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Quantum Mechanics Lecture 8: Relativistic Quantum Mechanics Contents: 1. Notation and units. 2. Relativistic kinematics. 3. The Schr¨ odinger equation. 4. Relativistic wave equation (Klein-Fock-Gordon equation); antiparticles. 5. Electromagnetic interaction of spin-0 particles. 5.1 Perturbation theory; Fermi’s Golden Rule. 5.2 Elastic scattering of spin-0 particles. 6. Calculation of the cross section; phase space; Mandelstam variables. 7. The Dirac equation. 7.1 Derivation. 7.2 Continuity equation. 7.3 Covariant form of the Dirac equation. 7.4 Properties of the γ matrices. 7.5 Adjoint equation. 7.6 Plane wave solutions. 7.7 Antiparticles. 7.8 Completeness relations. 7.9 Helicity. 7.10 Bilinear covariants. 8. Electrodynamics of spin-1/2 particles. 8.1 Transition matrix. 8.2 Trace theorems. 8.3 Completion of the calculation of the electron tensor. 8.4 Cross section of elastic scattering in the CMS. 8.5 Electron-positron annihilation into muon pairs. 8.6 Electron-muon elastic scattering in the LAB frame. Figures 1a and 1b. 1
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Quantum Mechanics Lecture 8: Relativistic …...Quantum Mechanics Lecture 8: Relativistic Quantum Mechanics Contents: 1. Notation and units. 2. Relativistic kinematics. 3. The Schr

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Page 1: Quantum Mechanics Lecture 8: Relativistic …...Quantum Mechanics Lecture 8: Relativistic Quantum Mechanics Contents: 1. Notation and units. 2. Relativistic kinematics. 3. The Schr

Quantum MechanicsLecture 8: Relativistic Quantum Mechanics

Contents:

1. Notation and units.

2. Relativistic kinematics.

3. The Schrodinger equation.

4. Relativistic wave equation (Klein-Fock-Gordon equation); antiparticles.

5. Electromagnetic interaction of spin-0 particles.

5.1 Perturbation theory; Fermi’s Golden Rule.

5.2 Elastic scattering of spin-0 particles.

6. Calculation of the cross section; phase space; Mandelstam variables.

7. The Dirac equation.

7.1 Derivation.

7.2 Continuity equation.

7.3 Covariant form of the Dirac equation.

7.4 Properties of the γ matrices.

7.5 Adjoint equation.

7.6 Plane wave solutions.

7.7 Antiparticles.

7.8 Completeness relations.

7.9 Helicity.

7.10 Bilinear covariants.

8. Electrodynamics of spin-1/2 particles.

8.1 Transition matrix.

8.2 Trace theorems.

8.3 Completion of the calculation of the electron tensor.

8.4 Cross section of elastic eµ scattering in the CMS.

8.5 Electron-positron annihilation into muon pairs.

8.6 Electron-muon elastic scattering in the LAB frame.

Figures 1a and 1b.

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1. Notation and units.

We denote the components of the space-time 4-vector x by x0 = ct, x1 = x, x2 = y, x3 = z or,in compact form,

x = (x0, x1, x2, x3) contravariant components

The dual vector has the following covariant components:

x0 = ct, x1 = −x, x2 = −y, x3 = −z.

The invariant square of x is:

x2 ≡ x·x = xµxµ = (x0)2 − (x1)2 − (x2)2 − (x3)2 = invariant

where summation over the repeated index µ, one upper and one lower, is implied (Einstein

summation convention).We define the metric tensor gµν:

gµν = diag(1,−1,−1,−1)

hencexµ = gµνxν , µ = 0, 1, 2, 3

this is called the raising of the subscripts.The dual metric tensor gµν is given by

gµν = diag(1,−1,−1,−1)

hencexµ = gµνx

ν , µ = 0, 1, 2, 3

(lowering of the superscripts).

Lorentz boost with boost velocity v in x direction:

x′ = γ(x− vt), y′ = y, z′ = z, (1)

ct′ = γ(ct− vx/c) (2)

where γ = 1/√

1 − v2/c2.To get the Inverse transformation change the sign of v and exchange the primed and unprimedcoordinates.

The energy-momentum 4-vector p of a particle of mass m is

p = (E/c, ~p)

and its Lorentz invariant square is

p2 = pµpµ = (E/c)2 − ~p 2 = (mc)2 = invariant

We get the rest energy E0 by setting the momentum equal to nought, hence:

E0 ≡ E|~p=0 = mc2

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The relativistic kinetic energy is defined by

T = E −mc2

and we can easily check that in the nonrelativistic limit |~p| mc we get the well known formulaT = p2/2m.

Energy and momentum expressed in terms of the particle velocity v are

E = γmc2, ~p = γm~v, hence ~v = c~pc

E.

Units:We use natural units, defined by c = 1 and h = 1.To carry out the conversion to GeV units use the conversion factors

hc = 197.327 MeV fm, (hc)2 = 0.3894 GeV2 mbarn

where 1 fm = 10−15 m (femto-meter or Fermi), and 1 mbarn = 10−31 m2 (milli-barn).For numerical estimates use the following approximate values:

hc = 200MeV fm = 200 eV nm, (3)

(hc)2 = 0.4 GeV2 mbarn (4)

Typical particle masses (approximate values):

Particle symbol Mass in MeV/c2

Electron e− 0.5Muon µ− 106Charged pion π± 140Neutral pion π0 135Charged kaon K± 494Neutral kaon K0 498Proton p 938Neutron n 940

2. Relativistic kinematics.

For a collision of particles a and b, which gives rise to the creation of particles c, d, . . ., we writethe reaction equation

a+ b→ c + d+ . . .

Particles a and b are the incident particles, particles c, d, etc. are the outgoing particles.The four-momenta of particles a and b will be denoted by p1 and p2, respectively, and those ofthe outgoing particles by p3, p4 etc. Their masses are given by p2

i = m2i .

The kinematics of collision processes is described in various reference frames of which we discusshere the laboratory frame (LAB) and the centre-of mass frame (CMS) in some detail.

LAB frame: particle a is the incident particle, particle b is the target particle. Their four-momenta are

p1 = (Elab, 0, 0, plab), p2 = (m2, 0, 0, 0) (5)

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The square of the total four-momentum of the system is

s = (p1 + p2)2 = m2

1 +m22 + 2m2Elab (6)

Solving for plab we get

plab =√

[s− (m1 −m2)2][s− (m1 +m2)2]/2m2 (7)

CMS frame:by definition of the CMS, the incident particles have 3-momenta of equal magnitude and op-posite direction:

pcms1 = (E∗

1 , 0, 0, p∗), pcms

2 = (E∗2 , 0, 0,−p∗). (8)

hences = (E∗

1 + E∗2)

2. (9)

Thus√s is the total CMS energy of the system. Solving for p∗ and comparing with Eq. (7) we

get

p∗ = plabm2√s

(10)

3. The Schrodinger equation

Fundamental for quantum mechanics is the concept of particle-wave duality. Formallyparticle-wave duality is expressed by the Einstein-de Broglie relations:

E = hω, ~p = h~k, (11)

which relate the particle characteristics E (energy) and ~p (momentum) to the wave character-

istics ω (frequency) and ~k (wave vector). Here h = h/2π, where h is Planck’s constant.Implied in the statement of particle-wave duality is also that the particle must be describable

in terms of a wave function. Moreover, we demand that the wave function contains the completeinformation on the state of motion of the particle at time t. This implies that the wave functionmust satisfy an evolution equation in time. This is the Schrodinger equation

ih∂ψ(x, t)

∂t= Hψ(x, t) (12)

where H is the Hamiltonian operator or Hamiltonian.

