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD

The seven step process in Hypothetico-Deductive Method1. Observation2. Preliminary information gathering3. Theory formulation4. Hypothesizing

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Theoretical Frame work or Network Association

Analysis of data

Interpretation of Data

Research Design

Hypothesis

Identification of Problem Area

Observation

Constructs Concept operational definition

Data Collection

Refinement of TheoryOr Implementation

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5. Further scientific data collection6. Data Analysis7. Deduction

RESEARCH PROCESS

STEP 1: THE BROAD PROBLEM AREAThe first step is the Identification of the broad problem through observation and focusing on situational factors. It is entire situation where manager see a possible need for research.Problems may be of four types:

a) current problemsb) areas where manager wants improvementsc) conceptual and theoretical issues which tightened the basic research to

understand the certain phenomena d) some question which researcher wants to answer empirically

STEP 2: PRELIMINARY DATA COLLECTIONe) Nature of data to be gatheri) back ground information of the organizationii) managerial philosophy, company policies, and other structural aspectsiii) perception, attitudes, behavioral response of organizational members and

client systemf) Literary survey i) reason for literary surveyii) conducting the literary surveyiii) identifying the relevant sourcesiv) extracting the relevant informationv) writing up the literature review

STEP3: PROBLEM DEFINITION Define problem using funnel techniques

STEP 4: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKa) Variables

STEP5: HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENTa) Statements of hypothesis

STEP 6: ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGNa) Purpose of study

i) explorationii) descriptioniii) hypotheses testingiv) case study

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b) types of investigationi) Causal versus correlationalii) Group differenceiii) Ranks

c) extent of researcher interference i) minimalii) normaliii) manipulationiv) control

d) study settingi) contrivedii) non contrived

e) Unit of analysis i) Individual, dyads, group, organization, culture

f) time horizon: cross sectional versus longitudinal studiesg) measurement of variable:

i) operational definitionii) Measuring Scales

a) Nominalb) Ordinalc) Intervald) Ratio

iii) Rating Scalesa) Dichotomous scaleb) Categoryc) Likert d) Numericale) Semantic differentialf) Itemized ratingg) Fixed or constant sum ratingh) Staplei) Graphicj) Consensus scale

iv) Ranking scalea) Paired comparisonb) Forced choicec) Comparative scale

h) Data collections methods:

THE SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDEIf the tools of thinking are mind of science, then the scientific attitude is the spirit. The scientific attitude set free the creative drive that makes discoveries possible. All scientists

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think scientifically and make discoveries. For example Newton third law of force was just his scientific attitude which makes discovery of force of gravity.

Unit:2

EXPLORATION:Exploration begins with the typically published data. There are two types of data1) primary data2) secondary data

Primary data is one which researcher first time collects

Sources of primary data: Observation Interviews Questionnaires

While secondary data means data already gathered by someone else and researcher collects his for their research.

Sources of secondary data: Books Novels Periodicals Magazine Journals

PRELIMINARY DATA COLLECTION

g) Nature of data to be gatheriv) back ground information of the organizationv) managerial philosophy, company policies, and other structural aspectsvi) perception, attitudes, behavioral response of organizational members and

client systemh) Literary survey vi) reason for literary surveyvii) conducting the literary surveyviii) identifying the relevant sources

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ix) extracting the relevant informationx) writing up the literature review

Data Collection

To the casual observer, it is the methods of data collection which may distinguish qualitative from quantitative approaches. Whereas quantitative researchers may make use of a wide variety of data collection instruments including

laboratory apparatus psychometric instruments

and other forms of pencil and paper tests,

The main data collection instrument of the qualitative researcher is often the researcher themselves. This is one reason why empathy between the researcher and the participants in a study is so important in qualitative research. It is also argued that only the human researcher is capable of recognizing and recording the often very subtle verbal and non-verbal cues which accompany social interaction. Thus the main task of the qualitative researcher is to record in as much detail as possible the events, the actions, and the behaviours of all participants in that event. This will include the responses of the individual, but also perhaps the pattern of interaction between individuals. Superficially this may seem relatively straightforward, and indeed this may be one of the reasons qualitative research seems so attractive, particularly to the inexperienced researcher. But what appears simple is in fact an immensely complex task and although there are tools available to assist in data collection and analysis, the complexity of this type of research should not be underestimated. It should also be noted that the techniques described below, although more likely to be used by qualitative researchers, may also be found in research which is more traditionally quantitative - the methods are not exclusive to a particular research approach, quantitative or qualitative.

One obvious way to collect this type of data is to keep a detailed set of notes which describe the interactions under study. However, since the researcher may be playing an active part in that interaction this is not always very easy to do. Nowadays it is common for researchers to make use of available technology to assist in the data collection - e.g. audio or even video recording. It should be noted however that even this may cause difficulties for some people, particularly if sensitive issues are being discussed. Obviously where recording is possible it should be used as this will improve the accuracy and objectivity of the data collected. Objectivity is important in qualitative research, and even though the researcher may have a closer relation with the participant than in quantitative research, the nature of this relationship, nor the ideological biases of the researcher should be allowed to confound the data collected. The data should be an accurate reflection of the "truth" for a given situation, otherwise the researcher is engaged in journalism, (or worse - fiction writing!) rather than research.

Focus groups are an increasingly popular technique used by both quantitative and qualitative researchers. A focus group is essentially a situation contrived by the researcher in which a

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number of people are brought together to discuss a particular issue. It may be thought of as a collective interview in which it is hoped that the participants, through their interaction, may provide data and insights which may not have been revealed through interviews with individuals. Even within this relatively simple scenario there are a number of variables which the researcher might manipulate. The size of the group, its composition in terms of age, gender, social class and so on may all be important. The degree of structure imposed by the researcher may be important - do they allow a totally open discussion between the participants or is more structure imposed in terms of the discussion points, time allows for discusses the nature of the research question, and the resources available will determine many of these factors. While the researcher might to some extent have an "open agenda" as far as the focus groups are concerned it is vitally important that they have clear aims and a well defined purpose for the focus groups.

The use of diary techniques by qualitative researchers is quite common. Diaries may be kept by the researcher or the participant in a study and may be a rich source of data which would be unobtainable using any other technique. The difficulty with using diaries as a research tool is in determining exactly what is to be recorded. Given that it is impossible to record everything the researcher must have clear criteria for determining what is to be recorded and what is not. This will be influenced by the nature of the study, but the researchers' own theoretical perspective may also be important. For example if a researcher was looking at the development of autism in young children, and believed that an environmental factor (e.g. diet) was significant, then they may ask parents of autistic children to keep a diary that included details of food intake. A researcher with a different perspective may not request that any information on diet be included in a diary but may (for example) choose to focus on social interaction. While there are many advantages in using diary techniques these types of studies will be particularly prone to accusations of observer bias and lack of generalisability. Comparisons between different diary studies, even of the same topic, are often fraught with difficulty.

Observation studies are of two basic types - participant and non-participant. As the name suggests, participant observation studies involve the researcher becoming an active participant in the study. For example a nurse who was interested in the social interaction between nurses may choose this approach to collect data. The extent to which a participant observer divulges their research to other participants will depend on the investigation. In some studies the researcher has let it be known to other participants that they are actively collecting data for a research project. However in other cases, such disclosure might prejudice the data collection and researchers have chosen to keep their activities secret from the other participants (notwithstanding the ethical problems with this!). Participant observation studies offer a number of advantages to the researcher, but there are of course also a number of difficulties. Advantages include the degree of flexibility offered by this approach. Although the aims of the study should be clearly defined, it is not unknown for this type of study to identify research questions which alter the direction of the research. Field research in which the social behaviour of groups of people is the focus of the research is more likely to reveal the "truths" sought, than the more objective techniques. Indeed for this type of research, a degree of participation by the researcher may be the only way in which data can be collected. The most obvious difficulty with participant observation is that the

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presence of the researcher (if known) may change the very behaviour under study. For a researcher to remain hidden from the other participants does not remove all the difficulties. Participating in the group activities may make the unobtrusive collection of data, at the very least, difficult, and some would suggest leaves the researcher open to accusations of bias and distortion. This would be especially so if the researcher had to rely on memory to record data on an event after a significant period of time - perhaps at the end of the day or even later. Participant observers will of course become involved with the group at a social and emotional level. This may well influence their own behaviour and their degree of involvement with the group - and this of course may change the very phenomena under study. There may also be ethical problems for the researcher, e.g. if the group under study is involved in illegal (euthanasia) or unethical (making jokes about patients) activities. If the researcher attempts to change this behaviour by the group then their research may well be compromised - even if the behaviour is not directly relevant to the research being undertaken.

