Top Banner
Cardwell Raheem Cardwell Dr. Goodwin Media Criticism 4/24/12 Examining the Social Influence of Athletes Professional athletes in the United States enjoy celebrity status. People of all ages are captivated by the lives and careers of these individuals. However, because professional athletes have such a significant influence on society it is important to examine the role of these individuals from a social and ethical perspective. Such analysis poses questions about the social responsibility athletes have to their communities. In depth exploration of this topic provides insight into the social effect of athletes and the need for society to hold these individuals to an increasingly higher standard. Social Influence of Athletes Athletes make up a class within the American society that is both preferred and exclusive. Many young Americans strive diligently to obtain the skills and resources needed to become professional athletes. Children are motivated to become athletes 1
37

Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Apr 14, 2017

Download

Documents

Raheem Cardwell
Welcome message from author
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
Page 1: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

Raheem Cardwell

Dr. Goodwin

Media Criticism

4/24/12

Examining the Social Influence of Athletes

Professional athletes in the United States enjoy celebrity status. People of all ages are

captivated by the lives and careers of these individuals. However, because professional athletes

have such a significant influence on society it is important to examine the role of these

individuals from a social and ethical perspective. Such analysis poses questions about the social

responsibility athletes have to their communities. In depth exploration of this topic provides

insight into the social effect of athletes and the need for society to hold these individuals to an

increasingly higher standard.

Social Influence of Athletes

Athletes make up a class within the American society that is both preferred and

exclusive. Many young Americans strive diligently to obtain the skills and resources needed to

become professional athletes. Children are motivated to become athletes because in many cases

it provides them with a higher social status. Parents of children tend to foster this desire for more

economic reasons. For example, youth who excel in sports may receive scholarships to colleges

or universities. If a youth grows into a professional athlete there is a very good chance he or she

will make a significant amount of money as well.

The media plays a substantial role in creating the ideal image when it comes to

professional athletes. Various forms of media provide feedback constantly about the

characteristics associated with good athletes. The media rarely acknowledges the difficulty

1

Page 2: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

athletes face when it comes to living up to very high standards and ideas. However, the media

also contributes to the problem by emphasizing this ideal over other factors related to the athlete.

The majority of focus is on the athlete's physique and performance (Moses 48).

Athletes have a strong influence on people from all aspects of society, including

politicians. Edwin Moses explained that politicians are less concerned with the problematic

aspects of professional sports such as drug abuse, and more concerned with the amount of

revenue professional sports provide. "Politicians want new stadiums built for their constituents,

and photo opportunities with the big-name pro sports stars" (48).

Social Influence of the Media

The effects theory, pertaining to the social effect of the media, examines the impact of

media on the audience. This particular theory holds that the audience has little if any power to

resist the messages delivered by the media - particularly the larger media outlets. The theory

describes the audience as consumers of the media products, who are heavily influenced by the

material presented. The impact of the media is both intended and unintended. However, if

theories such as the effect theory have any true basis it means that the media has an ethical

obligation to address this effect by reporting in a responsible way.

The effect theory has a strong foundation when looking at psychological theories, such as

behaviorism. Conditioning is a form of learning that occurs through repetition. Two forms of

conditioning exist, such as operant and classical. The traditional theory of learning through

conditioning, known as classical conditioning, occurs when a response becomes paired with a

neutral stimulus. When the neutral stimulus is combined with a particular response repeatedly it

causes the response to occur nationally upon presentation of the stimulus. This was observed in

dogs that salivated to the sound of a tuning fork or bell in Ivan Pavlov's early studies on

2

Page 3: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

digestion. Classical conditioning was discovered by accident, but it has significant implications

on behavioral training (Trick, Hogarth, and Duka 758).

Studies have found that the media is most influential when it invokes an emotional

response or tells a kind of story in the narrative sense. Professional athletes are heavily profiled

in the media because the stories of these players are easily transferable to a narrative that may

invoke an emotional response and maintain the attention of the media's audience. The reaction to

these forms of media is known as transportation. When transportation occurs, the person

experiencing the media in either print of visual form, becomes immersed in the experience.

