Psychology of Shamanism: The Transformative and Restorative

PSYCH. OF SHAMANISM 1

Psychology of Shamanism: The Transformative and Restorative

T. Whitley

Institute of Transpersonal Psychology

February 7, 2014

I certify that I have read and approved the content and presentation of this paper:

_____________________________________________ ____________________

Brandon Thompson, M.A., Global Faculty Mentor Date


______________________________________________ ____________________

Nancy Rowe, Ph.D., Chair of Global Master’s Programs Date

Table of Contents

List of Tables ………………………………………………………………...…………............ 3

Psychology of Shamanism: The Transformative and Restorative ….......................................... 4

The Shaman …………………………………..……………………………………................. 9

Non-Ordinary States ................................................................................................................. 10

Journeywork ............................................................................................................................. 14

Modern Techniques, Ancient Roots.......................................................................................... 15

Conclusion ………………………………………………………..………………………….... 22


References …………………………………………………………….…………………....... 24

List of Tables

Tabl

e

Page

1 The Hero's Journey .......…………............................................

7


............

2 Altered States .....................................................................................

11


"The conscious mind may be compared to a fountain playing in the

sun and falling back into the great subterranean pool of

subconscious from which it rises"

(Freud as cited by Piironen, 2012, p 1).

Psychology of Shamanism: The Transformative and Restorative

The Shaman: is an ancient icon, a symbol deeply rooted in our

subconscious, spanning numerous archetypes and cultures across

the globe. Known by many names, the shaman is a powerful figure,

expressing its own unique path; the link to our primal selves.

Shamanistic psychology within its core truths can trace its

lineage of knowledge back thousands of years, however its advent

in modern psychology only goes back a few decades.

Introduction

In the 1960's Non-Ordinary States of Reality were

intentionally happening in what some might call a spiritual

revolution, and a small group of psychologists observing the

times decided to make a difference. In 1967, Abraham Maslow,

Anthony Sutich, Stanislav Grof, James Fadiman, Miles Vich and


Sonya Margulies, met repeatedly in a small park in California,

Menlo Park, with the sole purpose of creating a new psychology

that would reflect the times and would "honor the entire spectrum

of human experience including various non-ordinary states of

consciousness" (Grof, 2010, p 5). Before that, Depth Psychology

created by Freud would be the only type of psychology that could

come close to encompassing more of the human experience. The

birth of Transpersonal Psychology was given shape in 1967 and

soon to follow, the Association of Transpersonal Psychology and

The Institute of Transpersonal Psychology in Palo Alto,

California opened by Robert Frager, began educating the seeker

about a new type of humanistic psychology.

Shamanistic Theory

Today, Shamanistic Psychology tries to focus on "non-

ordinary states" as well as the many lessons and techniques

shamans would employ to care for the spiritual, psychological and

some might say holistic concerns of their community (Tart, 1975).

As humans journey within, like the shamans, each seeker can

become awakened to true self. It is because of that holistic


connection to the human psyche, to the primal or shadow self,

that the sub-discipline of Shamanistic Psychology can have such a

transformative and regenerative impact when applied to self-

exploration and self-development. Using an interdisciplinary

approach which includes the disciplines of History, Anthropology

and Transpersonal Psychology I will shed more light on this new

aspect or specialization of Transpersonal Psychology; The

Psychology of Shamanism.

The Shaman

What is a Shaman though? The classic definition of the word

Shaman comes from the Tungus word saman "one who is excited,

moved or raised" referring to the ecstatic states that Shamans

often take to alter their perceptions (Walsh, 2007, p 13).

Anthropologists, however, have used the term to refer to the

spiritual people, the healers of many different cultures around

the world. Medicine Man, Wizard, Sorcerer, Witch Doctor, Magician

and Seer were just a few of their names. The definition that

speaks to me most in this context was made by Roger Walsh. Walsh

indicated "a family of traditions whose practitioners focus on


voluntarily entering altered states of consciousness in which

they experience themselves or their spirit(s) interacting with

other entities, often by traveling to other realms, in order to

serve their community" (Walsh, 2007, pp 15-16). It is these

altered states that I have personally found make the strongest

impact in one's life. They can be transformative on a deep

personal level.