4. Relativistic wave equation(Klein-Fock-Gordon equation); antiparticles.

To construct a relativistic wave equation we shall use the relations that provide the transitionfrom classical mechanics to quantum mechanics:

E → ih∂

∂t, (13)

px → −ih ∂∂x, py → −ih ∂

∂y, pz → −ih ∂

∂z,

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together with the relativistic energy-momentum relation

E2 = (pc)2 +m2c4

which immediately gives the Klein-Fock-Gordon equation:

−h2∂2t φ(x) =

[

−(hc)2(

∂2x + ∂2

y + ∂2z

)

+m2c4]

φ(x) (14)

where we have used the shorthand form of the differential operators:

∂t ≡∂

∂t, ∂x ≡ ∂

∂x, ∂y ≡ ∂

∂y, ∂z ≡ ∂

∂z.

We can rewrite the KFG equation in a relativistically symmetric form which clearly exhibitsits relativistic invariance. To do this we define the four-dimensional generalization of themomentum operator:

p =(

p0, p1, p2, p3)

=(

ih∂0, ih∂1, ih∂2, ih∂3)

=

(

ih

c∂t,−ih∂x,−ih∂y,−ih∂z

)

and hence the four-dimensional generalization of the Laplacian operator:

∂µ∂µ =

1

c2∂2

t −∇2

With these definitions the KFG equation takes on the manifestly invariant form

[

∂µ∂µ +

(

mch

)2]

φ(x) = 0 (15)

provided that the wave function φ(x) is a Lorentz scalar or pseudoscalar.This latter point appears here as a mathematical requirement, but it should be stressed that

it has an important physical implication: we can apply the KFG equation only to particles whichare described by scalar or pseudoscalar wave functions. Such particles do exist, for instancepions and kaons, which are pseudoscalar particles, but electrons are not scalar particles andtheir wave functions are correspondingly not scalars.

Note that mc/h is the inverse of the Compton wavelength of the particle of mass m.

To derive a continuity equation we write down the KFG equation for the complex conjugatewave function φ∗(x), multiply it by φ(x), multiply Eq. (14) by φ∗(x) and subtract the resultingequations. As a result we get

∂tρ+ ∇·~ = 0 (16)

where

ρ(x) = i (φ∗∂tφ− φ∂tφ∗) ,

~ = −i (φ∗∇φ− φ∇φ∗)

Important is that ρ(x) can be negative as well as positive, so it is not a probability density.

In the particular case of a plane wave, φ(x) = N exp(i(~p·~r − Et)/h), we have

ρ = 2E|N |2, ~ = 2~p|N |2

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whereE = ±

(pc)2 +m2c4

Thus the negative values of ρ are related to negative energies. These negative energy solutionscannot be dropped as unphysical because the remaining positive energy wave functions wouldno longer form a complete set. Therefore a physical explanation for these states is needed. Thiswas given independently by Feynman and by Stuckelberg.As before, in the nonrelativistic case, we can get the equivalent integral form of the continuityequation:

d

dt

Vρ(~r, t)d3r = −

S~·d~S (17)

and with the usual requirement that the fields vanish at large distances sufficiently fast for thesurface integral to vanish when the integral is taken over all space we get

d

dt

all spaceρ(~r, t)d3r = 0 (18)

and hence∫

all spaceρ(~r, t)d3r = constant. This means in particular that the sign of the integral

of ρ over all space is conserved. Therefore, if ρ is multiplied by the charge of the particle, thenit can be interpreted as the charge density. Similarly we must also multiply ~ by the particle’scharge giving us the current density (Pauli-Weisskopf interpretation).

Next we note that ρ(~r, t) transforms like time since the wave function φ(x) is a scalar and theoperator ∂/∂t transforms like time. It is therefore natural to combine ρ and ~ into a four-vector:

jµ = (ρ,~) = −ie (φ∗∂µφ− φ∂µφ∗) (19)

where we have included the charge factor −e. In terms of this four-vector current density thecontinuity equation (16) takes on the form

∂µjµ = 0 (20)

Now let us streamline our notation by using from now on units such that h = 1 and c = 1.In these units masses, energies and momenta all have the same dimension of energy, and lengthhas the dimension of inverse energy. Thus the scalar product p·x of four-momentum and thespace-time four-vector is dimensionless.

In these units the plane wave is of the form

φ(x) = Ne−ip·x (21)

and the current density isjµ(e−) = −2e|N |2(E, ~p) (22)

where the argument (e−) indicates that this is for a negatively charged particle. If we nowchange the sign of the charge we get

jµ(e+) = +2e|N |2(E, ~p) = −2e|N |2(−E,−~p) (23)

i.e. the particle with positive charge travelling with energy E and momentum ~p is the same as aparticle with negative charge and with energy (−E) and momentum (−~p). Both particles havethe same mass m because the currents are constructed from wave functions satisfying the samewave equation. Such a pair of particles, having equal mass but opposite charges, are called the

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antiparticles of each other: one particle is arbitrarily designated the particle, and the other oneis then the antiparticle.

Another useful way of seeing the relationship between particle and antiparticle is based ona consideration of the time-dependent factor of the wave function: if we have a particle ofnegative energy E, then we can write this factor as

e−iEt = e−i(−E)(−t) (24)

where the expression on the right-hand side corresponds to a particle of positive energy (−E)travelling backwards in time! Together with the previous discussion we can therefore concludethat

an antiparticle travelling forward in time is identical with a particle travelling backward

in time.

This is the Feynman-Stuckelberg interpretation of the negative energy states. Later on we shallsee that the same interpretation applies also in the case of Dirac’s relativistic equation of theelectron.

5. Electromagnetic interactions of spin-0 particles.

5.1 Time-dependent perturbation theory; Fermi’s Golden Rule.We are going to study collision processes in which the physical state of a system after thecollision differs from that before the collision. Problems of this kind require time dependentperturbation theory.

TDPT can be applied in cases in which the Hamiltonian is explicitly time dependent butalso in cases with explicitly time independent Hamiltonians, if the interaction that causes thetransition from one state into another persists for only a finite duration of time. Such is thecase in collisions on short range potentials, if the particle is initially at a large distance fromthe region of nonzero potential, and after passing through that region is again travelling as afree particle, but in a different state than before the interaction.

Thus we consider the Schrodinger equation

ih∂ψ

∂t= Hψ, with H = H0 + V (t)

where it is assumed that the eigenfunctions φn and eigenvalues En of H0 are known, and V (t)is a small perturbation.