Though the activity of reading or viewing the media source requires concentration, it can feel

effortless to the person doing it (Green, Kass, Carrey, Herzig, Feeney, and Sabini, 514).

When the media repeatedly covers topics that promote transportation in the audience the

effect is akin to conditioning. A person may experience an emotional reaction upon reading

about an athlete or viewing media pertaining to the athlete. Feelings such as admiration, envy,

desire, pride, and others are quickly associated with the image of the professional athlete. The

audience may not realize the impact the media is having on them as they are more likely to focus

on the emotional reaction they have, regardless of the degree; however, these correlations are

made inside of a person's mind (Green, Kass, Carrey, Herzig, Feeney, and Sabini, 519).

The media equates professional sports with success. Inspirational stories are told about

how some people fight hard to reach the point of playing for a professional team. Emotions are

linked with stories about professional athletes who are injured, only to recover and return to the

game they purportedly love. The difficulty of becoming a professional athlete, the money

associated with the salary of professional athletes, and the lifestyle people perceive these

individuals as living is very alluring.

3

Page 4: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

People from any kind of background in America can hold out hope of becoming a

professional athlete. Though there is significant emphasis on being exposed to the right clubs and

training at an early age, the media has published countless stories about athletes who seemed to

beat all of the odds. Inspirational stories have a dramatic effect on people, particularly vulnerable

populations such as children and young adults who are seeking to find their way in the world. It

is difficult, from a perspective of critical analysis, for these people to balance the concepts

presented by the media with the realities of being a professional athlete. For example,

professional athletes face enormous pressure to sustain a body that is promoted by the same

media that glorifies the athlete's very existence. Though this is hypocritical, it is not presented as

such.

The media meets the needs of the consumers it serves. When looking at Maslow's

Hierarchy of needs it becomes easier to see how the media addresses and meets very specific

needs. Higher needs on the pyramid, such as social and ego are the ones that have the greatest

effect (Waclawksy 36). The social need pertains to the desire people have to be accepted. The

media presents athletes as an exclusive group of people who are not just accepted by society, but

are admired. From an ego perspective, the media propels the image of the professional sports

athlete as a person who has status and prestige. The impact this has on the consumer is that they

can experience that same status and prestige by becoming professional athletes. This effect is

well documented within literature addressing the pressure children have to get involved in sports.

This pressure is felt on the part of the children's parents as well. This issue will be further

addressed in more detail.

At the top of Maslow's pyramid is self-actualization. This is the hardest state to reach for

any human being and yet it is the one that holds the greatest amount of promise. The media does

4

Page 5: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

not focus heavily on self-actualization from a direct perspective because of the implications

(Datta 40). However, the idea is that a person cannot achieve this elevated state of being without

having all underlying needs met first. Social and ego needs are the more difficult needs to fulfill.

These are the two the media emphasizes to the greatest degree when it comes to professional

sports and athletes. The media thereby ignores lower level needs such as safety by failing to hold

professional athletes responsible for their function as a role model. To be fair, this is a

conundrum because the media propels this image and makes the athletes appealing to the public,

but this does not detract from the responsibility a professional athlete has when it comes to living

up to their status.

The effect of the media is not always bad. In fact, the effect can be very positive and the

media, when used responsibility, can act as an impetus for people to accomplish great things.

The foundation of media is to collect and disseminate information to large audiences. An

informed audience is in a better position to make decisions, provided the audience receives a

balanced assessment of the facts and recognizes fallacies in arguments made by politicians,

leaders, reporters, and other sources of information.

It is important to note that the average person trusts the media to do all of the above.

Younger people are especially susceptible to the messages the media sends and to the effect the

information has because they lack experience when it comes to deconstructing problematic

arguments. Some people, including young people, fail to engage in critical thinking on a constant

basis. Instead of digging beneath the surface of what the media presents, these people take it all

at face value.

The question that remains is whether or not the media has an obligation to address this

tendency on the part of people to accept the information at face value. The argument proposed

5

Page 6: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

here is that the media does have a social responsibility to inform the public of all sides of a

situation and to be mindful of the effect the media has on its consumers. Examination of

increased use of substances such as steroids demonstrates that young people have the belief that

improving their body is a step in the right direction toward becoming competitive as athletes.