The non-participant observer makes little or no attempt to hide what they are doing although they may seek to minimize their intrusion on the situation being observed. The degree of structure imposed by the observer on the situation under observation may vary quite considerably. At one extreme we have the fully controlled laboratory observational study, though experimental studies are usually excluded from this category. A typical laboratory observational study might put doctors into a typical interview situation in which actors play the part of patients. This would be useful if we were interested in the way doctors interact with patients while collecting a patient history. In another type of study we might install a video camera in an operating theatre to observe the behaviour of surgeons and how they interact with other members of the surgical team. In the former situation the people under study, would of course know this; in the latter study they may or may not depending on whether the researcher thought it was important. In terms of imposed structure, the laboratory situation allows a greater degree of control over the situation than does the field study in the operating theatre. The degree of control that can be exerted will of course influence the extent to which hypotheses may be formally tested. One of the main problems with any form of observational study concerns the reliability of the observational techniques used. These techniques may vary from the very detailed video recording of the situation to rather more crude time-sampling techniques in which pencil and paper records of the observed behaviour are made at different intervals of time over the research period. Not only are the instruments used to record the data important, but so is the person using the instrument, who may or may not be the researcher themselves. In clinical situations the researcher may be asking clinicians to record the observations and this may bring into question their reliability in the task. Clinicians are likely to be very busy with their routine tasks, they may not be well motivated or even interested in the research, indeed the research outcomes may have negative implications for their role in the health care team. It is always desirable in observational studies, where possible, to have some measure of observer reliability, and where more than one observer is being used, to have a measure of inter-rater reliability.

Data Analysis

Qualitative studies typically produce a great deal of data - audio and video recordings, interview transcriptions, descriptions of the situations observed. The researcher has to impose

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some form of order onto this data if it is to make sense and to contribute to our understanding of the research problem. Content analysis, or more commonly now, discourse analysis are techniques which have been developed specifically for sampling and analyzing data of this type. These procedures will initially require that the researcher samples from the wide range of materials that may have been collected. This may involve the researcher in decisions which are often more subjective than objective, but where possible the researcher should represent their inclusion/exclusion criteria clearly. In beginning the analysis of the data decisions about the coding units will also have to be made - these coding units may be individual words, phrase, themes, stories, characters etc. The time spent on a topic or its frequency of occurrence may also be used as coding units. Using the chosen coding units the data analysis might precede by simply identifying the number of times particular items occur, or it may introduce more sophisticated techniques e.g. requiring the researcher to indicate how confident they feel about a particular theme that emerges. Again problems of inter-rater reliability and the potential for researcher bias needs to be considered. In recent years computer packages (e.g. NUDIST) have been developed to aid the researcher with the data analysis.

It should perhaps be emphasized that unlike quantitative analysis which is usually the end point in a study, in qualitative research the analysis and theoretical statements which follow emerge from the data and often influence the subsequent direction of the research. Thus qualitative researchers may see the data analysis as part of the data collection phase of the research. Indeed supporters of Grounded Theory argue that researchers should put aside any theoretical preconceptions when they begin their research. The theory should emerge as the data is collected, rather than the researcher trying to impose a theoretical perspective on the situation before the data is even collected.

Qualitative research is often criticized for the degree of subjectivity and lack of rigour in the techniques used. Although they would argue that their methods produce richer, more valid data, qualitative researchers have developed other techniques aimed at improving the reliability and validity of their studies. Triangulation involves using two different methods to study the same phenomena, e.g. using observational techniques in conjunction with structured interviews. Hopefully both methods will reveal similar findings about the topic being researched. Qualitative research tends to operate iteratively i.e. the researcher cycles or repeats their research activities as themes emerge. This allows the researcher to test their assumptions and to check hypotheses in a wider context. One major difference between quantitative and qualitative approaches is that the qualitative researcher may involve the participants in the study in the analysis of the data. They may consult with the participants to check the validity of the conclusions arrived at. This would be very rare to find in a quantitative study.

THE ORIGIN OF RESEARCH NEED

Research is a sequential process involving clearly defined steps. It is not uncommon that there exist some variations in these steps, some steps are completed first and some continue along the pother steps. Some steps carried out simultaneously. However we can say that there is much similarity among sequence proposed.

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The sequence of the research process is given in the following diagram

Management Question Problem

Research Question

Exploration

Design

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Revision of Research and Investigative questions

Research Proposal

Question Answered

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Sampling

Budget and Value Assessment

Pilot Testing

Data Collection

Analysis and Interpretation

Result Report

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Project Planning

Revision of Measurement question and procedure

Stop

Data Gathering

Analysis,Interpretation,And reporting

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The research process (Uma Sekaran )

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1OBSERVATION

Broad problems area of research interest identified

2PRELIMINARY DATA

GATHERINGInterviewing literature survey

3PROBLEM DEFINITION

Research problem delineated

4THEORETICAL FRAME WORK

Variable clearly identified and labled

5GENERATION OF

HYPOTHESIS

6SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

DESIGN

7DATA COLLECTION

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

8DEDUCTION

HypothesisSustanited

Research question answered

9REPORT WRITING

10REPORT

Presentation

11Managerial DecisionMaking

Yes

No

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Academic Research Problems:

In an academic setting , a particular study may grow out of little more a student’s need to selects a research topic for class assignment. More serious academic research tends to be developed within the bounds of some theoretical framework. In classical it mey be testing of theory.

Tools/ Data Driven Research Problems

Availability of techniques is an important factor in deciding how research be done or whether a given study can be done. Person’s skills in given techniques are too blinded by their special competencies. Their concern for techniques dominates the decisions concerning what will be studied and how.

Management Research Problems

In business research problems originates from the needs of manager. There are so many needs of manager where he wants to make decisions.

For example: Decision making into three problems types

1) Choice of purposes or objective2) Generation and evaluation of solutions

3) Trouble/shooting or control situation

Formulating the research problems

Is it Researchable

Not all questions are researchable and not all research questions are answerable. To be researchable, a question must be one for which observation or other data collection can provide the answer. Question of value and policy can be weighed in management decisions.

Ill-defined question:

Some categories of problems are so complex, value – added, and bound by constraints that they prove to be intractable to traditional forms of analysis. These ill-defined or ill structured problems have characteristics that are virtually opposite those of well defined problems.

Questions Hierarchy

Management Questions: Represents a decision that a manager must make and is the problems prompting the research

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Research Question: Once a researcher has a clear statements of manager question, he must translate it into a research question: a fact oriented information question

Investigating Question: Investigative questions are those the researcher must answer to satisfactorily respond to general research question

Measurement Question: Are those we actually ask the respondents

Decision making and problems solving

Making Decisions

Decisions must be made at many levels in a business, from executive decisions on the goals and

objectives that a business wants to pursue, to the day to day repetitive operations performed by lower

level managers. By definition, a decision is a choice made from two or more alternatives. Through

careful analysis these alternatives can be identified from available opportunities or options. While

many decisions are made in order to solve problems, some decisions are more the result of

opportunities that present themselves. In many cases these opportunistic occasions may provide new

ways of doing things or be the beginning of new business if properly pursued and executed.

The formal decision making process:

1. Defining the problem or opportunity

2. Identifying limiting factors

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Management Question

Research Question

Investigative Question

Measurement Question

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3. Developing potential alternatives

4. Analyzing the alternatives

5. Selecting the best alternative

6. Implementing the decision

7. Establishing a control and evaluation system

Limiting factors help rule out many possible choices. Time and resources are

usually major limiting factor s to possible decisions.

Alternatives are the potential solutions that can be identified after considering the

limiting factors.

Analyzing the alternatives identifies the consequences, the pros and cons, the

advantages and disadvantages for each possible choice.

Selecting the best alternative is making the choice that offers the most advantages

and the fewest disadvantages.

Implementing the decision requires taking action to get results. This includes

communicating the decision to appropriate personnel and putting plans, programs, and

procedures into effect.

Establishing a control and evaluation system provides a feedback mechanism for tracking the

implementation of the decision, and allows for modifications or adjustments to be made as necessary.

Quality Decision Making

Decision makers should, to the best of their abilities:

1. thoroughly check a wide range of alternatives

2. gathers full range of goals and implications of choices

3. weighs costs and risks of both positive and negative consequences

4. Intensively search for new information for evaluating alternatives

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5. take all new information into account, even when it doesn't support initial course of

action

6. reexamine positive and negative consequences of all alternatives, including initially

rejected ones

7. make detailed provisions for implementation, including contingency plans for known

risks  

In business research decision making process is a discussed in Research Process By Uma Sekaran or Emory Models. Manager follows the process and at last make adequate decision

VALUING THE RESEARCH INFORMATION

Manager needs information to guide decision in specific area. An appropriate study may help manager avoid possible losses and increase profit.