The Shaman has been a part of indigenous cultures for over

thousand years, and in chapter twelve of Roger Walsh's (2007)

book The World of Shamanism he describes how there are many messages

that can still be conveyed, techniques that still have pertinence

to the modern exploration of Shamanic Psychology. Initiation

rituals, drumming, meditation, journeywork, shapeshifting, soul

retrieval, and deeper understandings of spirituality through

shamanic work are all techniques that have found a place in

modern psychology when altered to be used in therapy or self-

discovery (Walsh, 2007). It is through these techniques that

restoration and transformation takes place.

Transformative and Restorative


In my experience and through research I have found there are

two main purposes of shamanic work, which is transformation and

restoration. Shamans focus on transforming an aspect of the self

from within, in order to create a positive change in their

community. We can see this in the modern self exploration

techniques such as soul journeying or deep meditation.

Restoration is experienced through any act the shaman engages in

to restore an important aspect of the individual. This can be

expressed most clearly in shamanic healing rituals and soul

retrieval. Shamanic dual healing arts can be employed for both

effects; to restore and transform (ie. breathwork, meditation and

journeywork or to journey into any non-ordinary state). Self

discovery and enlightenment is recognized as all part of the

healing path.

The Journey

Human existence is all about transformation and change;

archetypal heroic journey at this primal level can give much more

meaning to psychological self-discovery (Vaughan, 1988). Walsh

theorizes that "there are obviously similarities between the


Shaman's life and training, and the 'Hero's Journey' - the

archetypal life patterns displayed by heroes from diverse times"

(2007, p 9).

Joseph Campbell is one of the leading historians to speak about

the hero's journey and archetypes. However, his scope was

limited by one lens, the narrow discipline of history. While

Campbell can give us the lay of the land and the big picture, he

lacks the unification that psychology can show, "separating

saints from warriors and sages from power seekers" (Walsh, 2007).

It is the work historians like Campbell accomplished that allowed

psychologists to even approach the subject of Shamanism with

fore knowledge.

Doctor Walsh in his book The World of Shamanism (2007) writes

about five phases that the hero, or shaman goes through in order

to gain enlightenment, which are, "the hero's early conventional

life, the call to adventure and awakening, discipline and

training, culmination of the quest and the final phase of return

and contribution to society" (p 41). The pattern of the hero's

journey or journeywork he describes is reminiscent of the


anonymous Ox Herding pictures that showed the Zen version of

enlightenment (Kapleau, n.d.). When the pictures are looked at

side by side with Walsh's description of the hero's journey a

deeper pattern emerges. Johnson (1982) in his book Riding The Ox

Home he expresses the meaning behind the Ox Herding pictures in a

way that again leads us to a deeper pattern of the hero's

journey. By comparing Walsh's description and Johnson's we begin

to recognize this pattern as an integral part of all indigenous

spirituality and journey work.

In both Walsh (2007) and Johnson's (1982) interpretations

the journey begins with the hero asleep, unaware of even the

possibility of enlightenment. Then, awakening through an external

stimuli like a devastating life event or "peak experience"

(Maslow, 1971), the hero begins to open to the possibility of a

new life journey (Walsh, 2007). Without altered states as a

catalyst a person may never know such a journey existed. Now

awakened we can trace the footsteps of our former self. The

tracks of our life are our karma, our unresolved fears, anxieties

or conflicts that stem from unconscious motivations and pain


(Johnson, 1982). Johnson (1982) suggests that the ox "lies

submerged iceberg-like in the psyche...the ox may have vanished

but it still, to the observant leaves tracks" (p 40).