Analysis of these issues demonstrates the lack of responsibility the media has shown

when it comes to holding professional athletes, trainers, coaches, and others responsible for not

educating the public on these matters properly. Moreover, knowing that the media has such a

dramatic effect on the consumer, the media then has a clear responsibility to think about matters

such as the ideal professional athlete and consider how the media perpetrates the false images

that youth are exposed to every day.

Impact on Youth

Many American children are encouraged to play sports early in their lives. Sports vary

somewhat in terms of popularity within different regions of the United States. Emphasis on

specific types of sports or athletic activities is usually based on regional and parental preferences.

On a country-wide basis, preferences in sports have changed over the past decades. Baseball and

football have traditionally been the more popular sports in the past, but that has changed in the

last decade. Basketball has emerged as the most popular team sport for children. Approximately

10 million youth play basketball on average (Woods 105).

In American communities parents are encouraged to get their children involved in sports

from a young age and to work toward getting on an elite team. Many families believe that getting

their children on elite or select teams early helps to secure the chances the youth will achieve

success later in school. This is somewhat erroneous because a number of professional athletes

6

Page 7: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

were unable to play on teams while in high school. Michael Jordan was cut from the high school

basketball team when he was in the ninth grade (Woods 114).

Many sports are seasonal, but overspecialization is a common phenomenon in American

society. Some sports that are seasonal in certain regions are extended in others due to climate or

other factors. Overspecialization appears to result from the desire of parents to help their children

achieve success in sports. However, this approach tends to produce more negative results than

positive ones. Kids who are pressured into playing one sport in particular are much more likely

to lose interest. The overexposure also hurts the children's chance of becoming successful at

another sport because if they reach a barrier in one sport, it becomes harder to try an alternate

sport (Woods 114).

The social pressure of becoming involved in sports is significant for many families.

"Pressure builds on kids and families to commit time, money, and long seasons and off-seasons

to one sport" (Woods 115). Parents recognize that the chances of their children becoming

professional athletes are small, but many describe feeling a strong need to encourage their kids to

get involved in sports anyway. Some parents provide justification for this by stating that it could

help the children to obtain a college scholarship.

Critics have analyzed this topic and determined that the costs associated with competitive

sports are high. Many families pay between $10,000 and $20,000 a year for a child involved in

sports. This money could be invested in an educational fund to ensure he or she has the money

for school. In fact, parents have no guarantee that colleges and universities will provide a

scholarship to their child. First, not all children are good enough at their respective sports to get a

scholarship. Second, budget cuts nationwide have reduced the number of scholarships available,

including athletic scholarships (Woods 115).

7

Page 8: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

Pressures of Sports

Professional athletes live under a microscope. The physical aspect of their appearance is

scrutinized almost as much as their skills as an athlete. For this reason, many athletes have used

various substances to enhance athletic performance. A common performance-enhancement

substance used by athletes is anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS). Nutritional supplements are

also used to increase or improve performance. The difference between the two is that one is

highly regulated and the rest are widely available (Millman and Ross 48).

Steroids are effective when it comes to producing desired physical changes, such as

increased muscle mass. However, steroids have a number of negative side effects. Steroids are

the most commonly abused drug among athletes, professional body builders, and most recently,

adolescents. Anabolic steroids are a class of drug designed to simulate the effect that the

hormone testosterone has on the human body. There are two main effects of laboratory-produced

steroids: androgenic and anabolic. Androgenic effects are those that increase a person’s

development of primarily male sexual characteristics, such as facial hair and chest hair. The

anabolic steroids are much more sought after as the effects include an increase in muscle and

body mass (Bonetta 19). Many people are unaware of the danger such usage can cause and

others choose to ignore the danger completely.

The use of steroids, without the medical supervision of a doctor, is illegal due to the

number of health risks associated with using the drug. Some of these health risks include, but are

not limited to: tumors, cancer, jaundice, severe acne, trembling, and behavioral abnormalities.