Conceptually the value of applied research not difficult to determine. In business, research produces added value and increase revenue or reduce expenses.

Value of information may be judged in the term of’ “ the difference between the results of decisions made with the information and result that made without information”

EVALUATION METHODS:

Ex Post Evaluation: If there is any measurement of the value of research, It is usually an after the fact event. Manager make CBA and make decision.

Prior Evaluation: A proposal to conduct a through management audit of operation in a company may be a worthy one, but neither its costs nor its benefits are easily estimated in advance

Option Analysis: method by which management assessing the value of research when management has a choice a well defined option. Each alternative can be judged in term of associated cost and benefits associated with it, and a formal analysis can be conducted, but managerial judgment still plays a major role

Decision Theory: To compare two or more alternative, a manager must estimates the expected outcome of each alternative.

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Unit-4

THE NATURE OF MEASUREMENT

In a dictionary sense, to measure is to discover the extent, dimension, quantity, or capacity of

some thing, especially by comparison with a standard

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Measurement

Measurement in research consists of assigning number to empirical events in compliance

with a set of rules. This definition implies that measurement is a three part process

1. selecting observable empirical events

2. using the number or symbol to represent aspects of the events and

3. applying mapping rules to connect the observation to the symbol

What Is Measured

Concepts used in research may be classified as object or properties. Object includes the

things of ordinary experience, such as, table, people, books, and automobiles. Objects also

include things that are not so concrete, such as genes, attitudes, neutron, and peer group

pressure.

Properties are the characteristics of the objects. A persons physical properties may be stand

in term of weight, height, posture. Psychological properties include attitudes and intelligence.

Social properties include leadership ability, class affiliation, or status.

In a literal sense, researchers do not measure objects or properties. They measure indicants

(showing) of properties

MEASUREMENT SCALES

Sales classifications employ the number system. The most accepted basis for scaling has

three characteristics

1. Numbers are ordered. One number is greater than, less than, or equal to another

number.

2. Differences between numbers are ordered. The difference between any pair of

numbers is greater than, less than, or equal to the difference between any other pair of

numbers

3. the number series has a unique origin indicated by the number zero

Types of Scale Characteristics of Scale Basic Empirical Operation

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Nominal Scale No order, distance, or origin Determination of equality

Ordinal Scale Order but no distance or

unique origin

Determination of grater or

lesser values

Interval Both order and distance, but

no unique origin

Determination of equality of

interval or difference

Ratio Order, distance, and unique

origin

Determination of equality of

ratios

NOMINAL SCALES

Nominal scale partition a set into categories that are mutually exclusive and collectively

exhaustive.

Nominal scales are least powerful of the four types

They suggest no order or distance relationship and have no arithmetic origin. The scale

wastes any information about varying degree of the property being measured.

Nominal measures are especially valuable in exploratory study where the objective is to

uncover the relationship rather than secure precise measurement.

ORDINAL SCALE

Ordinal scale includes the characteristics of the nominal scale plus an indicator of order.

The use of ordinal scale implies the greater than or less than without stating how much

greater than or less than.

In ordinal scale we use as

Greater than or less than

Superior inferior

When more than one property is interested, than it can crate misleading concept for

researchers. For example when we compare colour, flavour or any other property

between

INTERVAL SCALE

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The interval scale has the power of both nominal scale and ordinal scale and plus one

additional strength. It incorporate the concept of equality of interval (distance between 1

and 2 is equal to distance between 3 and 4). Calendar time is such a scale

RATIO SCALE

Ratio scale incorporates all the power of previous ones plus the provision for absolute

zero origin. The ratio scale represents the actual amount of variation. Measure of weight,

height, distance and area are example

SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT DIFFERENCE

The ideal study should be designed and controlled for precise and unambiguous

measurement of the variables. Sine attainment of this ideal is unlikely; we must recognize

the sources of potential error and try to eliminate, neutralize, or otherwise deal with them.

The much potential is systematic (result from a bias) while the remainder is random

(occur unreliably) erratic

Four major error sources are

The Respondent as Error Source: Opinion difference will come from relatively

stable characteristics of respondent that affects the scores. Typically of these are

employees status, ethnic group, membership, social class, and nearness to plants

Respondent may also suffer from temporary factors like fatigue, boredom,

anxiety, or other distraction; like these limit the ability to respond accurately and

fully. Hunger, impatience, or general variation in mood may also have an impact

Situational Factors: any condition that places an strain on the interview can have

serious effects on the interviewer respondent rapport

The measure as an Error Source: the interviewer can distort response by

rewording, paraphrasing, or reordering question, careless tabulation, incorrect

encoding etc

Instrument as an Error Source: defective instrument can cause distortion in two

major ways. First it can too confusing and ambiguous

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND MEASUREMENT

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There are four criteria for evaluating a measurement tool

Validity

Ability

Practicability

Validity: many form of validity are mentioned in the research literature, and the numbers

expand the concern for more scientific measurement. There are most important are external

and internal validity

The external validity of research finding refers to their ability to be generalized across

persons, setting, and times.

Internal validity is the ability of the research instrument to measure for what its designer

claims it does.

Validity in this context is the extent to which difference found with measuring tools reflects

true difference among respondents being tested. The difficulty of meeting this test is that

usually one does not know what the true difference are; if one did , one would not do the

measuring.

There are three concept the improve validity

1. Content Validity: the content validity of a measuring instrument is the extent to which it

provides adequate coverage of the topic under study. If the instrument contains a

representative sample of the universe of the subject matter of interest , then content

validity is good

2. Criterion Related Validity: this form of validity reflects the success of measure used for

prediction or estimation.

3. Construct Validity: one may also wish to measure or infer the presence of abstracts

characteristics for which no empirical validation seems possible. Attitudes scales and

aptitude and personality test are generally concern concept that fall in this category.

Reliability: A measure is reliable to the degree that it supplies consistent result. Reliability is

a contributor to validity and is a necessary but not sufficient condition for validity.

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Reliability is concerned with estimates of the degree to which a measurement is free of

random or unstable error. Reliable instrument used frequently with confidence. And this

confidence is due to

1. Stability: a measure is stable if you can secure consistent results with repeated

measurement of the same person with the same instrument

2. Equivalence: a second perspective on reliability considered how much error may be

introduced by different investigators or different sample of items being studied

3. Internal Consistency: A third approach to reliability uses only one administration of an

instrument or test to assess consistency or homogeneity among the items

Improving Reliability: One can improve reliability if external sources of variation are

minimized and the conditions under which the measurement occurs are standardized

Practicality: The scientific requirement of project call for the measurement process to be

reliable and valid, while operational requirement call for it to be practical. Practicality has

been defined as economy, convenience, and interpretability.

1. Economy: some trade-off is usually needed between the ideal research project and

the budget.

2. Convenience: a measuring device passes the convenience test if it is easy to

administered

3. Interpretability: this aspect of practicality is relevant when persons other than that

the test designer must interpret the result

DEVELOPMENT OF MEASUREMENT TOOLS

Many concepts in business are easy to measure. For example , if you study wages and

workers benefits payments, you find they are stated in dollar amounts and accurate records

are kept. In other instances, researchers want to measure concepts such as motivation, sale

effectiveness or market potential. These concepts must be operationally defined by

developing a special measurement procedure.

This process involve four steps

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1. Concepts Development

2. Concepts Specification

3. Indicator Selection

4. Formation of Indexes

CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT: The first task is to develop the concept (construct). In

developing these ideas one must enumerate the specific ways the corporation may be

involved with various groups and what the nature of each of these involvement is

CONCEPT SPECIFICATION: the second task is to breakdown these concepts into various

components

INDICATORS SELECTION: once the dimensions have been set, the indicators to measure

each concept must be developed. Since there is seldom a perfect or absolute measure, several

possibilities should be considered. Indicators can be questions, statistical measures, or other

scoring devices.

FORMATION OF INDEXES: When there are several dimensions of a concept or different

measure for each dimension, it may be considerable to combine them into single index. It is

reasonable to believe that each individual indicator has only a probability relation to what we

really want to know. Any single indicator may not be fair representation of what is being

measured. Use of more than one indicator lends stability to the scores and improves their

validity.

THE NATURE OF SCALING

Business research concepts (constructs) are frequently complex and abstracts while the

available measurement tools can be crude (simple) or imprecise. We want valid

measurement, but we get something between the true score and test score. When the concept

is concrete and measurement tool is standardized, the variation between the true and test

score is small. When the concept is abstract (attitude toward various institutions) and

measurement tool is not standardized then you will not be confident test result reflects true

score.