In consequent stages described by Walsh (2007) the hero

feels the sudden motivation to act and "what fosters growth is

valued, what hinders it is discarded, and much that previously

seemed valuable can now seem irrelevant" (p 43). The Zen Ox

Herding pictures describe this stage as one of realization and

the start of training oneself in self-observation. (Johnson,

1982) The Shaman or Hero's journey is one of intentional and hard

won self-development that not everyone has the ability to

complete, "as Jesus said, 'many are called, but few are

chosen'... indeed, few choose to recognize the call" (as cited by

Walsh 2007, p 43). Shamans use peak experiences and altered

states to intentionally bring this long journey of enlightenment

to fruition.

In the final stages of the hero or shamans journey both

Johnson (1982) and Walsh (2007) indicate a triumphant return to

their community or village bringing with them all that they have


learned becoming a beacon that often prompts others to start

their own journey. As the shaman returns "barechested,

barefooted, he comes into the marketplace. Muddied and dust-

covered, how broadly he grins! Without recourse to mystic powers,

withered trees he swiftly brings to bloom" (Kapleau, n.d.)

Journeywork also evolves in this manner, in a cyclical nature,

mimicking the shaman or the hero's journey. Many set out on this

path, but few actually obtain it (Walsh, 2007), and even fewer

come back to share their lessons in the final stage. This is the

overall core truth that a shaman can help us see and which has

helped me navigate my own life. (Table 1)

Scientific Lens on Non-Ordinary States

Altered States or Non-Ordinary States as some scientists who

have studied the subject prefer, are as useful now as they were

in ancient times, because such states allow the person to deeply

access his/her subconscious and activate a higher percentage of

their brain (Grof, 2007). Entering into an altered state by the

means of ethnobotanical plants as shamans do in many cultures,

would not be recommended for self-development. However, it is


good to reflect on how knowledge has evolved on the subject.

Strassman (2001) has extrapolated that "hundreds of years of

anthropological research has demonstrated that these societies

used psychedelics to maintain social solidarity, aid the healing

arts, and inspire artistic and spiritual creativity" (p 22).

Charles Tart (1975) was the man who coined the term "altered

states of consciousness". (p 1) Stanislov Grof (2010) preferred

the term "holotropic states", which in Greek etymology mean

'holo' or whole, and 'tropic' or moving toward. And, together we

find the deeper meaning of moving toward wholeness. It is this

definition that illustrates the modern movement of the

transpersonal and the lessons on moving toward wholeness within

as well as without.

What are the different Non-Ordinary States of reality

though, and how do those states seem to affect people on a deeply

emotional and psychological level? That is an important question

in Shamanistic Psychology, since helping people achieve these

states safely to do therapeutic work is one of the key concepts.

For instance, meditation is an intentionally achieved state,


dreaming a naturally occurring state and even sleep deprivation

an unintentional state (Whitley, 2009). We can speculate that

every time a person organically achieves an altered state, the

result is smaller when compared to the use of ethnobotanical

plants.

In 2001, Dr. Rick Strassman (2001) began work sanctioned by

the Government on non-ordinary states. In particular, Dr.

Strassman conducted research on the chemical dimethyltryptamine

that scientists nicknamed "The Spirit Molecule", more commonly

known as DMT. In Strassman's book by the same name, DMT: The Spirit

Molecule, he said that what drew him to his research was that the

chemical was present in all of our bodies, residing in the pineal

gland specifically (2001). Falling under both categories of

naturally occurring states and intentional states, (Table 2) "we

know that it can naturally activate and reproduce itself like

other glands in our body, usually at the time of near-death

experiences, child birth and mystical experience, producing a

high dose of DMT in our systems" (Strassman, 2001, p xv).


In an article written by Blackshaw and Snyder on the

observance of rats, their research indicated the pineal gland’s

ability to express both rod-specific and cone-specific

phototransduction (1997). What this means is the pineal gland

creates images as concrete as real life. In other words, if a

person in an altered state were to imagine an experience

emotionally and physically there would be no difference than if

it were actually occurring. The knowledge that a human being is

born with this innate ability to tap into a non-ordinary state,

brings scientific credence to the types of states shamans could

enter into, as well as anyone with appropriate training and/or

circumstance. Dr. Strassman's study was a rare occurrence. He had

to endure years of waiting and governmental bureaucracy to engage

in his human trials with DMT. The study gave psychology the

chance to scientifically back up personal experiences, scientific

curiosity and historical research about non-ordinary states.