There are a number of risks that pertain mostly to male gendered users, such as: low sperm

count, infertility, baldness, prostate cancer, and a number of other unpleasant side effects. In

women the drug has been known to promote the growth of facial hair, deepen the woman’s

8

Page 9: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

voice, and even cause baldness. For adolescents the results are more severe and often more

permanent as the use of anabolic steroids among adolescents interrupts the normal pattern of

growth and development (Grimes and Melloni 1242).

For the above reasons, the use of steroids is highly regulated. Steroid use among athletes

is The drug causes many physical and psychological problems among its users – some of which

are irreversible. In the past decade the amount of adolescents using the drug has increased

exponentially The use of steroids among adolescents is directly related to pressures to become

involved in athletics (Grimes and Melloni 1248). Public awareness needs to be raised about this

important issue to education people on the dangers of using steroids, but the increase in the

number of adolescents using the substance point to other social issues as well.

There is a lack of data available when it comes to the prevalence of steroid abuse within

the United States. It is known that steroid abuse occurs in people of various ages and is most

commonly abused among athletes. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) estimates that

between one and six percent of athletes use anabolic steroids. Many of the studies done on drug

use in the Unites States do not currently include the use of steroids (Denham 2050).

It is also difficult to determine how many professional and non-professional athletes use

dietary supplements to enhance performance. There are a number of these supplements that are

legal and available over-the-counter. These substances are not regulated and they are not

approved by the Food and Drug Administration. Consistent and reliable studies have not been

done to determine the effects of these drugs. One supplement that is available is known as

“Andro”. This is a legal substance that, when introduced into the body, is converted into

testosterone. Even though it is proven that the substance converts into a form of testosterone in

9

Page 10: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

the body, scientists have not been able to confirm that the substance results in any of the desired

effects the users expect from the substance (Millman and Ross, 49).

There are other steroidal supplements available on the market, such as creatine. Very

little is known about the long term effects of these supplements. If these supplements

successfully increase the amount of testosterone in a person’s body, the side effects can

reasonably be expected to be similar to those directly linked with the use of steroids.

Supplements have varying degrees of risk, depending on the individual supplement and its side

effects.

The increased use of steroids and steroid-related performance enhancement substances

has become more popular among adolescents. A reason for this might be that more youth are

looking for ways to achieve a competitive edge in sports. Another might be the lack of

knowledge and education in reference to the negative side effects both in the short-term and in

the long-term (Denham 2045).

The perceived dangers of the drug have decreased among high school seniors over the

past ten years. In 1998, a little over 68% of high school seniors perceived the drug to be

extremely harmful; while in 2005, that number dropped to almost 58%. A 2006 study funded by

NIDA determined that 2.7% of all high school seniors have abused steroids. This number has

increased since 2000, when the same study reported that 2.5% of seniors had abused the drug.

The use of steroids has increased among high school girls as well. Between 1991 and 1996 the

rate of steroid use among these girls doubled (Denham 2050).

In 2005 the Center for Disease Control reported the results of their own study which

showed that nearly 5% of all high school students have used a form of steroids without a doctor’s

prescription at least once. In 2006, when high school students were asked to report how easy it

10

Page 11: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

was for students to obtain steroids over 60% of high school seniors reported that it was “fairly

easy” or “very easy” (Denham 2050).

There are a lack of studies that evaluate the true influence of professional athletes and

athletics on adolescents. For example, a few studies explore the use of steroids among children

and teenagers, but only touch the surface when it comes to identifying the reasons why the

numbers of adolescents who use abuse these substances are increasing. Future studies should

seek to examine the extent of the correlation between the idealization of professional athletes

among adolescents and their corresponding use of performance enhancing substances.

The media is a significant contributor to the problem of steroid use among professional

athletes. Media sources evaluate athletes according to their physique and performance in the

athlete's sport. The media has long been responsible for perpetuating images of the ideal male

and female body. The ideal image of the professional athlete depends partially on the sport.

However, commonalities are found such as emphasis on muscle mass among the men and lean

muscle among the women (Radomski 42).