Expanding ψ into the complete set of eigenfunctions φn,

ψ =∑

n

an(t)φne−iEnt/h

we get the equivalent form of the Schrodinger equation in E-representation:

ihdam(t)

dt=∑

n

an(t)Vmne−i(En−Em)t/h

where Vmn = (φm, V (t)φn) is the matrix element of V (t) between the mth and nth eigenstatesof H0.Assuming that up to the time −T/2 the system was in the state φi, we have the initial conditions

ai(−T/2) = 1, an(−T/2) = 0 for n 6= i

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which for some final state φf gives the approximate solution for times t ≥ T/2:

af(t) = −i∫ T/2

−T/2Vfi(t

′)e−i(Ei−Ef )t′/h dt′

(it is assumed that the perturbation V (t) is switched off at t = T/2).In the particular case of a potential independent of time we get, in the limit of T → ∞,

af = −2πiVfiδ(Ei − Ef )

where the Dirac delta-function ensures energy conservation (this is, of course, meaningful onlyif the states φn are degenerate, since otherwise the system would persist in the initial state;for a more detailed discussion read, e.g., D.I. Blokhintsev, Osnovy kvantovoi mekhaniki, 3rdedition, 1961, Chapter XIV).

The transition probability from φi to φf is

w∞ ≡ |af |2 = 4π2|Vfi|2 [δ(Ei − Ef )]2

= 4π2|Vfi|2δ(Ei − Ef )

[

limT→∞

1

2πh

∫ T/2

−T/2ei(Ei−Ef )t/h dt

]

=2π

h|Vfi|2δ(Ei − Ef) lim

T→∞[T ]

and the transition probability per second is

wfi = limT→∞

w∞

T=

h|Vfi|2δ(Ei − Ef)

The usual situation in particle collisions is that one measures the transition rate into a groupof closely spaced final states. Denoting the density of final states by ρ(Ef ), then ρ(Ef )dEf isthe number of final states in the interval (Ef , Ef + dEf). Multiplying wfi by this number andintegrating over Ef we get, on account of the δ function, Fermi’s Golden Rule:

Wfi = 2πh|Vfi|2ρ(Ei) (25)

Examples:(i) Interaction of spinless charged particles with electromagnetic field.Assume the oscillating e.m. field to have frequency ω, then V (t) ≈ exp(−iωt), and the transitionamplitude is

af ≈ limT→∞

∫ T/2

−T/2e−i(Ei−Ef+ω)t dt ≈ δ(Ef − Ei − ω)

i.e. Ef = Ei +ω, which means that the particle has absorbed the energy ω from the e.m. field.

(ii) Interaction of spinless charged antiparticle with electromagnetic field.According to the Feynman interpretation, the incident antiparticle of positive energy Ei isequivalent to a particle of negative energy −Ei travelling backwards in time. Correspondingly,the outgoing antiparticle of energy Ef is equivalent to a particle of energy −Ef travellingbackwards in time. With V (t) ≈ exp(−iωt), as before, we get therefore

af ≈ limT→∞

∫ T/2

−T/2

(

e−i(−Ei)t)∗e−iωte−i(−Ef )t dt

≈ δ(Ef − Ei − ω)

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and hence again Ef = Ei + ω, in other words the antiparticle has also absorbed the energy ωfrom the field, as expected. This shows that the Feynman interpretation is consistent with ourphysical expectation in the case of interactions.

We can similarly check that we get the intuitively expected results in the cases of particle-antiparticle pair creation and annihilation.

5.2 Elastic scattering of spin-0 particles.Consider the collision of two unlike spin-0 particles. We shall call them π+ and K+. We willtreat them as point-like particles, which is not quite correct as the real mesons have a size of theorder of one Fermi. The correct description takes this into account by assigning form factors

to the mesons.The pion is described by the Klein-Fock-Gordon equation,

(

∂µ∂µ +m2)

Φ(x) = 0

The interaction with electromagnetic field is taken into account by the replacement of thederivative operator by the covariant derivative

i∂µ → i∂µ − eAµ

where Aµ is the electromagnetic four-vector potential. Thus[

(∂µ + ieAµ) (∂µ + ieAµ) +m2]

Φ(x) =[

+∂µ∂µ +m2 + ie (∂µAµ + Aµ∂µ)

−e2AµAµ

]

Φ(x) = 0

We neglect the term proportional to e2 as being of second order of smallness. Then the KFGequation takes the form

(

∂µ∂µ +m2)

Φ(x) = −V (x)Φ(x)

withV (x) = ie (∂µAµ + Aµ∂µ)

The sign of the potential V was chosen such as to give the correct form of the Schrodingerequation in the nonrelativistic limit.

Having identified the interaction energy, we can now use the result of first-order time-dependent perturbation theory, Eq. (25), and write down the transition amplitude:

Tfi = −i∫

d4xΦ∗fV Φi

= e∫

d4xΦ∗f (∂µAµ + Aµ∂µ) Φi (26)

The first term in brackets is transformed by integration by parts:

d4xΦ∗∂µ (AµΦi) = −∫

d4x (∂µΦf )∗ AµΦi

where we have dropped the surface term. Thus the transition amplitude takes on the form

Tfi = e∫

d4x[

Φ∗f (∂µ Φi) −

(

∂µΦ∗f

)

Φi

]

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The expression in brackets has the form of a current (cf. Eq. (16)), but involving differentwave functions Φi and Φf . It is therefore a transition current:

jµ(π+) = ie[

Φ∗f (∂µΦi) −

(

∂µΦ∗f

)

Φi

]

and we can write the transition amplitude in the form of

Tfi = −i∫

d4x jµ(π+)Aµ

The particle in the initial and final states can be represented by plane waves:

Φi = Nie−ipi·x, Φf = Nfe

−ipf ·x

where Ni and Nf are normalization factors, hence

jµ(π+) = eNiNf (pi + pf)µ ei(pf−pi)·x (27)

The formalism so far is appropriate for the interaction of the π+ particle with an arbitrarye.m. field Aµ. In order to apply it to the reaction π+K+ → π+K+ we must consider the e.m.field to be emitted by the kaon. Thus we write down the wave equation for Aµ with a sourceterm:

∂ν∂νAµ = jµ(K+)

where jµ(K+) is the kaon current. Changing our notation, we assign 4-momenta p1 and p2 tothe incident pion and kaon, respectively, and similarly p3 and p4 to the outgoing particles. Wehave therefore

jµ(K+) = eN2N4 (p2 + p4)µ eiq·x

where q = p4 − p2, and hence

Aµ = (∂ν∂ν)−1 jµ(K+) = − 1

q2jµ(K+)

The transition amplitude takes now the form of

Tfi = −i∫

d4x jµ(π+)

(

− 1

q2

)

jµ(K+)

and the integration can be done trivially, giving a four-dimensional delta function with theobvious meaning of overall 4-momentum conservation:

Tfi = −iN1N2N3N4 (2π)4 δ(4)(p1 + p2 − p3 − p4)M

where the transition matrix M is defined by

−iM = (−ie)(p1 + p3)µ(

−igµν

q2

)

(−ie)(p2 + p4)ν

Writing the transition matrix in this form, we have identified the following factors:(i) (−ie)(p1 + p3)

µ is associated with the interaction vertex of the pion with the photon,(ii) (−ie)(p2 + p4)

ν is associated with the interaction vertex of the kaon with the photon,(iii) (−igµν/q

2) is associated with the exchanged photon. This is called the photon propagator.