(Table 2) Indigenous cultures and anthropologists have known

about these experiences long before laboratory studies with FDA

approval.


Stanislov Grof (2010) was one of the first psychologists to

tap into what shamans did years earlier, but without the possible

dangers involved in ingesting ethnobotanical plants. He developed

a breathing technique called "holotropic breathing", derived from

the experiences people can have when their brains are deprived of

oxygen, and the impact music can have on calming or driving inner

experiences (2010). Grof's participants would lie down with a

partner sitting close by, and begin the technique that looks very

much like hyperventilating, but is in fact deeper, faster

breathing. Grof said in a video interview that he came up with

the idea by studying Yogi's doing their own rituals, and

meditations involving modified breathing and breathwork.

Participants are said to enter into three different states when

doing their journeywork (Omega, 2007). Biographical, left over

energies from emotions and unresolved issues, Prenatal,

experiences of birth-like encounters and the deepest layer, the

transpersonal which includes experiences with ancestors, racial,

collective and karmic memories (Butler, 2010). Teachers and

students "describe surprising results in the healing of emotional


and psychosomatic disorders, favorable effects on physical

diseases, including some that current medical theory considers to

be organic, as well as positive changes in personality,

worldview, life strategy, and hierarchy of values" (Butler, 2010,

p. 1). Both Christina and Stanislov Grof have helped change the

face of modern transpersonal psychology through breathing and

music. Drumming was the precursor to modern music therapy which

has helped countless children and adults move through problems.

Drumming or sonic driving, the rhythmic value of beating an

object 4 to 7 times per second, "is humankind's imitation of the

heartbeat" (Arrien, 1993, p. 57). This particular rhythmic value

is known to help put an individual into a non-ordinary state of

consciousness, or trance like-state such as shaman may enter when

engaging in journeywork. Scientists have found that the sounds

caused by drumming create what is called "theta binaural waves"

(Arrien, 1993, p. 57). Binaural means affecting both ears

simultaneously. Theta waves most often occur when one is drowsy

or just at that border between wakefulness and sleep (Arrien,

1993). In spirituality, theta waves are most often associated


with long meditative states, most other meditative states stay in

the alpha wave range (Maxfield, 1990). In Melinda Maxfield's

(1990) dissertation Journey of the Drum, laboratory research was done

to find the pattern of beats per second that had the best results

in inducing a non-ordinary state. A pattern of approximately 4 to

4 1/2 beats per second, "showed varying degrees of increased

theta during shamanic drumming" (Maxfield, 1990 p 9 ). Eight of

the twelve participants in the laboratory research study

experienced a shift in ordinary reality into the non-ordinary

with the use of the synthesized drum beat technique. Drumming,

like music, can help people delve deeper into themselves without

the need for talk therapy (Maxfield, 1990). Looking back, "in

ancient Greece both Plato and Aristotle ascribed curative power

to certain melodies" (Walsh, 2007, p. 211). Drumming can be a

helpful way to pull oneself into a non-ordinary state, reaching

deeper meditative levels. Dr. Arrien believed, "when we embark on

such a journey, we open ourselves to the possibility of removing

blocks and obstacles to receiving love and giving love" (1993, p

57). Maxwell's (1990) research found that journeywork combined


with drumming may have been an ancient form of stress reduction

and technique for entering into an altered state.

Anthropological Lens

Ancient cultures depicted the ecstatic or altered states

entered into by Shamans and their followers through their art.

The Pech Merle, a cave in south-western France was of particular

interest to the author Graham Hancock (2006). In his book

Supernatural: Meetings with Ancient Teachers of Mankind he went to great

lengths detailing its many chambers, imagining what a person

might feel like thousands of years ago creeping across the miles

worth of tunnels with nothing but a torch to light the way.

(Hancock, 2006) Journeywork inside a cave like that would be a

lower world journey often containing trials one must survive to

return (Maxfield, 1990). The lens of anthropology allows us to

glimpse what it might have been like to be a shaman traveling in

a darkened cave toward transformation.