The problem with the media's role in perpetuating the image of the ideal athlete is two-

fold. First, the media praises and celebrates male professional athletes who are bigger and

stronger than their competitors. A great deal of focus in American society is placed on achieving

the perfect body. In many sports, strength and muscle mass as associated with high athletic

performance. While this may or may not be the case in all sports, it is a persistent belief

(Radomski 43).

Accounts of steroid use and abuse in professional sports are abundant. Baseball is an

example of a sport that has experienced a high prevalence of steroid abuse. The problem became

serious throughout the 1990s. Kirk Radomski was a clubhouse employee and batboy for the New

11

Page 12: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

York Mets between 1985 and 1995. He was eventually prosecuted for his role in distributing

various types of drugs to major league baseball players, including steroids. Radomski stated the

following: "There was absolutely no doubt in my mind that just about everybody in the game,

from the clubbies to the team owners, knew that players were using anabolic steroids, human

growth hormones, and other substances. It was a secret shared by thousands of people" (44).

The problem of steroid abuse among athletes has been documented throughout the media

over the past few decades. Despite knowledge that the problem is prevalent and serious, the

media has never taken action to redefine the ideal image of the professional athlete. Teenagers

are especially vulnerable to this false image. In 2005, Donald Hooten and Frank Marrero testified

before the House Government Reform Committee about their sons' abuse of steroids. Both boys

committed suicide as teenagers. The teenagers viewed a number of professional baseball players

as role model. The father of one child testified that the professional baseball players who served

as his son's role models were cowards (Rutstein 95).

A second way the media contributes to this problem relates to the way it approaches

coverage of scandals or issues involving a professional athlete's use of steroids. The media

focuses far less on the dangers of using steroids among professional players, the pressure placed

on athletes to conform to ideal body standards, and additional underlying problems that

accompany steroid abuse. Instead, the media focuses on the sensational aspect of steroid abuse in

terms of emphasizing stories where a professional athlete is penalized for using steroids, without

delving into the aspects of that abuse that might be less appealing to the reader. For example,

steroids is known to negatively interfere with all aspects of a person's life (Stone 42).

Though the media is quick to report a professional athletes abuse, or suspected abuse of

steroids, there is little to no push for the professional athletes who use steroids to accept the

12

Page 13: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

responsibility of failing as role models. Instead, the media addresses the legal ramifications of

steroid abuse as well as the consequences in sports such as the removal of an athlete from a

professional team.

The media places no real accountability on the people who make the abuse of steroids

possible in professional sports either. The media does not suggest that people who turn a blind

eye to the problem or even directly contribute to it should be held to a greater degree of

accountability. This sends a confusing and contradictory message to the public. People who read

or view the media may question the true dangers of abusing steroids, especially since some

coaches and other people who are charged with taking the health of professional athletes very

seriously, allow steroid abuse on their teams. The media's failure to demand accountability is a

major problem that downplays the health perspectives that are so dramatic in the lives of those

who use steroids.

The media, in many forms, trivializes the issue of steroids in smaller and more subtle

ways as well. An example of this pertains to the abundantly used expression within the media

that something is on steroids as an equivalent to describing it as being bigger or better. This type

of word usage associates an otherwise negative word with positive words. This practice seems

small and meaningless, but combined with other factors it can be influential.

The media has the power to increase accountability among professional athletes and those

who work with them. The media is used by the public as a social advocacy tools in some

situations. Further, the media is a means of collecting and disseminating information to the

public. This means that the media has the power and ability to prompt others to take action when

it comes to this matter, such as requiring better monitoring of players and their use of illegal

substances. However, the media has yet to take advantage of this ability.

13

Page 14: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

Athletes as Role Models

Cora Caulfield examined the issue relating to professional athletes as role models to

America's youth. Caulfield pointed out that there are few professional athletes who are known

both for their athletic performance and their academic accomplishments. An easy answer to this

issue is that many professional athletes do not take ownership of their status as a role model.

Caulfield wrote, "Charles Barkley once said in a Nike commercial, 'I am not a role model. I'm

not paid to be a role model. I'm paid to wreak havoc on the basketball court.'" (21).