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The denominator q2 is the square of the photon’s 4-momentum. For a real photon this wouldbe zero, but in the present case we can check that

q2 = (p1 − p3)2 < 0

except at zero scattering angle, where q2 = 0. This can be seen most conveniently in the CMS,where

q2 = −2p2(1 − cos θ)

(p is the CMS momentum and θ is the CMS scattering angle). Therefore the photon is virtual

or off mass-shell.In deriving the result for the scattering matrix, we have arbitrarily considered the kaon to

be the source of the e.m. field, absorbed by the pion. The form of our result suggests, and anexplicit calculation confirms it, that this distinction is unimportant: the pion and kaon playcompletely symmetric roles in the reaction.

6.) Calculation of the cross section;phase space; Mandelstam variables.

Elastic π+K+ scattering is a particular case of a 2 → 2 collision. More generally, anyreaction of the type

a+ b→ c+ d

belongs to this class of processes. The differential cross section dσ is related to the scatteringamplitude M by

dσ =1

F|M|2dQ

where dQ is the Lorentz invariant phase space factor,

dQ = (2π)4δ(4)(p1 + p2 − p3 − p4)d3p3

(2π)32E3

d3p4

(2π)32E4(28)

and F is the flux of incident particles, defined by F = 2E1 2E2 |~v1−~v2|, where ~v1 and ~v2 are thevelocities of the incident particles 1 and 2, respectively. The invariant form of the flux factor is

F = 4√

(p1·p2)2 − (m1m2)2

Useful are the expressions of F in the LAB and CMS frames:

Flab = 4plabm2; Fcms = 4pi

√s

Because of Lorentz invariance, the three expressions of F are equal.The phase space factor must be further simplified in order to remove the δ function. Three

of the six integrations are done trivially, for instance over d3p4, removing the three-dimensionalδ function δ(3)(~p1 + ~p2− ~p3 − ~p4). This leaves us with an expression for dσ, in which momentumconservation is explicitly imposed. For the remaining integrations we work in polar coordinates:

d3p3 = p23 dp3 dΩ

where the element of solid angle dΩ is given by dΩ = sin θ dθ dϕ, with polar angle θ and azimuthϕ. Then, from

E23 = p3

3 +m23

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we havep3 dp3 = E3 dE3

hence

dQ =1

(4π)2δ(E1 + E2 − E3 − E4)

p3 dE3

E4

To do the integration over energy, it is convenient to define the total initial and final energies,

Wi = E1 + E2, Wf = E3 + E4

hence

dWf = dE3 + dE4 =p3 dp3

E3+p4 dp4

E4

A convenient trick is to continue the calculation in the CMS where, on account of momentumconservation, we have p3 = p4 = pf , hence p4 dp4 = p3 dp3 = pf dpf , and therefore

dWf =Wf

E4

dE3

which gives

dQcms =1

(4π)2δ(Wi −Wf)

pf dWf

WfdΩ

Carrying out the last integration over Wf we impose energy conservation, after which wehave in the CMS Wf = Wi =

√s, i.e.

dQcms =1

(4π)2

pf√sdΩ

This completes the phase space calculation for the quasi-elastic collision process. Collectingall terms we get therefore the differential cross section in the CMS

dσ = 164π2s

pf

pi|M|2 dΩ

where pi is the CMS momentum of the incident particles. In the particular case of elasticscattering this formula simplifies on account of pf = pi.

Mandelstam variables.The remaining calculation is the evaluation of M which we do in invariant form. To this endwe define the Mandelstam variables s, t and u:

s = (p1 + p2)2 = m2

1 +m22 + 2p1·p2

= (p3 + p4)2 = m2

3 +m24 + 2p3·p4

t = (p1 − p3)2 = m2

1 +m23 − 2p1·p3

= (p2 − p4)2 = m2

2 +m24 − 2p2·p4

u = (p1 − p4)2 = m2

1 +m24 − 2p1·p4

= (p2 − p3)2 = m2

2 +m23 − 2p2·p3 (29)

The three Mandelstam variables are not independent: 4-momentum conservation gives

s+ t + u = m21 +m2

2 +m23 +m2

4

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but it is frequently convenient to use all three variables. In keeping with the subject of highenergy physics, we shall frequently consider the ultrarelativistic case where s+ t+ u = 0.

Carrying out the contraction over the Lorentz indices in the expression of the matrix elementM we get

|M|2 =e4

q4(p1·p2 + p1·p4 + p2·p3 + p3·p4)

2

which in the case of elastic scattering is

|M|2 =e4

t2

[(

s−m21 −m2

2

)

+(

m21 +m2

2 − u)]2

=e4

t2(s− u)2

and in the ultrarelativistic case

|M|2 = e4(

s− u

s+ u

)2

Substituting this into the expression for the elastic differential cross section we get finally

dσdΩ

= α2

4s

(

s−us+u

)2

where we have also expressed the charge in terms of the fine structure constant: α = e2/4π.Experimental data on elastic scattering are usually expressed in terms of the scattering

angle, rather than the Mandelstam variables. Denoting the CMS scattering angle by θ, wehave in the CMS the 4-momenta p1 = (E, 0, 0, E), p2 = (E, 0, 0,−E) and p4 = (E, p4x, p4y, p4z)with p4z = −E cos θ, and hence from the above definition we have u = −2E2(1 + cos θ) andwith s = 4E2 we get the differential cross section in the form of

dΩ=α2

4s

(

3 + cos θ

1 − cos θ

)2

(30)

We see that the differential cross section has a singularity at θ = 0. This is a characteristicfeature of photon exchange or, more generally, of the exchange of a zero-mass particle. Thisresult is well known from Rutherford scattering. Because of this singularity we cannot get atotal elastic cross section. However, we can get a meaningful quantity if we integrate over θfrom some small angle θ0 to θ = π. This corresponds to the usual experimental procedure,which does not allow detection of particles scattered through very small angles. Thus we get

σ(θ ≥ θ0) =πα2

2s

(

1 + cos θ0 + 81 + cos θ0

1 − cos θ0+ 16 ln sin

θ02

)

To convert our results to ordinary units we must multiply the cross section formulæ by(hc)2 ≈ 0.4 GeV2 mbarn.

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7.) The Dirac equation.

7.1 Derivation.In constructing the relativistic quantum mechanical equation of the electron we demand, fol-lowing Dirac,1 that the equation be of the form of the time-evolution equation of quantummechanics,

ih∂ψ

∂t= Hψ, (31)

and that it be Lorentz covariant. Then, since the derivative w.r.t. time is of first order, theHamiltonian H must also linearly depend on the derivatives w.r.t. the coordinates. The onlyother quantities, on which H can depend, are the fundamental constants c, h and m, theelectron mass. Thus, on dimensional grounds, in the absence of forces, H must be of the form

H = α1p1c+ α2p2c+ α3p3c+ βmc2 (32)

with pi = −ih ∂

∂xi. The α’s and β are dimensionless coefficients. They must be dimensionless

because pic and mc2 have the dimension of H. They must also be independent of pi to ensurethe linear dependence of H on the momenta, and they must not depend on the coordinates asthis would introduce forces. This implies that they commute with the momentum operators.Further properties of these coefficients can be found by requiring that the iteration of theoperator yields the Klein-Fock-Gordon equation2:

−h2∂2ψ

∂t2=

[

α1p1c + α2p2c + α3p3c + βmc2]2ψ

=

(p1c)2 + (p2c)

2 + (p3c)2 +

(

mc2)2

ψ

In evaluating [. . .]2 we must allow for the possibility that the α’s and β do not commute witheach other. In order to get agreement with the Klein-Fock-Gordon equation, i.e. to impose theright-hand equality , we find that the α’s and β must satisfy the following relations:

α2i = 1, β2 = 1

αiαj + αjαi = 0 for i 6= j (33)

αiβ + βαi = 0, i = 1, 2, 3

This means that the different α’s anticommute with each other and with β. It must be possibletherefore to represent them by matrices; they are called Dirac matrices.