A Shaman's Travels

Shamans travel to different destinations in their altered

states to bring about desired change and restoration. Each world


is unique because it challenges the one who is journeying at the

different levels. In Norse Mythology these worlds were named,

Asgard, the upper world, where the Gods resided; Midgard, the

middle world where humans dwelled; and the lower world, Hel where

the dead and the spirits resided (Conway, 1996). Journeys to the

upper world can include climbing or ascension symbolism such as

making your way up a tree, ladder, mountain or rainbow (Maxfield,

1990). The middle world, for instance, is much like our current

reality; a person who travels to this world often experiences

what has been called Bi-Location, Remote Viewing or Out-Of-Body

Experiences (Conway, 1996). Journeying to the lower world can

consist of climbing down into a cave, hollow stump or other such

hole in the earth, "the lower world is traditionally a place of

tests and challenges" (Maxfield, 1990, p 3).

Spirit Guides

Since the answers truly exist within a human being’s own

psyche and psychologists could be characterized as guides,

journeywork like many other Shamanic techniques allow an

individual to make significant changes for themselves.


Psychologists may be the guides within the material world, but in

the spirit realm many guides exist, such as archetypal, symbolic

or metaphorical. These are representations of parts of ourselves

or spirit. Jung would call them shadows or archetypes of the

collective unconscious itself.

Angeles Arrien (1993) calls spirit guides helping allies,

spirit animals or entities we are constantly drawn toward. These

messengers and teachers show themselves in vision often, and come

in many different forms; human, alien and animal, etc. Taken from

dreams, visions and meditations these allies assist us in times

of need such as transitions, growth periods and deepening's

within ourselves and our spirituality (Arrien, 1993). Spirit

animals show up for us because they have been a part of our world

as far back as one hundred thousand years to the earth's

creation. This soul connection fosters a deep and lasting bond to

our psyche, so it is no wonder Spirit talks to us through

animals, as well as other symbols (Arrien, 1993). It is important

to note the impact journeys taken with these spirit guides can

have on people, and the type of psychological tools and


mechanisms they are accessing. When people merge with their guide

or power animal, they are giving themselves permission to feel

powerful by moving out of victim mentality.

It has been my experience, finding your spirit animal takes

time, practice and patience. They do not just appear or can be

easily picked out like you would a stray dog in a pound. The

spirit animal is a part of you. It takes years to find what it is

to be 'you' in the world, just as it takes time to find your

spirit animal. Being a part of your chosen animal spirit in some

cases can go much further, when the art of shapeshifting and the

technique of transformation is revealed.

Shapeshifting

Shapeshifting has been an integral part of the shamanic

tradition, and has its place in psychology as well. It is not a

physical change but a psychospiritual one, brought about by inner

work leading to transformation. In symbolic or "metaphorically

[terms], shapeshifters can alter their own consciousness, and can

affect the shape of consciousness around them" (Jamal, 1987, p.

3). Lynn Andrews is an author of shamanic books and was trained


by a Manitoba medicine woman. In an interview with her appearing

in the book Shape Shifters: Shaman Women in Contemporary Society, she

explains the reason for teaching shamanism instead of psychology,

is psychology "doesn't really teach you to be your own teacher"

(Jamal, 1987, p 24). Andrews has a point, yet "what makes shamans

so important in human society is their relationship with the

spirit world, which serves as a bridge between the spirits and

the community" (Sarangerel, 2001, p. 79). Andrews goes on to say

a part of shamanism is peeling back the layers of conditioning

and shifting yourself out of the masked vision those layers force

you to perceive. This is one metaphoric way of thinking about

shapeshifting (Jamal, 1987). Rowena Patee explains the root of

true shapeshifting is being directly connected to nature and the

spirit world, allowing it to be integrated into their lives

(Jamal, 1987). Once the shaman integrates the spirit world with

the material world, they can then change the material world, this

is the true intrinsic nature of shapeshifting. Metaphorically it

is easier to see now why shamans were portrayed changing their

bodies into an animal’s. In the true sense they were just


manifesting magical or spiritual visions and directives into the

world. Shamanic psychology can then take the technique of true

shapeshifting and help guide participants in visions and

meditations to use knowledge to affect their lives.