SCALING DEFINED

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Scaling: is a procedure for the assignment of number ( or other symbol) to a property of a

objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in question.

What is defined: Procedurally, we assign numbers to indicants of the properties of objects. If

you wants to measure the temperature of the air, you know that property of temperature is

that it variation leads to an expansion or contraction of material such as mercury.

SCALE CLASSIFICATION

Selection of scale require the decision in six key areas

1. Study Objective: A scale may be designed to

a. Measure the characteristics of the respondents who complete it or

b. Use these respondents as judge of the objects or stimuli presented to them

2. Response Scale: Scale may be defined as categorical and comparative. These

approaches are also known as rating and ranking respectively. Categorical (rating

scale) are used when respondent score some objects without direct reference to other

object. In comparative (Ranking) scaling, the respondents are asked to choose which

one of pair is best one.

3. Degree of Preference: Scaling approach may also involve preference

measurement or non preference evaluation. In the former, respondents as asked to

choose object each favours or solution each would prefer. In the latter, they are

asked to judge which objects has more of some characteristics or which solution

takes the most resources, without reflecting any personal preference toward objects

or solutions.

4. Scale Properties: Scales approaches may also be viewed in the term of the scales

properties possessed by each. Such as nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval and ratio

scale.

5. Number Of Dimension: Scales are either unidimensional or multidimensional.

With unidimensional scale, one seeks to measure only one attribute of the

respondent or object. Multidimensional scaling recognize that an object might be

better describe in attributes space of n dimensions rather than on a unidimensional

range.

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6. Scales Construction: We can classify scale by the methods used to build them.

There are five scale design techniques

a. Arbitrary Approach: In which the scale is developed on an ad hoc basis.

b. Consensus Scale: A panel of judges evaluates the items to be included in the

instrument based on relevance to the topic area and lack of ambiguity.

c. Item Analysis Approach: Individual items are developed for as test that is

given to a group respondent. individual items are then analysed to determine

which one discriminate between persons or objects with high total scores and

low total scores.

d. Cumulative Scale: are chosen for their conformance to a ranking of items

with ascending and descending discriminating power.

e. Factor Scale: are constructed from Interco relation of items. Common

factors counts for relationship.

RESPONSE METHODS:

RATING SCALE: Rating scales have several response categories and are used to

elicit response with regard to the object, event, or person studied.

Rating Scales:

1. Dichotomous Scale: is used to elicit yes or no answer

2. Category Scale: use multiple items to elicit a single response

3. Likert Scale: is designed to examine how strongly subjects agree or disagree with

statements on five points scale

4. Semantic Differential: Several bipolar attributes are identified at the extreme of the

scale and respondents are asked to indicate their attitude

5. Numerical Scale: The numerical scale is similar to semantic differential scale with

the difference that numbers on the 5 points or 7 points are provided with bipolar

objective at end

6. Itemised rating Scale: A 5 point or 7 point scale with anchor ,as needed, is provided

for the each item and the respondent states the appropriate number on the side of each

item

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7. Fixed Or Constant Scale: The respondent are asked to distributes a given number of

points across various items

8. Stapel Scale: This scale simultaneously measure the direction and intensity of the

attitude toward the item under study.

9. Graphic Rating Scale: a graph is used to represent the answer of the question

10. Consensus Scale: A panel of judges evaluates the items to be included in the

instrument based on relevance to the topic area and lack of ambiguity

RANKING SCALES

Ranking scales make comparison between or among object, events, or persons and elicit

the preferred choice and ranking among them.

1. Paired Comparison: Is used when, among a small number of objects

respondents are asked to choose between two objects at a time. Formula

(n ( n+1))/2

2. Forced Choice: The forced choice enables respondent to rank objective relative

to one another, among the alternative provided.

3. Comparative Scale: The comparative scale provides a benchmark or a point of

reference to assess attitude toward the current object, event, or situation under

study

PROBLEMS IN USING RATING SCALE:

1. Leniency error: The error of leniency occurs when a respondent is either is an “easy

rater” or “hard rater”. The latter is a negative leniency. The raters are inclined to

score those people higher whom they know well and with whom they have ego-

involved. There is also opposite to this situation- where one rates acquaintance

(Social contact) lowers because one is aware of the leniency danger and attempts to

counteract it.

2. Central Tendency: The raters are reluctant to give extreme judgement, and this fact

accounts for the error of central tendency.

3. Halo Effect: The halo effect is the systematic bias that the rater introduces by

carrying over a generalized impression of the subject from one rating to another.

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SCALE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES ARBITRARY SCALE

Arbitrary scales are designed by collecting several items that are believed are unambiguous

and appropriate to given topic. Some are chosen for inclusion in the instrument. Consider the

following example for image of company

How do regard company reputation

1 As place to work bad - - - - Good

2 As a place of civic project bad - - - - Good

3. For ecological concern bad - - - - Good

4 As employer of minorities bad - - - - Good

We might score each of these from 1 to 5 depending upon the degree of favorableness

reported. The results may be studied in several ways. Total may be made by individual items,

by company, by company as palace of work, for ecological concern and so on. Totals for

each company, or for individual may be calculated to determine how they compare to others.

Based on a total for these four items, each company would be scored from 4 to 20 by each

respondent. These data may be analyzed from a respondent centre point of view. Thus, we

might use attitude score of each individual to study difference among them

Advantages:

Easy to develop

Inexpensive

Highly specific

Disadvantages

Designed approach is subjective

No evidence that respondent view each item with same frame of reference

CONSENSUS SCALE

Consensus scale require that items are selected by a panel of judges who evaluate them on

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1. relevance to topic area

2. potential for ambiguity , and

3. the level of attitude it represents

A widely used approach is Thur-Stone Differential Scale

A Differential Scale also known as the method of Equal appearing Interval was developed to

create an interval rating scale for attitude measurement. Often 50 or more judges evaluate a

large number of statements expressing different degree of favorableness toward an object.

There is one statement per card. The judges sort each card into 1 of 11 piles representing

their evaluation of the degree of favorableness that the statements express. The judge’s

agreement or disagreement with the statement is not involved. Three of the 11 piles are

identified to the judges by labels of “favorable” and “unfavorable” at the extreme and

“neutral” at the midpoint. The eight intermediate piles are unlabled to create the impression

of equal –appearing interval between the three labled positions.

The scale position for a given statement is found by calculating its medial score. A measure

of dispersion, usually the interquartile range, is calculated for each statement. If a given

statement has large interquartile range, it is judged to be too ambiguous to be used in final

scale. Statements included in the finale attitude scale are selected by taking a sample of those

with median scores spread evenly from one extreme to other and with small interquartile

range.

Advantages:

differential scale are reliable

Disadvantages

It is costly

Time consuming

Involve 50 or more individual for decisions

ITEM ANALYSIS

The item analysis procedure evaluates an item based on how well it discriminates between

those persons whose total scores is high and those whose total score is low. The most popular

type using this approach is summated scale

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Summated scale consists of statements that express either a favorable or unfavorable attitude

toward the object of interest. The respondent is asked to agree or disagree with each

statement. Each response is given a numerical score to reflect its degree of attitude

favorableness, and the score are totaled to measure the respondent’s attitude.

The most frequently used form is the likert scale. With scale the respondent is asked to

respond to each statement by choosing one of five agreement choices

Example

I consider my job rather unpleasant

Strongly Agree Agree Neither Agree nor Disagree

Disagree Strongly Disagree

1 2 3 4 5

The number indicates the values to be assigned to each possible answer with 1 indicating the

least favorable degree of job satisfaction and 5 the most favorable.

CUMULATIVE SCALE

Total score on cumulative scale have the same meaning. Giving a person’s total score, it is

possible to estimate which item were answered positively and negatively. The major scale of

this type is Guttman scalogram. Scalogram analysis is a procedure for determining whether

a set of items forms a unidimensional as defined by Guttman. A scale is said to be

unidimensional if the responses fall into a pattern in which support of the item reflecting the

extreme position results also in supporting all items that are less extreme.

