Psychopathology 3

Individual Differences: Abnormality

Psychopathology 3Psychological models of abnormality1Models of AbnormalityBiological (medical)Psychological PsychodynamicBehaviouralCognitive2Psychodynamic Approach (Freud, Jung, etc.)3Psychodynamic ApproachMain Assumptions:Experiences in our earlier years can affect our emotions, attitudes and behaviour in later years without us being aware of itPatient will be cured if repressed memories can be recovered from the unconscious through psychotherapy, and the patient experiences the emotional pain of these repressed memories 4https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TxBdidos-xg https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wWsbk9rRIY8 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2slg6pXP5qM Assumption 1: The Psychodynamic Model assumes that experiences in our earlier years can affect our emotions, attitudes and behaviour in later years without us being aware that it is happening. Freud suggested that abnormal behaviour is caused by unresolved conflicts in the Unconscious. These conflicts create anxiety, and we use defence mechanisms such as repression and denial to protect our Ego against this anxiety. However, if defence mechanisms are over-used, they can lead to disturbed abnormal behaviour.

Assumption 2: The Psychodynamic Model assumes that if repressed memories can be recovered from the Unconscious through psychotherapy, and if the patient experiences the emotional pain of these repressed memories, the conflicts will be resolved and the patient will be cured (catharsis & closure i.e. lancing the psychological boil) . Modern psychoanalysis suggests patients must also come to understand these memories cognitively.

45

6Inner child: I wantit and I want it NOW!Self: protector/voice of reasonInner parent: the conscience

Freuds Theory of Personality67Psychosexual Stages of Development

See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cvOoYX45G_07EVALUATION OF THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHStrengthsInsight that early experiences can affect us throughout our livesProblems are not the patients faultSuggests there is no need for medical interventionPatient, with psychoanalyst, can find a cure through own resourcesWeaknessesCannot be scientifically validated; e.g. cannot demonstrate the unconscious exists or repressed memories are realHighly subjective analysis/interpretation by therapistTime-consuming and expensiveMay be harmful (1952 review of 7000 cases by Eysenck)8Strength 1: One strength of the Psychodynamic Model is that it reminds us that experiences in childhood can affect us throughout our lives. It accepts that everybody can suffer mental conflicts and neuroses through no fault of their own.

Strength 2: The model also suggests there is no need for medical intervention such as drugs, ECT or psychotherapy, and that the patient, with the help of a psychoanalyst, can find a cure through his own resources. (which empowers the individual & discourages helplessness)

Weakness 1: The main limitation of the Psychodynamic Model is that it cannot be scientifically observed or tested. There is no way of demonstrating if the Unconscious actually exists. There is no way of verifying if a repressed memory is a real or false memory unless independent evidence is available. In other words, most of the theory must be taken on faith.

Weakness 2: Any evidence recovered from a patient must be analysed and interpreted by a therapist. This leaves open the possibility of serious misinterpretation or bias because two therapists may interpret the same evidence in entirely different ways. Psychoanalysis is time-consuming and expensive. It may not even work: in a comprehensive view of 7000 cases, Eysenck (1952) claimed that psychodynamic therapy does more harm than good.

8Fairy Tale Psychoanalysishttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l_UtFKgeHsY 910The Behavioural ModelL8

10Behavioural Model:Main AssumptionsAll behaviour (including abnormal behaviour) is learned through experienceClassical and/or operant conditioningWhat has been learned/acquired can be unlearned through conditioningUndesirable or maladaptive behaviour can be replaced by desirable or adaptive behaviour11Assumption 1: The Behavioural Model of Abnormality assumes that all behaviour is learned through experience. All behaviour, including abnormal behaviour, is learned through the processes of classical and/or operant conditioning. Classical Conditioning involves learning through association. Operant conditioning involves learning through rewards (positive and negative reinforcement) and punishment. Or through modelling and Social Learning Theory. (as in Banduras BoBo doll study)

Assumption 2: The model assumes that what has been learned/acquired can be unlearned through the processes of conditioning, classical or operant. Undesirable or maladaptive behaviour can be replaced by desirable or adaptive behaviour. For example, we can use behavioural therapies such as Desensitization and token economies.

1112Classical Conditioning was one of the first types of learning to be discovered. It was studied by Ivan Pavlov using his dogs.

Ivan Pavlov

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l_UtFKgeHsY 12How this can cause a phobia..Classical conditioning: We learn to associate one thing with anotherExampleChild on mums kneeChild sees spider (NS) unafraid (never seen spider before!)Mum sees spiderMum screams and drops baby!Baby associates spider with fear and lump on head (UCS)!Baby sees spiderBaby cries! (CR)13

13Operant ConditioningA behaviour that has a positive effect is more likely to be repeatedPositive and negative reinforcement (escape from aversive stimulus) are agreeablePunishment is disagreeableTherefore treatment is by positive & negative reinforcement and punishmentused in schools to treat disruptive childrenand in treatment of disorders such as anorexia14

1415OPERANT CONDITIONINGB. F. Skinner (1904-1990)Operant Conditioning The PIGEON & The Skinner BoxResults in the behaviour being repeatedReinforcement of Behaviour (by reward)

Behaviour can then be SHAPED to give a desired response.15How can this cause abnormal behaviour?We can learn to associate an action with a reward or sanctionExampleBoy sees sweets at checkoutBoy wants sweets but mum says No!Boy screams and shouts and has a tantrumMum gives sweets, reinforcing bad behaviour Boy learns tantrums = getting what he wants!So next time boy wants sweets (etc.)