To ensure that all matrix products of Eq. (33) are defined they must be square matrices.

The traces of all Dirac matrices must vanish. This can be seen, for instance, by rewritingthe last of Eqs. (33) in the form of αi = −βαiβ (using β2 = 1), then taking the trace, andhence, remembering that Tr (AB) = Tr (BA), we get Trαi = −Trαi, i.e. Trαi = 0.

From the hermiticity of H it follows that the Dirac matrices are hermitian. Therefore theireigenvalues are real. From the first of Eqs. (33) it follows that their only eigenvalues are +1

1P.A.M. Dirac, Principles of Quantum Mechanics, 4th edition, Oxford University Press, 1958, chapter 112this is because the Klein-Fock-Gordon equation is just the relativistic energy-momentum relation E2 =

~p 2 + (mc2)2 together with the quantum mechanical replacement E → ih∂/∂t, ~p → −ih∇

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and −1. Then, since the trace of a square matrix is the sum of its eigenvalues, and since theDirac matrices are traceless, it follows that they must be of even dimension.

For the sake of economy we attempt to find the lowest order in which the Dirac matricescan be represented.

The representation in terms of two-by-two matrices is ruled out because we know thatthere are only three linearly independent traceless two-by-two matrices, for instance the Paulimatrices.

But a representation in terms of four-by-four matrices is possible. Indeed, the complete setof linearly independent four-by-four matrices consists of sixteen matrices, one of which can bechosen to be the unit matrix and the other fifteen matrices to be traceless.

For most purposes one does not need an explicit representation of the Dirac matrices.However, when an explicit representation is needed, it is mostly convenient to use what hasbecome known as the standard representation of the Dirac matrices; partitioned into two-by-twomatrices this is of the following form:

αi =

(

0 σi

σi 0

)

, i = 1, 2, 3, β =

(

σ0 00 −σ0

)

, (34)

where σ0 is the two-by-two unit matrix, 0 is the two-by-two null matrix and σi, i = 1, 2, 3, arethe Pauli matrices,

σ1 =

(

0 11 0

)

, σ2 =

(

0 −ii 0

)

, σ3 =

(

1 00 −1

)

(35)

Exercise 1.Verify that the Dirac matrices (34) are hermitian and satisfy the properties (33).[Hint: Recall that σiσj = δij + iεijkσk and σ†

i = σi]

Having represented the Hamiltonian by a four-by-four matrix we are forced to represent thewave function by a column matrix with four components,

ψ(x) =

ψ1

ψ2

ψ3

ψ4

or in partitioned form

ψ(x) =

(

ϕχ

)

where ϕ and χ are two-component spinors. Such a function is called a four-component spinor.

7.2 Continuity equation.To deduce a continuity equation, we must write down a second wave equation for the hermitianconjugate wave function ψ†:

ih∂ψ†(x)

∂t= − (Hψ(x))† (36)

Then, if we premultiply Eq. (31) by ψ†(x), postmultiply Eq. (36) by ψ(x) and add theresulting equations, we get

ih∂ ψ†ψ

∂t= ψ†Hψ − (Hψ)† ψ = −ih∇·

(

ψ†~α ψ)

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or, with ρ = ψ†ψ and ~ = ψ†~α ψ,∂ρ(x)

∂t+ ∇·~ = 0

The density ρ is positive definite; it can therefore be interpreted as a probability density.Then ~ is a probability current density. It can be shown that ρ and ~ transform under Lorentztransformations like the time and space components of a 4-vector. They can therefore becombined into the 4-vector jµ:

jµ = (ρ,~ )

Then, if we also define the four-dimensional derivative operator ∂µ = (∂t,−∇), we can writethe continuity equation in the manifestly invariant form

∂µjµ = 0 (37)

7.3 Covariant form of the Dirac equation.It is customary to introduce the matrices

γ0 = β, ~γ = β~α

and to rewrite the Dirac equation in the covariant form

(

iγµ∂µ − mc

h

)

ψ(x) = 0

and we note that the mass term appears again, as in the Klein-Fock-Gordon equation, in theform of the inverse Compton wave length.

Setting from now on h = c = 1, and using the “Feynman slash” notation,3 6 p ≡ γµpµ, wecan rewrite the Dirac equation in the following form:

(i 6∂ −m)ψ(x) = 0 (38)

7.4 Properties of the γ matrices.Without proof we list here for reference the following basic properties of the γ matrices:

γµγν + γνγµ = 2gµν

㵆 = γ0γµγ0 (39)

Tr γµ = 0

In the standard representation, the γ matrices are of the following form:

γ0 =

(

σ0 00 −σ0

)

, γi =

(

0 σi

−σi 0

)

, i = 1, 2, 3 (40)

7.5 Adjoint equation.The adjoint equation is obtained by taking the hermitian conjugate of the Dirac equation:

[(i 6∂ −m)ψ(x)]† = ψ†(i 6∂←

−m)†

= ψ†(−i㵆∂←

µ −m) = 0

3 6p is pronounced “p slash”.

16

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and if we use the hermiticity equation for the γ matrices from above and set ψ(x) ≡ ψ†(x)γ0,then we get

ψ(i 6∂←

+m) = 0 (41)

where it is understood that the derivative operator 6∂←

acts to the left.From the Dirac equation and its adjoint equation we can immediately get the continuity

equation. To do this we premultiply Eq. (38) by ψ(x), postmultiply the adjoint equation (41) byψ(x) and add the two resulting equations. This directly leads to Eq. (37) with jµ = ψ(x)γµψ(x).That jµ is a 4-vector can be established either by appealing to the quotient theorem of tensoranalysis or directly by carrying out a Lorentz transformation (see, e.g., P.A.M. Dirac, Principles

of Quantum Mechanics, 4th edition, section 68).

7.6 Plane wave solutions.We can find the plane wave solutions of the Dirac equation if we substitute

ψ(x) = u(p)e−ip·x (42)

which yields(6p−m)u(p) = 0, 6p = γµpµ (43)

Using the standard representation of the γ matrices, Eq. (40), we have

6p =

(

E −σ·~pσ·~p −E

)

where the energy E is understood to be multiplied into the unit 2 × 2 matrix.The function u(p) is a column matrix with four components. Let us write it in the following

partitioned form:

u(p) =

(

uA

uB

)

Substituting this into Eq. (43) we get the following coupled equations:

~σ·~puA − (E +m)uB = 0

(E −m)uA − ~σ·~p uB = 0

from which, if we eliminate first uB and then uA, we get

(E2 − ~p 2 −m2)uA,B = 0

and hence the eigenvalues E = ±√

~p 2 +m2. The occurrence of negative energy eigenvalues hadto be expected from our discussion of the solutions of the Klein-Fock-Gordon equation. Thecorresponding states are again interpreted as antiparticle states of positive energy travellingbackwards in time.