Suppose we are surveying the new style of running shoe. We have developed a preference

scale of four items as follow

1. Style X is good looking

2. I will insist on style X next time because it is great looking

3. The appearance of style X is acceptable to me

4. I prefer style X to other style

Respondents are asked to express themselves on each item by indicating whether agree or

disagree. If these items form a unidimensinal scales, the response pattern will be approach

the ideal configuration as shown

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Ideal Scalogram Response Pattern

Items

2 4 1 3 Response

x x x x 4

- x x x 3

- - x x 2

- - - x 1

- - - - 0

x = agree

- = disagree

In developing a Scalogram, one first define the universe of content. Assume you are

interested in attitude of people toward television advertising. You might define the universe

of content as “viewer attitude toward TV advertising” the second step is to develop items that

can be used in pretest that tell us if this topic is scalable. Guttman suggest that a pretest

includes 12 or more items, while the final scale may have only 4 to 6 items. Pretest

respondent numbers may be small say 20 or 30 but final scale use should involve 100 or

more respondents

Take the pretest results and order the respondents from top to bottom – form those with the

most favorable totals to least favorable. Then order the statements left to right from the most

favorable to least favorable. The next step is to discard those statements that fail to

discriminate well between favorable and unfavorable respondents. Finally calculate a

coefficient of Reproducibility (CR)

Reproducibility = 1- e/n(N)

Where e is the number of errors, n is the number of items, and N is the number of cases.

Reproducibility should be 0.90 or better for a scale to be considered uni-dimensional

FACTOR SCALE:

Factor Scales includes a variety of techniques that have been developed for two problems

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1. how to deal with the universe of content that is multidimensional and

2. How to uncover underlying dimension that have not been identified.

There are many approaches used for factor scale but most important is

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL (SD)

This scaling method developed by Osgood and his associates, is an attempt to measure the

psychological meanings of an object to an individual.

Semantic differential is based on the proposition that an object can have several dimension of

connotative meaning. The meanings are located in multidimensional properties space, called

semantic space.

This method consist of a set of bipolar rating scale, usually seven points, by which one or

more respondents rate one or more concepts on each scale items. The scale items appears as

Good ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ____: Bad

Passive ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ____: Active

SD Scale for Analyzing Candidates for an Industry Leadership Position

(E) Sociable (7) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (1) Unsociable

(P) Weak (1) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (7) Strong

(A) Active (7) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (1) Passive

(E) Progressive (7) ___: ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (1) Regressive

(P) Yielding (1) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (7) Tenacious

(A) Slow (1) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (7) Fast

(E) True (7) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (1) False

(P) Heavy (7) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (1) Light

(A) Hot (7) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (1) Cold

(E) Unsuccessful (1) ___ : ___: __: ___: ___: ___: ___: (7) Successful

Unit-5

Nature of Secondary Data Sources

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Every study is a research for information about some topic. Researchers are more confident of their information’s integrity by drawing from all relevant sources. Information sources are classified into two sources

1. Primary Data: Those come from the original sources and are collected especially to answer our research question. Researcher collects that information which he needed. He can specify its operational definition, eliminate it, or control and record it.

2. Secondary Data: Study made by other for their own purpose.

Purpose of secondary research

A. Provide descriptive, statistical information

1. Provide information about basic conditions concerning social, economic, and educational welfare of nation, state, locality.Provide information on severity and changing nature of a condition, problem

--e.g., teenage pregnancy, student achievementImportance of this function recognized by increased publication of statistical reports by state and federal agencies

2. Provide information to establish context and rationale for analytic study-e.g., dropouts

Descriptive information not highly valued in research community, often overlooked or de-emphasized but important to policymakers and public

B. Secondary/archival data can be used for analytic studies through secondary statistical analysis

C. Source of information on research design issues—sampling, questionnaire design, etc.

Uses of Secondary Data

Secondary data are used for three research purpose1. They fill a need for a specific reference on some point.

Examples: Uses of Wheat last Year, Export of Sports equipments etc2. Secondary data is an integral part of a large research study. Research procedures

typically call for some early exploration to learn if the past can contribute to the present study.

3. Secondary data may be used as the sole basis for research study.

Steps in Using Secondary Data

1. Locating

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2. Accessing3. Evaluating

a. Purpose of studyb. Organization who conducted itc. Information collected (how was it measured?0d. When information collectede. How information obtained (how representative)f. Consistency with other information

4. Analyzing5. Reporting

Advantages of Secondary Data: Can be found more quickly and cheaply Less costly than primary data In some cases is prohibited

Disadvantages Secondary data may not meet specific information It is collected by other for their own purpose, it definition, units of measure, and

different time involved It is difficult to assess the accuracy of the information because one knows little about

research design or the condition under which research occurred Secondary information are often out of date

Types of Secondary Sources Documentary sources Survey sources Multiple source

Documentary• Organization’s records • Organizations’ communications

(internal and external) – Primary data not secondary

• Books, journals, newspapers, etc.– Secondary

• Use of a table on, say, consumer expenditure

Government surveys and economic statistics Censuses

– Census of Population– Census of Employment

Continuous and regular surveys– General Household Survey– Labour Force Survey

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Official statistics– Mainly time-series

On the basis of above mentioned types of sources we can divide sources into two types Internal sources External sources

Internal SourcesInternal sources of organization data are so varied that it is difficult to provide generalization about their use. Main sources are all the departments of an organization

Management Accounting Research and development Marketing Finance MIS Interviewing of Secretaries of company

External SourcesAll the sources outside the organization are external sources. But published sources of data are classified into five categories.

1. Computerized Databases: they are composed of interrelated data files. The files are sets of records grouped together for storage on some medium. Assess may be through on line of VD-ROM

2. Periodical: the 32nd edition of Ulrich’s International Periodical Directory lists approximately 140000 periodicals worldwide.

3. Books: it is estimated that 47000 books title are published in US annually4. Government Documents: 5. Diverse material from special collection. Within this category there are many

reference books, university publication, doctoral dissertation and research record. Company publication such as financial statements etc.

Research ProcedureAn important source of data collection is library.

Electronic and Traditional Library: First step to conducting research in a library is to decide which source will provide access to the data need to collect. Indices are available for both electronic and traditional library

Search for Bibliography: bibliography makes the entire research project more efficient because you quickly find an inventory of a material on subject. By inspecting the title s, authors, dates and other indexing information, you can selects the priority sources for further study.The logical first step to learn is whether any one else has already prepared a bibliography on the subject. In contrast to electronic library manual library are time consuming and costly but can be used as search for data collection.

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EVALUATING SECONDARY DATASecondary data evaluating depends upon two forms

1. Data Pertinency2. Data Quality

Data Pertinency means having logical precise relevance to the matter at hand. Or we can say the how well do the data fit the research need

Data quality means that what confidence you can put in the accuracy and legitimacy of the data. The question of data quality is first a question of data accuracy. It is good research practice to go to the original source of the information rather than use an intermediate source that has quoted from the original. This enables you to avoid any error in transcription and review the cautionary and other comments that went along with the original data. Finally you may uncover revisions that have been made in the data since the intermediate source use it.Another aspect of data accuracy concern with it completeness: how does the reported material cover? Is it based upon a narrow sample, a large population or what? Answer to these questions may suggest that data are nor appropriate for the problem. Another aspect Data quality concern the capability of sources of the data. In this context there are two concerns

1. First are the persons who conducted the study people in whom you can have confidence? Are they highly regarded? Is their organization well regarded

2. Second aspect of source capability concern the original source: Could the respondent answer this question? What are the chances that the respondent would know and be willing to give such information under the study condition?

A concern that any investigator has in studying the quality of secondary data is the degree to which the accurately reflects reality.

Unit-6

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SURVEY

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To survey is to question people and record their response for analysisStrength: The greatest strength of questioning as primary data collection techniques is its versatility

Surveys are more efficient and economical than observationSurvey by using telephone or mail can cover moiré geographical area

Weakness: Quality of information depends upon the respondent cooperation Reasons for non-cooperation may be:

1. respondent gives no value to participation in survey2. they may feel fear for some personal information in personal interviews3. they may have not knowledge about specific topic4. respondent may interpret the topic indifferent meanings5. respondent intentionally misled the researcher by answering false information

Application: the most appropriate applications are those where respondents are uniquely qualified to provide the desired information

PERSONAL INTERVIEWINGA personal interview (face to face) is a two way conversation initiated by an interviewer to obtain information from a respondent.