16

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA 16Social Learning TheoryImitation of role models and reinforcement can also lead to abnormal behaviourExampleGirl watches mother (who has OCD) ritualistically washing every item in house dailyGirl cleans own things in same way copying mum!Mum is role modelEvidence: Banduras bobo doll experiment17

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zerCK0lRjp8 17Advantages & LimitationsAdvantagesEffective in treating phobias, other neurotic disorders e.g. OCDespecially when combined with cognitive approachesCan ignore history and focus directly on maladaptive behaviourLimitationsLess useful for serious disorders e.g. schizophrenia, psychosisOnly behaviour is considered; thoughts and feelings ignoredmay change behaviour without resolving causesIgnores possible medical causes of abnormal behaviour, e.g.genetic element in anorexialack of glucose in depressionexcessive dopamine in several mental disorders18Advantage 1: Behavioural approaches, especially when combined with cognitive approaches, have proved very effective in treating clients with phobias and other neurotic disorders, such as obsessive-compulsive disorders. They are less successful with more serious disorders such as schizophrenia and psychosis.

Advantage 2: There is also the advantage that therapy can focus directly on the clients maladaptive behaviour. There is no need to refer to the clients previous history or to his medical history. Behaviourists believe that changing the behaviour from maladaptive to adaptive is sufficient for a cure.

Limitation 1: One limitation of the BM is that only behaviour is considered. The thoughts and feelings of cognition are not taken into consideration. However, a human being is much more than a bundle of behaviours, and thinking and feelings need to be considered. Behavioural therapy may change the behaviour without resolving the underlying causes of that behaviour.

Limitation 2: The BM ignores possible medical causes of abnormal behaviour. For example, we know that there is a genetic element in anorexia, that the lack of glucose can deepen depression, and that excessive dopamine is linked with several mental disorders. It is likely that the Behavioural Model takes too narrow a focus of what constitutes human psychology. Humans are more than rats in Skinner boxes.

18ActivityAnorexia Nervosa is an eating disorder where sufferers gradually starve themselves, sometimes with fatal consequences.Use classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theory (modelling) to explain the development of Anorexia Nervosa.19COGNITIVE MODEL20The Cognitive Model: Main AssumptionsThinking (cognition) is processing informationCognition influences how we feel and behaveCognitive disorders (and abnormal behaviour) stem from negative or disorganised thinkingThoughts can be monitored, evaluated and altered (to be more positive or organised)Cognitive change will lead to behavioural change21

21Assumption 1: The Cognitive Model of Abnormality assumes that how we think influences how we feel and how we behave. The ways in which we process information (cognition) directly affect the ways we behave. The Cognitive Model suggests that disordered thinking can cause disordered or abnormal behaviour. Disordered thinking includes irrational assumptions and negative views about the self, the world and the future.

Assumption 2: The Cognitive Model assumes that cognitive disorders are the result of negative or disorganised thinking and, therefore, they can be made positive or organised. Thoughts can be monitored, evaluated and altered. Individuals can modify their thinking, challenge their irrational cognitions and self-defeating thoughts. So the model assumes cognitive change will lead to behavioural change.

22Becks (1976) Cognitive TriadNegative (irrational) thoughts that depressed individuals have about... Themselves: I am helpless and inadequateThe world: The world is full of insuperable obstaclesThe future: I am worthless, so theres no chance that the future will be any better than the present

22Evaluation of the Cognitive ApproachStrengthsFocuses on patients thought processes, not historyEffective, especially with behavioural therapyEmpowers the individual to take responsibilityWeaknesses Ignores other causes of abnormality e.g. medical and environmentalTherefore can place blame unfairly on individual e.g., depression may be valid response to bad situation23EVALUATION OF THE COGNITIVE APPROACH

Strength 1: A major strength of the Cognitive Model is that it concentrates in currentthought processes. It does not depend on the past history of the client, for example,recovering repressed memories from the Unconscious. This is an advantage becausedetails about a persons past are often unclear, irrelevant, misleading andmisremembered.

Strength 2: A second strength is that Cognitive Therapies, especially when used togetherwith Behavioural Therapy, have a good success rate in helping clients. It is a popular andmuch-used approach. It also empowers the individual to take responsibility for his ownthinking processes by monitoring, evaluating and altering self-defeating thoughtprocesses.

Weakness 1: Like all other approaches, psychological and medical, the Cognitive Modelrarely supplies the complete solution to abnormal behaviour by itself. There may bemedical and environmental influences affecting a persons behaviour. Focussing only ona persons cognition may be too narrow an approach.

Weakness 2: The Cognitive Model sometimes places the blame for any disorder unfairlyon the individual Its your disordered thinking, so you are at fault. For example, aperson suffering from depression may be living in awful circumstances where depressionis a perfectly valid and rationale response to the situation. It will hardly be surprising ifhe perceives the world and his future as a negative and grim.

23