The eigenvectors can be found by standard methods of matrix algebra. For E > 0 we find

us(p) = N

(

ϕs~σ·~p

E+mϕs

)

, s = 1, 2

where ϕ1 =

(

10

)

, ϕ2 =

(

01

)

, and N is a normalization factor. Similarly we get the negative

energy solutions:

us+2(p) = N

(

~σ·~pE−m

ϕs

ϕs

)

, s = 1, 2

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It can be shown that the four solutions of the Dirac equation are mutually orthogonal, i.e.

thatu†r(p)us(p) = 0 if r 6= s

The standard choice of normalization is to demand that there be 2E particles in the unitvolume: ∫

unit vol.ψ†(x)ψ(x) dV = 2E

which, with appropriate choice of phase, yields the normalization factor N =√E +m.

7.7 Antiparticles.As was mentioned in the previous section, the negative energy solutions are interpreted asantiparticle states. Thus, let E < 0 and make the substitution E → −E, ~p → −~p , hence, ifus+2(p) is the negative energy solution, we have

(− 6p−m)us+2(−p) = 0

or, if we set vs(p) = us+2(−p), then

(6p+m)vs(p) = 0

7.8 Completeness relations.Important are the following completeness relations, which we can verify for instance by usingthe standard representation:

s=1,2

us(p)us(p) = 6p+m,

s=1,2

vs(p)vs(p) = 6p−m (44)

7.9 Helicity.As we have seen in our discussion of the plane wave solutions of the Dirac equation, there aretwo linearly independent solutions for E > 0 and two solutions for E < 0, i.e. we have atwo-fold degeneracy of solutions. This degeneracy implies that there is an additional degree offreedom. This can be interpreted as being the electron spin. Formally the degeneracy meansthat there is another operator which commutes with the Hamiltonian and with the momentumoperator. Such an operator is

~Σ·p =

(

~σ·p 00 ~σ·p

)

, where p = ~p /p (45)

The operator1

2~σ·p

is the component of spin in the direction of ~p . It is called the helicity operator, its eigenvaluesλ = ±1/2 are the helicities of the electron.

7.10 Bilinear covariants.We have seen above that the bilinear form ψγµψ is a 4-vector. One can construct otherbilinear forms ψΓiψ, i = 1, 2, . . . 16, which are scalars (V), tensors (T), axial vectors (A)and pseudoscalars (P):

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matrix Γi 1 γµ σµν γ5γµ γ5

ψΓiψ S V T A P

Here σµν =1

2(γµγν − γνγµ) and γ5 = iγ0γ1γ2γ3. The matrix γ5 plays an important role

especially in the theory of weak interactions. The main properties of γ5 are the following:

γ5γµ + γµγ5 = 0

γ5† = γ5, (γ5)2 = 1

These properties can be checked by direct calculations.In standard representation γ5 is of the form

γ5 =

(

0 σ0

σ0 0

)

8. Electrodynamics of spin-1/2 particles.

8.1 Transition matrix.To describe the interaction of electrons with electromagnetic field we must replace the operatorpµ in the Dirac equation by pµ + eAµ, thus

(6p+ e 6A−m)ψ(x) = 0

or(6p−m)ψ(x) = γ0V ψ(x)

with V = −eγ0 6A. In this definition of the interaction potential V , the sign and the factorγ0 are chosen such as to be consistent with the corresponding expression in the nonrelativisticlimit. Thus, we can immediately write down the transition amplitude in the lowest order ofperturbation theory:

Tfi = −i∫

ψ†fV ψi d

4x = ie∫

ψf 6Aψi d4x

= −i∫

jµAµ d4x

where jµ = −eψfγµψi is the transition current. Assuming plane waves in the initial and final

states, we getjµ = −e (ufγ

µui) e−iq·x

where q = pi − pf and ui,f ≡ u(pi,f , si,f).It is interesting to note the following decomposition of the transition current:

jµ =1

2muf [(pi + pf)

µ − iσµν(pi − pf )ν]ui

(Gordon decomposition). In the first term in brackets we recognize the transition current ofspinless particles (cf. Eq. (27)), which describes the interaction of the electromagnetic field withthe charge of the electron. The second term corresponds to the interaction with the electron’smagnetic moment.

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Reasoning as previously in the case of electromagnetic scattering of spinless particles, wecan write down the transition amplitude in lowest order of perturbation theory for collisions oftwo unlike spin-1/2 particles, say e− and µ−, i.e. we consider the reaction

e−µ− → e−µ− (46)

We denote the 4-momenta of the incident electron and muon by p1 and p2, respectively, theirspins by s1 and s2, and those of the outgoing particles by p3, p4, s3 and s4. To simplify thenotation we shall write the spinors as ui ≡ u(pi, si), i = 1, 2, 3, 4. The electron and muoncurrents are then of the form

jµ(e) = −e (u3γµu1) e

−iq·x,

jµ(µ) = −e (u4γµu2) e

iq·x (47)

where q = p1 − p3 = p4 − p2, and for the transition amplitude we get

Tfi = −i∫

d4x jµ(e)

(

− 1

q2

)

jµ(µ)

The integral gives us a four-dimensional δ function, and we get

Tfi = −i(2π)4δ(p1 + p2 − p3 − p4)M

where the transition matrix element is defined by4

−iM = [ijµ(e)]

[

− igµν

q2

]

[ijν(µ)] (48)

The three factors in square brackets refer, respectively, to the electron transition current, photonpropagator and muon transition current. These are the elements of the Feynman diagram thatprovides a graphical representation of the collision process (see Fig. 1a).

The remaining calculation to find the differential cross section proceeds by the same stepsas we have done in the case of scattering of spinless particles, except that we must in additionpay attention to the spins of the particles.

We begin by taking the mod-squared of the matrix element M:

|M|2 =1

q4(jµ(e)jµ(µ))∗ (jν(e)jν(µ))

=1

q4[jµ ∗(e)jν(e)]

[

j∗µ(µ)jν(µ)]

Consider separately the two factors in square brackets. They carry two Lorentz labels, andtherefore they are tensors. The first one of these refers to the electron. We call it the electrontensor and denote it by Lµν

s1s3, where we have made the spin dependence explicit by labeling

the tensor with the spins of the incident and the scattered electrons. The second factor is themuon tensor Mµν

s2s4. Both factors have the same structure, so it is enough to calculate one of

them, for instance the electron tensor.Written in detail, the electron tensor is of the following form:

Lµνs1s3

= e2 (u3γµu1)

† (u3γνu1)

= e2(

u†1γµ †u†3

)

(u3γνu1)

4from now on the symbols jµ will be understood to represent uγµu without the exponential factors.

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but u† =(

u†γ0)†

= γ0u, and if we also use the identity γµ = γ0γµ †γ0, then we get

Lµνs1s3

= e2∑

ijkl

(

u1 iγµiju3 j

)

(u3kγνklu1 l)

where we have written the matrix labels i, j, k and l explicitly and indicated the summationfrom 1 to 4. Thus the expression under the sum is a product of ordinary numbers whose orderis arbitrary. We can, for instance, take the last factor, u1 l, to the front of the product. Thenwe recognize that the resulting expression is the following trace:

Lµνs1s3

= e2Tr u1u1 γµ u3u3 γ

ν

Now we have a choice. We can continue the calculation assuming definite spin states ofthe particles. This is meaningful if we want to describe experiments in which the spins of theparticles are measured. Alternatively we can consider the more usual experiment, where theincident beam and target are unpolarized and all scattered particles are counted independentlyof their spin states. In this case we have to apply the procedure called spin summation.