While it is true that athletes are primarily paid to perform well at a particular sport, many

athletes receive endorsements from major companies. Many changes have occurred in America

regarding a company's role within its community and its obligations to its stakeholders. This

matter is referred to as corporate social responsibility. The two concepts are related because

when a company endorses a professional athlete and uses his or her image to sell a brand, the

company becomes responsible to some degree for the individual's actions. For example, if an

athletic shoe company endorses an athlete who commits a crime or does something society

deems negative, the company is likely to withdraw the endorsement. If the company does not do

this and society is outraged by the behavior of the athlete, it reflects very poorly on the company

and impedes its ability to sell products.

The issue of athletes and their academic performance is an important one that is generally

ignored in the media and literature. Caulfield touched on the matter by addressing the low

percentage of African America athletes who graduate from college. The National Collegiate

Athletic Association (NCAA) examined graduation success rates (GSR) and "found that in 2002

there was a 63% GSR for African American student-athletes compare to an 84% GSR for White

student-athletes" (Caulfield 21).

14

Page 15: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

In athletic programs there is significantly less emphasis on academics, but this is the

same for students regardless of their race or ethnicity. The above information suggests a

significant disparity when it comes to graduation rates for African Americans when compared to

their White counterparts. The literature does not specifically address potential causes of this

discrepancy and does not seek to identify the underlying causes.

Caulfield suggested that the media is irresponsible in its handling of professional athletes.

The media places a substantial emphasis on athletes and helps to propel the lifestyle as a cultural

ideal. For many African American families who live at or below the poverty threshold, this ideal

might appear to be the only way a child in the family can achieve success. The media is

responsible for delivering the message to these children athletic achievement is more important

than a person's academic accomplishments. "Instead, media - and society as a whole - should

also emphasize education and academic accomplishments" (Caulfield 21).

Society can change the emphasis on athletics to encompass academics as well. For

example, schools at all levels can reconstruct the social ideal of the student-athlete who is also

known for his or her scholastic achievements. Placing a greater degree of responsibility on

athletes in terms of highlighting those who strive to behave as role models is one way the idea

can be changed over time. However, this is something that would need to take place within the

school and also within the media.

Finding positive role models who have excelled at athletics is not impossible. Paul

Robeson graduated at the top of his class and received 15 varsity letters in football, track,

basketball, and baseball. He went on to earn a law degree and has become well known for his

athletics and his social activism. Robeson is a good example of a person who did not seek to

15

Page 16: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

become overspecialized in one sport, and maintained a strong emphasis on academics throughout

his life (Caulfield 22).

Though it is not impossible to find examples of professional athletes who have excelled

in sports and academics, it is difficult to find much emphasis of these types of achievements in

the media. The media plays a significant role in perpetuating the social ideal attached to being a

professional athlete, but it also focuses a great deal on the negative aspects of athletic

involvement, such as various scandals, crimes committed by athletes, and other topics.

The topic of academic and athletic success has been examined from both sides of the

issue. For example, one study examined the impact of athletic involvement as it pertained to

other academic successes. An interesting component of this particular study related to the

recommendations given for improving academic performance among children and teens through

the use of athletic programs. The study pointed out that many students benefit from involvement

in sports (DeMeulenaire 127).

The above study found that the strong social connections children and teenagers make

while participating in athletics can have a positive impact on academic performance. A review of

literature pertaining to academic performance and participation in sports has shown that in

schools requiring minimum grades for those who are involved in sports, there is a relationship

between "student involvement in sports and high achievement" (DeMeulenaire 129).

Involvement in sports for children and teenagers increases the opportunity for the

development of friendships. "Not only do coaches inspire college aspirations in students, so do

peer relationships developed through participation in sports" (DeMeulenaire 132). The positive

correlation between youth participation in sports and academic achievement occurs in

environments where the parents and schools hold the youth accountable for their grades. Schools

16

Page 17: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

that place a combined emphasis on academics and sports have a higher number of high-school

athletes who go on to attend college (132).