EVALUATION OF THE PERSONAL INTERVIEW1. depth and detail information are secured2. interviewer observe behavioral cues of interviewee3. interview can not condition of interview4. interviewer have control over condition5. they can use securing devices for measuring 6. interviewer can adjust the respondent language

SUCCESS REQUIREMENTThree broad conditions must be met to have a successful personal interview. They are

1. availability of needed information from the respondent2. an understanding by the respondent of his role3. adequate motivation by the respondent to cooperate

INTERVIEWING TECHNIQUES

1. Increasing Respondent Receptiveness: The first goal in an interview is to establish a friendly relationship with the respondent. Three factors will help with respondent receptiveness. The respondent must

a) believe the experience will be pleasant and satisfyingb) think the survey is important and worthwhilec) have any mental reservation satisfied

2. The Introduction:

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Interviewer should immediately identify themselves by name and organization, showing any special identification

3. If the respondent is busy or away:If it is obvious that the respondent is busy, it may be a good idea to give a general introduction and try to stimulate enough interest to arrange an interview at another time. For contracting the proper respondent establish good relationship

4. Good Interviewing Relationship:The successful interview is based on the good rapport meaning a relationship of confidence and understanding exist between interviewer and respondent

5. Gathering The Data:Interviewer interprets the exact wording of question and probe into

6. Recording the interview:Record the response as they occur if you wait then you miss some valuable information

7. Selection and Training:The job requirement for interview includes some college experience, good communication skill, flexible schedule, willingness to work and mobility

PROBLEMS IN PERSONAL INTERVIEWING1. Non Response Error:

Availability is an important source or error fro personal interview. This non response error occurs when you cannot locate whom you are supposed to study. It is difficult in probability sampling.Solution to non response is to make call back. If enough attempts are made it is usually possible to contact most target respondent

2. Response Error:When the data reported differ from the actual data, response error occur

3. Interviewer Error:a) when interviewer not establish good cooperation with respondentb) interviewers are inconsistent of way of interviewingc) when interviewer fail to obtain or motivate the respondentd) interviewer are expensive

TELEPHONE INTERVIEWINGTelephone interview helps in setting up personal interviews and screening population for unusual types of respondents. It is unique mode of communication.

EVALUATION OF TELEPHONE INTERVIEW1. Telephone interview offer low cost

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2. response rate is high3. no requirement of administrative cost and supervision

TYPES OF TELEPHONE INTERVIEWComputer –assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) : telephone interview can be

conducted by using personal computer and recording the interview by saving time and money.

Computer-administered telephone survey: there is no interviewer. A computer calls the phone number, conducts the interview, place data into file for later tabulation, and terminates. The questions are voice –synthesized and the respondents answer and computer timing triggers continuation or disconnect. This mode is often compared to self-administered questionnaires and offers the advantages of respondent privacy.

SELF ADMINISTERED QUESTIONNAIRE/ MAIL SURVEYAdvantages of Mail Survey: Efficient for volume of information collected People more likely to provide frank, thoughtful, honest information, tension-free situation Gives people more time to complete the questionnaire all respondents receive

same questions in printed form—free from bias

Disadvantages of Mail Survey: Low response rate One or two follow-ups are needed for a good return Questionnaire must be easy to understand Difficult to summarize open-ended questions Accurate mailing lists are required Overuse of this method may make some people reluctant to respond Privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity must be assured Can be expensive Scope is limited results may be misleading if only respondents who are interested

in topic respond

IMPROVING RETURNResponse of mail survey can be improved by different techniques. These are

1. Follow Up: Follow-up or reminders are very successful in increasing response rate2. Preliminary Notification: advance notification particularly by telephone is effective

in increasing response rate

There are many other techniques1. Questionnaire Length: 2. Survey Sponsorship3. Return Envelopes4. Postages5. Personalization6. Cover Letters7. Anonymity8. Size, Reproduction and color

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9. Money incentive10. Deadline Dates

Data collection and analysis table

Method What it measures Advantages Disadvantages ExampleExisting Information Records, files, receipts,

historical accounts, personnel records, reports, etc.

readily available minimal cost data available on a wide

variety of characteristics

can be accessed on a continuing basis

descriptive data can provide insight into

program that cannot be observed in any other way

user may need to sort, discriminate and correlate

takes time figures may represent

estimates rather than actual accounts

does not reveal individual values, beliefs, or reasons underlying current trends

past Plans of Work are reviewed to determine program trends, or changes

personnel records -are examined to determine pre-professional training of employees

Case Studies the experiences and characteristics of selected persons in a project

generally utilized with a small number of individuals or groups

procedures evolve as work progresses, no confining categories of classifications

allows depth of in-sight into relation-ships and personal feelings

can be effectively used in combination with other methods, such as survey and observation

unique opportunity to study organization, group, etc., in depth

can be tailor made to specific situations

requires absolute accuracy

can be very subjective time consuming—

requires extensive amounts of data

focus is on a limited number of cases; cannot necessarily be generalized to larger community.

not suitable as a method in isolation, best for a back-ground or as a guide to further study

several cases are needed for best analysis

a few participants from each program are visited about their experience. Their colleagues are interviewed

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MethodsWhat it measures Advantages Disadvantages Example

Surveys (Includes personal interviews, drop-off questionnaires, telephone interviews.)

opinions, attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, reactions, and attributes in response to specific questions

can be inexpensive sample can be used to

provide information about a population

can provide an opportunity for many people to be involved in decision-making process

can be used to record behaviors as well as opinions, attitudes, beliefs and attributes

usefulness enhances if combined with other methods, i.e., observation or case study

samples must be carefully selected to ensure statistical meaning.

subject to misinterpretation, depending on how questions are designed and asked

tendency for scope of data to be limited—omission of underlying behavioral patterns

time-consuming compared with less formal methods

agents report how frequently they use certain resource center materials

workshop participants indicate their likes and dislikes about the program offered

MethodWhat it measures Advantages Disadvantages

Example

Mail Surveys opinions, attitudes,

beliefs, behaviors, reactions, and attributes in response to specific questions

efficient for volume of information collected

people more likely to provide frank, thoughtful, honest information, tension-free situation

gives people more time to complete the questionnaire

all respondents receive same questions in printed form—free from bias

low response rate one or two follow-ups

are needed for a good return

questionnaire must be easy to understand

difficult to summarize open-ended questions

accurate mailing lists are required

overuse of this method may make some people reluctant to respond

privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity must be assured

can be expensive scope is limited results may be

misleading if only respondents who are interested in topic respond

extension personnel asked their opinion of staffing

extension clientele questioned to deter-mine level of satisfaction with extension programming

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MethodWhat it measures Advantages Disadvantages

Example

Telephone Surveys response rate is high cost is competitive with

mail survey speedy and efficient

source of data researcher can provide

clarification on unclear questions

respondents are more relaxed with a stranger by telephone than face to face

interviewer can read questions from script and take notes without concern of distracting respondents

respondents cannot read the interviewer’s body language

time consuming telephone numbers are

needed proportion of unlisted

numbers or households without phones may cause frame error

questions should still be simple and easy to understand (no more than five response categories)

interviewer’s voice or identity may lead to some biasing

respondents may feel interview is an invasion of privacy

interviewer has little opportunity to “loosen up” the respondent

interviewer cannot read respondents’ body language

scope of survey is limited

interviewer training may be necessary

workshop participants called to determine reaction to program

extension personnel called to assess their opinion of the pre-service training process

MethodWhat it measures Advantages Disadvantages

ExampleGroup Administered Survey

opinions, attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, reactions, and attributes in response to specific questions

can collect a lot of data inexpensively by having everyone at a meeting or program complete the survey form

easy to clarify items which present difficulty

provides greatest sense of respondent anonymity

good method to collect baseline and attitudinal data

high response rate can be used for

quantitative and qualitative methods

may require the cooperation of others (i.e., school administrators, etc.)

reach only those who are present

group dynamics may affect individual responses

opportunity for researcher influence

end of meeting, program questionnaire

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MethodWhat it measures Advantages Disadvantages

ExampleINTERVIEWS

Personal person’s responses and views

easier to reach those who are considered unreachable (the poor, homeless, high status, mobile, etc.)

may be easier to reach specific individuals (i.e., community leaders, etc.)

higher response rate likely

more personalized approach

easier to ask open-ended questions, use probes and pick up on nonverbal cues

qualitative or quantitative

may be most expensive method

slowest method of data collection and analysis

responses may be less honest and thoughtful

interviewer’s presence and characteristics may bias results

interviewer should go to location of respondent

respondents who prefer anonymity may be inhibited by personal approach

may reach only a smaller sample

district specialist interviews program participant about program and instructor

Group person’s responses and views

less expensive and faster than personal interviews

personalized approach group members

stimulate each other

respondents who prefer anonymity may be inhibited by personal approach

input may be unbalanced because some group members dominate

group members and interviewer can bias responses

data more difficult to analyze and summarize

focus group

MethodWhat it measures Advantages Disadvantages

ExampleObservation particular physical and

verbal behaviors and actions

setting is natural, flexible and unstructured

evaluator may make his/her identity know or remain anonymous

evaluator may actively participate or observe passively

can be combined with a variety of other data collection methods

most useful for studying a “small unit”

the evaluator has less control over the situation in a natural environment

Hawthorne effect—if group is aware that they are being observed, resulting behavior may be affected

observations cannot be generalized to entire population unless a plan for

record how frequently 4-H campers use the appropriate safety measures

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such as a classroom, Extension Council, etc.

representativeness is developed

if observer chooses to be involved in the activity, he/she may lose objectivity

not realistic for use with large groups

MethodWhat it measures Advantages Disadvantages

ExampleMass media/public hearings

opinions, ideas all citizens would have an opportunity to respond

teleconferencing, call in, and town meeting methods would be quick methods of obtaining input

the “extremes” of a population tend to respond—those definitely “for” or “against”

use of public television and teleconferencing is limited to those who have access to public television and a phone

public hearings are time consuming, especially for the interviewers

summary and analysis of data can be difficult

response to public hearings is affected by location, distance & date

use of public television to address the national issue of “Youth at Risk”

public hearing or community meeting concerning environmental issues of use of pesticides and water quality

Interviewing Techniques: It is important that the interviewer ask the question properly, records the response accurately and probe meaningfully. To achieve these aims interviewer must be trained to carry out those procedures that foster a good interviewing relationship.