To describe the unpolarized beam and target, assuming random spin orientations of theparticles, we must average over the spin states of the incident electron and muon; to accountfor the counting of all particles in the final state irrespective of their spin states we must sum

over the spins of the scattered particles. Thus we get the spin averaged electron tensor

Lµν

=1

2

s1s3

Lµνs1s3

=e2

2Tr

(

s1

u1u1

)

γµ

(

s3

u3u3

)

γν

=e2

2Tr (6p1 +m) γµ (6p3 +m) γν

where in the last step we have used the completeness relation, Eq. (44), of the Dirac spinors.Opening the brackets we get

Lµν

=e2

2Tr

[

6p1γµ 6p3γ

ν +m (γµ 6p3γν+ 6p1γ

µγν) +m2γµγν]

(49)

8.2 Trace theorems.To make further progress in evaluating the traces of products of γ matrices we need now thefollowing trace theorems:

Tr γµ = 0 (50)

Tr γµγν = 4gµν (51)

Tr γµγν . . . γω = 0 for odd numbers of factors (52)

Tr γµγνγλγρ = 4(

gµνgλρ − gµλgνρ + gµρgνλ)

(53)

Proof of trace theorem (50):

use the γ5 matrix defined in section 7.10, remembering that γ5 anticommutes with γµ, µ =0, 1, 2, 3, and that (γ5)2 = 1, hence Tr γµ = Tr γµ(γ5)2 = Tr γ5γµγ5, where in the last step wehave used the property of traces: TrAB = TrBA, which is generally true if both products ABand BA are defined and are square matrices. If we now commute γµ with one of the γ5 factors,we get −Tr γµ(γ5)2 = −Tr γµ, and hence Tr γµ = −Tr γµ = 0.Proof of trace theorem (51):

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we write γµγν =1

2(γµγν + γµγν), apply the theorem TrAB = TrBA to one of the terms in

brackets, then use the commutation relation of the γ matrices and note that the metric tensorgµν is multiplied by the 4 × 4 unit matrix whose trace is equal to 4.Proof of trace theorem (52): we postmultiply the product under the trace by (γ5)2, take the

last one of the γ5 factors to the front, then commute it past the product. In each commutationwe pick up a factor of −1, in total an odd number of such factors, hence Tr γµγν . . . γω =−Tr γµγν . . . γω = 0.The proof of (53) is more involved but proceeds on similar lines as the proof of (51). Similarlyone can prove trace theorems for products of more than four γ factors.

8.3 Completion of the calculation of the electron tensor.Applying the trace theorems we see that the terms linear in the electron mass m drops out onaccount of being multiplied by traces of products of three γ factors. The remaining terms give

Lµν

= 2e2[

p1αp3β

(

gαµgβν − gαβgµν + gανgβµ)

+m2gµν]

= 2e2[

pµ1p

ν3 + pν

1pµ3 +

(

m2 − p1·p3

)

gµν]

The factor multiplying the metric tensor is q2/2; indeed, we have

q2 = (p1 − p3)2 = 2m2 − 2p1·p3

and hence the statement. Thus we have the following final form of the electron tensor:

Lµν

= 2e2[

pµ1p

ν3 + pν

1pµ3 +

1

2q2gµν

]

(54)

The muon tensor has the same structure as the electron tensor. We can immediately writedown the expression for the spin-averaged muon tensor:

Mµν

= 2e2(

pµ2p

ν4 + pν

2pµ4 +

1

2q2gµν

)

(55)

The next step is to contract the two tensors. This is straight forward and sufficientlysimple, but we can simplify this calculation further by making use of current conservation,∂µjµ = 0. Indeed, substituting the plane wave expressions for the currents, Eq. (47), we seethat ∂µjµ = −iqµjµ. Thus current conservation is expressed by qµjµ = 0, and this in turnimplies

qµLµν

= qνLµν

= 0 (56)

We apply this result to our calculation by replacing in the muon tensor p4 by p2 + q, hence

Mµν

= 2e2[

2pµ2p

ν2 + pν

2qµ + pµ

2qν +

1

2q2gµν

]

and then applying Eq. (56). Therefore the muon tensor can be replaced by the effective muontensor

Mµν

eff = 2e2[

2pµ2p

ν2 +

1

2q2gµν

]

(57)

8.4 Cross section of elastic eµ scattering in the CMS.After contraction of the tensors we have the following expression for the spin averaged mod-squared scattering amplitude:

|M|2 =8e4

q4

(

p1·p2p3·p4 + p1·p4p3·p2 −m2p2·p4 −M2p1·p3 +m2M2)

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and if we express the scalar products in terms of Mandelstam variables we get

|M|2 =2e4

t2

[

s2 + u2 − 2(

m2 +M2) (

s + u− 3m2 − 3M2)]

We shall be interested mainly in the ultrarelativistic limit, which formally corresponds tom = M = 0, hence

|M|2 =2e4

t2

(

s2 + u2)

(58)

and hence the differential cross section in the CMS:

dΩ=α2

2s

s2 + u2

t2(59)

Expressing t and u in terms of the CMS scattering angle θ, i.e. t = −s sin2(θ/2), u =−s cos2(θ/2), we get

dΩ=α2

2s

1 + cos4(θ/2)

sin4(θ/2)(60)

Qualitatively the θ dependence is similar to the one we found for elastic π+K+ scattering, Eq.(30). In particlular, we find again the singularity at θ = 0, characteristic of photon exchange.

Experimentally the reaction eµ → eµ is of no interest except in the following sense. Amethod to measure the electromagnetic form factors of pions is to expose a target to a pionbeam. The elastic scattering of pions by the atomic electrons of the target material has acharacteristic kinematics that allows the reaction πe → πe to be separated from collisionsof pions with nucleons. However pion beams are always contaminated with muons, and therelatively small mass difference between pion and muon causes a serious problem of backgroundwhich must be understood for a correct interpretation of the data.

8.5 Electron-positron annihilation into muon pairs.Closely related to the process e−µ− → e−µ− is the reaction e+e− → µ+µ−, i.e. electron-positronpair annihilation into muon pairs, see Fig. 1b. In the latter reaction, the incoming positronis equivalent to an electron travelling backwards in time. We give it therefore a 4-momentum(−p2) (we call it (−p2) rather than (−p3) because it is an incoming particle). Similarly theoutgoing positive muon gets a 4-momentum (−p3). In other words, the replacement p2 → −p3,p3 → −p2 takes us from elastic collision to pair annihilation. This procedure is called crossing.We can check that under crossing the Mandelstam variables s and t are exchanged, the thirdvariable u remaining unchanged. We can therefore immediately apply this procedure to themod-squared matrix element (58), thus

|M(e+e− → µ+µ−)|2 =2e4

s2

(

t2 + u2)

(61)

and hence the differential cross section

dΩ=α2

4s

(

1 + cos2 θ)

(62)

where we have used the CMS kinematical relations s = 4E2, t = −2E2(1−cos θ), u = −2E2(1+cos θ).