Much of the existing literature does not examine a correlation between high school

sports, college aspirations, and later graduation from college. There is a gap in the literature

when it comes to investigating how high-school sports, combined with a focus on academic

achievement, impact the students in college. For instance, such a study should look at the college

graduate rates when compared with the aspirations of those in high school to attend college and

continue to play sports on a professional basis (DeMeulenaire 132).

Another important perspective to analyze when looking at professional athletes as role

models is the occurrence of various types of crime within professional sports. The media reports

heavily on topics relating to sports or crime. When the two are combined, the media is sure to

cover it. An issue with the media, that has been addressed in at least one study, is the tendency to

link criminal behavior on the part of athletes with matters such as race and ethnicity.

African Americans experience the most significant disparity when it comes to the

reporting of crime, race, and other factors relating to a professional athlete. When analyzed in

comparison with the actual data pertaining to crime among professional athletes it becomes clear

that a true gap exists because minorities are "disproportionately presented (compared with real-

world demographics in sports) and characterized in a manner likely to promote unfavorable

intergroup outcomes" (Mastro, Blecha, and Seate 526). The media has a responsibility to correct

this and make a conscious effort to report accurately.

Social Responsibility

The strong impact of professional athletes raises important questions about social

responsibility on the parts of the athletes and the media. Corporations who endorse athletes are

17

Page 18: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

held responsible through their stakeholders, particularly if the company is publicly traded and

has shareholders. However, the media has not been held to a similar standard when it comes to

social responsibility and the way it represents professional athletes. Further research is necessary

to identify the best practices for restructuring the social ideal pertaining to athletes.

Aside from restructuring the ideal, the media has a social responsibility to the public to

report honestly and to also take action to present all sides of the picture. For instance, the media

focuses heavily on the penalties of abusing drugs in professional sports. However, the media

does not thoroughly examine the consequences of substance abuse from other perspectives. The

media does not hold anyone else accountable for allowing substance abuse to be such a

significant part of professional sports.

The media has also failed to investigate the regulation of substance use and abuse in

professional sports. Geoffrey Rapp wrote, "Performance-enhancing substance use has attracted

considerable political and media attention. However, relatively little analysis of the reasons for

regulating substance use in professional sports exists" (599). This is problematic because it does

not fully address the dangers of these drugs, nor does it seek to hold people accountable for using

them, distributing them, or ignoring use.

Politicians, including the President of the United States have made numerous comments

and speeches lauding professional sports players for their strength and muscle mass. The

President discussed this in his annual State of the Union address that occurred in 2004. He

addressed both Roger Clemens and Rafael Palmeiro. Each of these players are known or highly

suspected of having used artificial muscle enhancing substances (Rapp 600).

Much information has emerged demonstrating the widespread use of these substances in

professional sports and so it seems the next logical step for the media to take is to discuss

18

Page 19: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

methods for both banning the drugs and testing for them. Mandatory testing would have a

significant change on professional sports in terms of the ability of players to use these

substances. However, right now the testing is random and very infrequent (Rapp 600).

The issue is more complex than it seems, however. When addressing the debate over

mandatory testing, one must consider that some professional athletes test positive for substances

and claim no knowledge of having ingested it. It is possible, in some cases, that trainers are

responsible for providing the athlete with these substances without their knowledge. This raises

questions about how the industry could develop a reporting and testing system that aims to be

fair, while holding those involved responsible. For example, accountability must extend to all

those who have contact with the athlete and especially those who might have provided the athlete

with illegal substances, even if the athlete claims not to have knowledge of it (Rapp 616).

Failure to take an aggressive approach to this problem, including on the part of the media,

results in putting players who make a choice to stay clean and refrain from using substances at a

clear competitive disadvantage. If players are not frequently tested for illegal substances and

many athletes use these substances regularly, people who do not use them become inferior in

terms of strength and performance. The media never addresses this specifically. Instead, the

media lavishes praise on individuals who demonstrate significant size and strength in

professional sports, while pointing out that athletes who do not are disadvantaged. Even

American youth who desire to go on and play sports professionally as adults recognize that they

will need to find a way to compete with the ideal that has been projected for so many decades

(Rapp 606).