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Unit-9

PROPOSAL

Proposal may be defined as a kind of report in which the person consult, analyze the specific problems or issue and then submit proposal to solve the problems, to change the procedure, to find the answer of an important question, offer advise and training to carryout research for the improvement of products or services or procedure.

PURPOSE OF PROPOSAL:The proposal are generally requires or asked to solve the problems changing the procedure, to construct the plan or to improve good and services etc. such as the govt. may require the proposal for to sell the property, to construct the building, to clean the city and traffic control.

TYPES OF PROPOSALThere are two types of proposal.1. Research proposal: The research proposals are academic in nature. These proposals may be solicited or unsolicited. If govt. agency request or asked for proposal it will be solicited proposal. And if some one put proposal without any request it will be unsolicited.2. Business Proposal: These proposals may be solicited or unsolicited. These proposals are prepared specifically to solve the business problems to improve the business activities.

PARTS OF PROPOSAL

1. Title Page: it is covering page of report and consist ofa) Topic of report or title of report

It is the topic of report on which report is written. b) To whom submitted

Name of person or organization to which report is submitted.c) By whom submitted.

Name of person submitted report. d) Date/ department

First write name of department and then date

2. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY/ABSTRACT:It facilitate the reader to get the over view of the proposal rather than to read the entire proposal. It summarizes how the objective wills be met and what procedure will be followed. It is most important part of proposal.

3. DRAFT AGREEMENT/CONTACT:This part of proposal contains written term and conditions.

4. TABLE OF CONTENT:

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Brief proposal usually do not require table of content. Long proposal do require one as well as list of table figure, and illustration.

5. INTRODUCTION: It may consist of

a) Purpose: Here we will define that how this proposal will facilitate the respondent, organization or person who required proposal.

b) Problems: First define the problem that why we changing the proposal. What are the problems for which this proposal is preparing?

c) Scope: Define the boundaries of proposal. This proposal can be effective within these limits and ineffective beyond these limits.

d) Project Team: Mentioned the name of team takes part in proposal. Who lead the team, experience of participants, qualification, pervious proposal planned etc.

e) Back Ground: Tell about company previous experience, proposal prepared and effective in fields. How companies earned profit by adopting proposal of this company.

f) Procedure: What procedure we will adopt.g) Equipment and facilities: Equipment required for this proposal. Technology

adopted or will be adopted. Machinery required etc.h) Personnel: Human resource used in project.i) Budget: It is most important part of proposal. First of all allocate budget for

proposal. j) Appendix: It contains photograph and other related information.

Business report

Business report

A business report is an impartial, objective, planned presentation of facts to one or more persons for a specific, significant business purpose. The report facts may pertain to events, conditions, qualities, progress, results, products, problems or suggested solutions. They may help the receivers understand a complex business situation, carryout operational or technical assignment, or plan procedure, solve problems, ad make policy decision about strategic planning.

STEPS IN REPORT WRITINGSix steps to be taken before preparing reports

1. Define the problems, purpose of report.First step in report writing is to show the problems on which the report is based and give his purpose.

2. Consider who will receive the report.

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While reporting a report keep the person or organization in mind who will consider this report. So that it should be according to understand level of receiver.

3. Determine ideas to include.Get an idea of source to which you may turn.

4. Collect needed material.For collection of material that may support your idea, you may adopt (a) Primary research. (b) Secondary research.

5. Sort, analyze and interpret data.Analyze your idea, suggestion in report and if there is some special them interpret it.

6. Organize data and prepare final outline.Means arrange in systemic form and prepare the main structure of the report on the basis of that data.

Research report section and their order of inclusion

Report ModulesShort Report Long Report

Memo or Letter

Short Technical Management

Technical

Prefatory information 1 1 1 Letter of transmittal √ √ √ Title page √ √ √ Authorization Letter √ √ √ Executive Summary √ √ √ Table of contents √ √Introduction 1 2 2 2 Problems √ √ √ √ Research objective √ √ √ √ Background √ √ √ √Methodology Briefly 3 3 Sample design √ Research design √ Data collection √ Data analysis √ Limitation √ √ √Finding 3 4 4Conclusion 2 4 3 5 Summary and conclusion

√ √ √ √

Recommendation √ √ √ √Appendices 5 5 6Bibliography 7

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PARTS OF REPORTPrefatory Items Prefatory materials do not have direct bearing on the research itself. Instead, they assist the reader in using the research report

1. Letter of Transmittal: When relationship between the researcher and client is formal, a letter of transmittal should be included. It is important when a report is for a specific client and when generated for an out side organization. The letter should refer to the authorization for the project and any specific instructions or limitation placed on the study. It should also state nad explain the purpose and scope of study.

2. Title Page: it is covering page of report and consist ofb) Topic of report or title of report

It is the topic of report on which report is written b) To whom submitted

Name of person or organization to which report is submitted.c) By whom submittedName of person submitted report

d) Date/ departmentFirst write name of department and then date

Here are some suggestionsi) Remember 5 W’s ii) Keep title short, eight to ten words desirableiii) Consider subtitleiv) Avoid title that is vague, extremely shortv) Eliminate judgment term

3. Fly Title: It is same as title page

4. Authorization Letter: when the report is sent to public organization, it is common to include a letter of authorization showing the authority for undertaking the research

5. Executive Summary: an executive summary serves two purpose

It may be a report in miniature- covering all the aspects in the body of the report in abbreviated form

It could be a concise summary of the major findings and conclusions including recommendation. Two pages are sufficient for executive summary. Write this section after the rest of the report is finished

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6. Table of Contents: It contains information about chapter and topic of report.

INTRODUCTIONIntroduction prepares the reader for the report by describing the parts of project it includes:

Problems Statement: The problems statement contains the need for the research project. The problems is usually represented by a management question Research Objective: Research objectives address the purpose of the project BackgroundBackground material may be of two types

1. It may be the preliminary results of exploration from an experience survey, focus group, or another source.

2. It could be secondary data from the literature review

METHODOLOGY: In short reports and management reports, the methodology should not have a separation section. Then it should be mentioned in the introduction with details placed in an appendix. However, for a technical report, the methodology is an important section. It contains a least five parts

1. Sample Design: The researcher explicitly define the target population being studied and sampling methods used

2. Research Design: The coverage of design must be adapted to the purpose. In an experimental study, the material, tests, equipment, control conditions, and other devices should be described

3. Data Collection: This part of the report describes the specifics of gathering the data.

4. Data Analysis: This section summarize the methods used to analyze the data

5. Limitations: this section includes the area which researcher can’t cover or not allowed for study.

FINDINGS: This is the longest section of the report. The objective is to explain the data rather than draw interpretation or conclusion. When quantitative data can be presented this should be done as simply as possible with chats, graphs and tables.

CONCLUSION:

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Summary and Conclusion: The summary is a brief statement of the essential findings. Sectional summaries may be used if there are many specific findings Conclusion may be presented in a tabular form for easy readings and reference

Recommendation: this section includes suggestion for further

List of illustration: It carries the information about table, graph, design and list.

Enclosure/Appendix: It contains supporting evidence for points made in report.

Bibliography: it contains the reference of books, paper and report consulted in compilation of report.

Index: Alphabetically list of topics.

TYPES OF REPORT

1. Information report: In this report you want to summaries the report. There are many kind of report.

a) Conference report: Points of meeting, meeting attended by people. It includes all the decision and points discussed. The text of such reports usually organized by topic discussed or presented simply.

b) Progress report: It shows the progress, accomplishment or activities in overtime or at given stage of major assignment.

c) Periodic report: The report of specific period, and time. eg. Weekly, quarterly, monthly or annual. it is the summary of activities undertaken within specific time period.

2. Analytical report : The analytical report carried out in order to analyze the situation or problems. It may end with or without specific recommendation.