The characteristic feature of this result, which is worth remembering, is the symmetry ofthe angular distribution about θ = 90o. This was to be expected since, after spin-averaging,the reaction is completely symmetric in the CMS. This symmetry breaks down at sufficiently

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high energies where the contribution of the weak interaction becomes noticeable, because theweak interaction violates parity.

If we integrate (62) over the angles θ and φ from 0 to π and from 0 to 2π, respectively,we get the total cross section. To convert it to ordinary units we also multiply the result by(hc)2 ≈ 0.4 GeV2 mbarn, thus

σ(e+e− → µ+µ−) = (hc)2 4πα2

3s(63)

This cross section has been measured on electron-positron colliders over a large range ofenergies, in particular at the collider PETRA with CMS energies

√s from 10 to nearly 40 GeV.

The experimental results in this energy range confirm the theoretical result quantitatively.Such a good agreement between theory and experiment is not trivial since we have used in ourcalculation only the lowest order of perturbation theory.

Finally, a last comment concerning the procedure, i.e. crossing, by which we have arrivedat the result for the pair annihilation process. This is a powerful method. However, in thepresent simple and straight forward case we would have had no difficulty in deriving the resultby repeating the entire calculation from the beginning. The reader is encouraged to do that asan exercise.

8.6 Electron-muon elastic scattering in the LAB frame.Recall that the invariant expression of the differential cross section is given by

dσ =1

F|M|2 dQ

where F is the flux factor, |M|2 is the spin-averaged mod-squared matrix element and dQ isthe Lorentz invariant phase space factor. We shall tackle separately the three parts of thecalculation, the matrix element, the phase space and the flux factor, in the LAB frame.

(i) Matrix element of electron-muon elastics scattering in the LAB frame.We go back to the exact formulas for the lepton tensors, neglecting only the electron mass butkeeping the muon mass, which will be essential in this calculation. Thus we have

|M|2 =1

q4L

µνMµν

with Lµν

given by Eq. (54) and Mµν

by Eq. (55).To emphasise that we are now working in the LAB frame, let us denote the 4-momenta of the

incoming and outgoing electron by k and k′, respectively, and similarly those of the muon by pand p′. Then carrying out the contraction and remembering that q2 = 2m2 − 2k·k′ = 2M2 − 2p·p′,we get

|M|2 =8e4

q4[k·p k′·p′ + k·p′ k′·p

− m2p·p′ −M2k·k′ + 2m2M2]

or, if we set the electron mass m equal to nought, and hence k2 = k′ 2 = 0, and thereforeq2 = (k − k′)2 = −2k·k′, we get

|M|2 =8e4

q4

2k·p k′·p′ + 1

2q2[

M2 − (k − k′)·p]

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In the LAB frame the muon is at rest, hence p = (M, 0, 0, 0), and if we denote the energiesof the incident and the outgoing electrons by E and E ′, respectively, we get

|M|2 =8e4

q42M2EE ′

[

1 +q2

4EE ′− q2

2M2

M(E − E ′)

2EE ′

]

We can get a more useful form of this formula if we express the energy of the scatteredelectron in terms of the scattering angle. To do this we consider 4-momentum conservation:

k + p = k′ + p′

hencep′ 2 = (k − k′ + p)2 = q2 +M2 + 2(k − k′)·p

hence, with p′ 2 = M2, we getq2 = −2M(E − E ′) (64)

Furthermore, setting k = (E, 0, 0, E) and k′ = (E ′, k′x, k′y, k

′z), we have

q2 = −2EE ′(1 − cos θ) = −4EE ′ sin2 θ

2(65)

where we have put k′z = E ′ cos θ. Using these relations we can cast the result for the matrixelement in the following final form:

|M|2 =8e4

q42M2EE ′

[

cos2 θ

2− q2

2M2sin2 θ

2

]

(ii) Two-body phase space in the LAB frame.The Lorentz invariant two-body phase space factor is

dQ =1

(4π)2δ(4) (p3 + p4 − p1 − p2)

d3p3

E3

d3p4

E4

and we have to carry out four of the six integrations to get rid of the four-dimensional δ function.We begin by integrating over the 3-momentum ~p 4; this removes the three-dimensional δ functionδ(3) (~p 3 + ~p 4 − ~p 1 − ~p 2 ) and leaves us with

dQ =1

(4π)2δ (E3 + E4 − E1 − E2)

p23dp3dΩ

E3E4

where we have expressed the three-dimensional differential d3p3 in polar coordinates with dΩ =sin θdθdφ, where θ and φ are the polar angle and azimuth, respectively.

So far the expression is valid in any frame. At this point we specify the LAB frame bysetting

E1 = E, E3 = E ′, E2 = M,

and E4 =√

~p ′ 2 +M2

hence

dQLAB =1

(4π)2δ (E ′ + E4 − E −M)

E ′dE ′dΩ

E4

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We note that our integration over ~p 4 has already enforced momentum conservation. There-fore we have

~p ′ = ~k − ~k′, hence ~p ′ 2 = E2 + E ′ 2 − 2EE ′ cos θ

Now consider the argument of the δ function. Let us denote it by f(E ′ ), i.e.

f(E ′ ) = E ′ +√

~p ′ 2 +M2 − E −M

Its zero corresponds to energy conservation (in addition to the momentum conservation, whichis already enforced), in other words, it corresponds to 4-momentum conservation which in theLAB frame is expressed by Eqs. (64) and (65). To evaluate the integral over E ′ we rewrite theδ function in the form of

δ(f(E ′ )) =

df(E ′0)

dE ′

−1

δ(E ′ − E ′0 )

where E ′0 is given by f(E ′

0 ) = 0. Differentiating f(E ′ ) w.r.t. E ′ we get

df(E ′)

dE ′= 1 +

E ′ − E cos θ

E4=E4 + E ′ − E cos θ

E4

or, applying energy conservation, E4 + E ′ = E +M ,

df(E ′)

dE ′=M + E(1 − cos θ)

E4

=Mk

E ′E4

where in the last step we have once more used Eqs. (64) and (65). Thus finally we have

δ(f(E ′ )) =E ′E4

Mkδ(E ′ − E ′

0 )

Now we can do the integral over E ′ and get

dQLAB =1

(4π)2

E ′ 20

MEdΩ =

1

(4π)2

2E ′ 2

s−M2dΩ

where in the final expression we have dropped the subscript of E ′0, which is now redundant,

and used s = M2 + 2MENote that in its final form the expression remains valid also for the case of quasielastic

collisions, such as electroproduction of nucleon resonances, ep→ eN ∗, if the mass M in thedenominator is understood to be the mass of N ∗.

(iii) The flux factor in the LAB frame is obtained from the invariant expression

4√

(p1·p2)2 − (m1m2)

2

which on account of m1 = 0, p1 = (E, 00, E) and p2 = (M, 0, 0, 0) simplifies to 4EM .

(iv) Differential cross section in the LAB frame.Putting our results for the matrix element, the phase space factor and the flux factor together,we get for the differential cross section of elastic electron-muon scattering the following expres-sion:

(

)

LAB=

α2

4E2 sin4 θ2

E ′

E

(

cos2 θ

2− q2

2M2sin2 θ

2

)

(66)

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Figure 1: (a) Elastic e−µ− scattering; (b) e+e− → µ+µ− annihilation

27