There is no real advocacy to address this problem. In fact, there is no coordinated

advocacy to address the social responsibility of both the media and professional sports players

19

Page 20: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

when it comes to their function as a role model. Perhaps professional players do not see they are

role models and do not readily accept this function, but this does not change that young people

and even older people look up to them. At some point, society has to decide if they want the

nation's children seeking to emulate people who abuse drugs, commit crimes, or engage in other

negative behaviors when the alternative is to demand truly inspirational role models in the form

of athletes.

Conclusion

The media is largely responsible for propelling the social ideal surrounding professional

athletes. Today's youth are under enormous pressure to become involved in athletics for many

reasons. First, there is a general belief that participation in sports from an early age increases the

chances a person will achieve success as an athlete later in life. While parents sometimes use

athletic scholarships to justify their children's involvement in sports, examination of the research

shows that parents pay large sums of money toward athletic interests that sometimes exceed the

cost of college. Further research is needed to determine the true impact of professional athletes

on youth, but preliminary examination stresses the importance of raising awareness among

children and teenagers when it comes to sports related issues such as substance abuse,

overspecialization, and the general failure to emphasize academic achievements that would

enable the person to go further in life if a career in sports does not pan out.

20

Page 21: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

Works Cited

Bonetta, Laura. “The Steroid Story.” American School Board Journal 191.8(2004): 19-21.

Caulfield, Cora. "Promoting Academics: Student-athlete Role Models in the Media." Black

History Bulletin 74.1 (2011): 21-26.

Datta, Y. "Maslow's Hierarchy of Basic Needs: An Ecological View." Oxford Journal 9.1

(2010): 39-57.

DeMeulenaere, Eric. "Playing the Game: Sports as a Force for Promoting Improved Academic

Performance for Urban Youth." Journal of Cultural Identity 17.4 (2010): 127-135.

Denham, Bryan. "Association between Narcotic use and Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid use

among American Adolescents." Substance Use & Misuse 44.14 (2009): 2043-2061.

Green, Melanie, Sheryl Kass, Jana Carrey, Benjamin Herzig, Ryan Feeney, & John Sabini.

"Transportation across Media: Repeated Exposure to Print and Film." Media Psychology

11.4 (2008): 512-539.

Grimes, Jill, and Richard Melloni. “Prolonged Alterations in the Serotonin Neural System

Following the Cessation of Adolescent-Androgenic Steroid Exposure in Hampsters.”

Behavioral Neuroscience 120.6 (2006):1242-1251.

Mastro, Dana, Erin Blecha, and Atwell Seate. "Characterizations of Criminal Athletes: A

Systematic Examination of Sports News Depictions of Race and Crime." Journal of

Broadcasting & Electronic Media 55.4 (2011): 536-542.

Millman, Robert & Emil Ross. "Steroid and Nutritional Supplement Use in Professional

Athletes." American Journal 2.12 (2003): 48-54.

Moses, Edwin. "Why Baseball is in Denial." Newsweek 153.9 (2009): 48.

21

Page 22: Raheem Cardwell athletes_social_influence 1

Cardwell

Radomski, Kirk. Bases Loaded: The Inside Story of the Steroid Era in Baseball by the Central

Figure in the Mitchell Report. New York, NY: Hudson Street Press, 2009. Print.

Rapp, Geoffrey. "Blue Sky Steroids." The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 99.3 (2009):

599-618.

Rutstein, Jeff. The Steroid Deceit: A Body Worth Dying For? Boston, MA: Custom Fitness

Publishing, 2005. Print.

Stone, Brad. "Another Poison Pill." Newsweek 146.7 (2005): 42.

Trick, Leanne, Lee Hogarth, & Theodora Duka. "Prediction and Uncertainty in Human

Pavlovian to Instrumental Transfer." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning,

Memory, and Cognition 37.3 (2011), 757-765.

Waclawksy, John. "Consuming Media in a Social Networking World." Siliconindia 12.6 (2009):

36-38.

Woods, Ronald. Social Issues in Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2011. Print.

22