3. Justification-Recommendation Report: Persuasion is center to the recommendation report. In the recommendation reports after analysis the situation we made the certain recommendation for specific problems.

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4. Letter report: simply a report in letterform and it is often used to send information from outside organization. There are two types of letter reports.(a) Information letter report (b) Analytical letter report

Sampling Design

Population: Population refers to the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes to investigate.

Element: An element is a single member of the population

Population Framework: The population frame is a listing of all the elements in population from which the sample is drawn. The payroll of an organization would serve as the population frame if its members are to be studied.

Sample: A sample is a subset of the population.

Subject: A subject is a single member of the sample, just as an element is a single member of the population.

Sampling: Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from population, so that a study of the sample and an understanding of its properties or characteristics would make it possible for us to generalize such properties or characteristics to the population elements.

Parameters: characteristics of population are called parameter. Such as population means, population standard deviation or variance. Reason for sampling:

It would be practically impossible to collect data from, or test, or examine every element

Even if it is possible it would be prohibited in term or cost, time and human resource. Sample study create more reliable result than population in some cases Fatigue is reduced and error are removed in sample study In some cases study of entire population is impossible like electric bulb.

Probability Sampling: The elements in the population have some known chance or probability of being selected as sample subject

1. Unrestricted or Simple Random Sampling: Every element of the population has a known and equal chance of being selected as subject.

Advantages: High generalizability of finding.

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Disadvantages: not as efficient as stratified sampling

2. Restricted or complex Probability sampling: An alternative to unrestricted sampling. There are five types of it

Systematic sampling: The systematic sampling design involves drawing every nth element in the population starting with a randomly chosen element between 1 and n.

Advantages: easy to use if population frame is availableDisadvantages: systematic biases are possible

Stratified Random Sampling: It involves a process of stratification or segregation, followed by random selection of subject from each stratum.

Advantages: Most efficient among all probability designDisadvantages: Stratification must be meaningful.

More time consuming than sampling random sampling or systematic sampling

i. Proportionate stratifies sampling: If the subjects drawn are proportionate then it is called proportionate stratified sampling.

Advantages: All groups a have adequately sampled and comparison among groups are possible.

ii. Disproportionate stratified sampling: if subject drawn are disproportionate then it is called disproportionate stratified sampling

Disadvantages: Population frame for each stratum is essential

3. Cluster Sampling: Groups that have heterogeneous members are first identified; then some are chosen at random; all the members in each of the randomly chosen groups are studied.

Advantages: In geographic clusters, costs of data collection are lowDisadvantage: the least reliable and efficient among all probabilities sampling design since subject of cluster are more homogeneous than heterogeneous

i. Single stage cluster sampling: Involves the division of the population into convenient clusters, randomly choosing the required number of clusters as sample subject, and investigating all the elements in each of the randomly chosen cluster

ii. Multistage Cluster Sampling: Multistage cluster sampling involves a probability sampling of the primary sampling unit. From each of these

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primary units, probability sample of the secondary sampling unit is then drawn; a third level of probability sampling is done from each of these secondary units and so on.

4. Area Sampling: Cluster sampling within a particular area or cluster.

Advantages: cost-effective. Useful for decision relating to particular locationDisadvantages: take time to collect data from an area

5. Double Sampling: The same sample or subset of the sample is studied twice.

Advantages: offer more detailed information on the topic of studyDisadvantages: original biases, if any, will be carried over. Individual may be not be happy responding a second time

Non- Probability Sampling: The elements in the population have not known chance or probability of being selected as sample subject

1. Convenience sampling; the most easily accessible member are chosen as sample.

Advantages: Quick, convenient, less expensive.Disadvantages: not generalizable to all.

2. Judgment Sampling: subjects selected on the basis of their expertise in the subject investigated

Advantages: some time, the only meaningful way to investigateDisadvantages: generalizability is questionable; not generalizable to entire population.

3. Quota Sampling: Subjects are conveniently chosen from targeted groups according to some predetermined number or quota.

Advantages: very useful where minority participation is a study is criticalDisadvantages: not easily generalizable

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Business Research Methods

Marketing research

Research

Research covers the search for and retrieval of information for a specific purpose. Research has many categories, from medical research to literary research.

Types of business research

Businesses engage primarily in four types of research:

Marketing research - Marketing research (also called "consumer research") comprises a form of applied sociological study which concentrates on understanding the behaviours, whims and preferences, mainly current and future, of consumers in a market-based economy.

Market research - Market research has a broad scope and includes all aspects of the business environment. It asks questions about competitors, market structure, government regulations, economic trends, technological advances, and numerous other factors that make up the business environment. (See Environmental scanning.) Sometimes the term refers more particularly to the financial analysis of companies, industries, or sectors. In this case, financial analysts usually carry out the research and provide the results to investment advisors and potential investors.

Product research - This looks at what products can be produced with available technology, and what new product innovations near-future technology can develop. (see New Product Development)

Advertising research - This attempts to assess the likely impact of an advertising campaign in advance, and also measure the success of a recent campaign.

Types of marketing research

Marketing research techniques come in many forms, including:

test marketing - a small-scale product launch used to determine the likely acceptance of the product when it is introduced into a wider market

concept testing - to determine if consumers consider a concept useful

mystery shopping - An employee of the company conducting the research contacts a salesperson and indicates they are shopping for the product they sell. They then record the entire experience. This method is often used for quality control or for researching competitors products.

store audits - to determine whether retail stores provide adequate service

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demand estimation - to determine the approximate level of demand for the product

sales forecasting - to determine the expected level of sales given the level of demand

customer satisfaction studies - exit interviews or surveys that determine a customer's level of satisfaction with the quality of the transaction

distribution channel audits - to assess distributors’ and retailers’ attitudes toward a product, brand, or company

price elasticity testing - to determine how sensitive customers are to price changes

segmentation research - to determine the demographic, psychographic, and behavioural characteristics of potential buyers

consumer decision process research - to determine what motivates people to buy and what decision-making process they use

positioning research - how does the target market see the brand relative to competitors? - what does the brand stand for?

brand name testing - what do consumers feel about the names of the products?

brand equity research - how favourably do consumers view the brand?

All of these forms of marketing research can be classified as either problem-identification research or as problem-solving research.

A similar distinction exists between exploratory research and conclusive research. Exploratory research provides insights into and comprehension of an issue or situation. It should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme caution. Conclusive research draws conclusions: the results of the study can be generalized to the whole population.

Both exploratory and conclusive research exemplify primary research. A company collects primary research for its own purposes. This contrasts with secondary research: research published previously and usually by someone else. Secondary research costs far less than primary research, but seldom comes in a form that exactly meets the needs of the researcher.

Types of marketing research methods

Methodologically, marketing research uses four types of research designs, namely:

Qualitative marketing research - generally used for exploratory purposes - small number of respondents - not generalizable to the whole population - statistical significance and confidence not calculated - examples include focus groups, depth interviews, and projective techniques

Quantitative marketing research - generally used to draw conclusions - tests a specific hypothesis - uses random sampling techniques so as to infer from the sample to the population - involves a large number of resondents - examples include surveys and questionnaires

Observational techniques - the researcher observes social phenomena in their natural setting - observations can occur cross-sectionally (observations made at one time) or longitudinally

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(observations occur over several time-periods) - examples include product-use analysis and computer cookie traces

Experimental techniques - the researcher creates a quasi-artificial environment to try to control spurious factors, then manipulates at least one of the variables - examples include purchase laboratories and test markets

Researchers often use more than one research design. They may start with secondary research to get background information, then conduct a focus group (qualitative research design) to explore the issues. Finally they might do a full nation-wide survey (quantitative research design) in order to devise specific recommendations for the client.

Some commonly used marketing research terms

Many of these techniques resemble those used in political polling and social science research. Meta-analysis (also called the Schmidt-Hunter technique) refers to a statistical method of combining data from multiple studies or from several types of studies. Conceptualization means the process of converting vague mental images into definable concepts. Operationalization is the process of converting concepts into specific observable behaviours that a researcher can measure. Precision refers to the exactness of any given measure. Reliability refers to the likelihood that a given operationalized construct will yield the same results if re-measured. Validity refers to the extent to which a measure provides data that captures the meaning of the operationalized construct as defined in the study. It asks, “Are we measuring what we intended to measure?†�

Applied research sets out to prove a specific hypothesis of value to the clients paying for the research. For example, a cigarette company might commission research that attempts to show that cigarettes are good for one's health. Many researchers have ethical misgivings about doing applied research.

Sugging forms a sales technique in which sales people pretend to conduct marketing research, but with the real purpose of obtaining buyer motivation and buyer decision-making information to be used in a subsequent sales call.

Frugging comprises the practice of soliciting funds under the pretense of being a research organization.

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