Soul Retrieval

Shamans considered soul retrieval one of their greatest

healing tools, a more mystically related practice. Traditionally

a shaman would diagnose a patient continuing to experience

physical pain or disease with no known scientific cure as having

"soul loss" (Sarangerel, 2001, p 79). Sandra Ingerman believed

soul loss was a spiritual illness itself, and can actually cause

physical or emotional disease (Ingerman, 1991). If a person

experiences this problem or has the feeling of being overwhelmed

by the simplest of tasks or the inability to break themselves of

depression, they could have a part of their soul missing in the

middle world. The person is not seeing a complete loss of soul,

only a piece was frightened away, lost or stolen (Ingerman,

1991). Using one of the oldest instruments, the rattle,

humankinds imitation of rain, shamans would work to help a person


bring back his/her soul. The shamans would use the rattle to

first purify the individual and ritual space, then use the

instrument to call the piece of soul back into the body (Arriens,

1993). In extreme cases like coma, a person experiences a

complete soul loss. Their soul may be trying to catch up to their

body’s trauma and be lost right before death, or unresolved

issues in the material world may still be plaguing the psyche

(Arriens, 1993). Similar to other journeywork, engaging in soul

retrieval a person must go within to pursue their missing soul

piece. During visualization a person might perceive the soul

piece as a bird or child, perching just out of reach or hiding in

a dark corner (Sarangerel, 2001). It is important to call the

soul piece back to you "gently, coaxing it to come to your hand,

or take your hand; ultimately letting it reenter your body

through the chest" (Sarangerel, 2001, p 79). The healing journey

can be arduous and complicated, or easy depending on the

individual. The soul piece may fight, forcing the individual to

face the reasons they lost a soul piece. The results of soul

retrieval and restoration can be dramatic, and a change may be


apparent immediately after the reincorporation of the soul

(Walsh, 2007). While there has been many critics of shamanic

techniques and their subsequent effects, the placebo effect has

had years of research behind it, yet has remained just as poorly

understood (Walsh, 2007).

Placebo Effect

Research into the placebo effect supports the

psychospiritual growth found in Shamanism. Current research has

proven what shamans have always known and used to their

advantage, that a placebo can produce positive scientifically

documentable effects. An individual's expectations, confidence

and beliefs in the placebo given to them is what makes the effect

so powerful (Walsh, 2007). This final shamanic technique is based

on intention and faith. The intention of the shaman, and the

faith of the individual that the shaman can indeed heal them. It

is this basic concept that is the foundation shamans utilize to

both restore and transform. The patient in front of a shaman is

put into a situation, environment and ritual meant to bring about

symbolic recognition and emotional effect. A Navaho medicine man


once said "if a patient really has confidence in me, then he

gets cured. If he has no confidence, than it is his problem"

(Walsh, 1990 p 190). Shamanic therapists too can gain a client’s

confidence through journeywork.

Resistance

Journeywork and Spirit connections have not always met with

approval in the psychological community. For instance Dr. Richard

Noll (cited by Walsh, 2007) suggests shamans could be extremely

prone to fantasy, and he linked shamanic experiences to

psychological maladies. The term, fantasy in this context is

considered derogatory "as in idle daydreaming" (Walsh, 2007 p

133). Michael Harner author of Way of the Shaman, and as an

authority on shamanism has said "spiritual masters repeatedly

warn us it is almost impossible to truly comprehend these states

without direct experience of them" (Walsh, 1990, p. 237). In my

own experiences battling societal negativity surrounding the

therapeutic and spiritual uses of ethnobotanical plants and all

other shamanic tools, I have learned at the root, these

negativities are based in fear, prejudice and ignorance. I


believe that through education, transparency and acceptance a

global change can be made simply by changing the world one person

at a time.

Conclusion

Shamanic technique allows us to see life like the hawk

soaring above the forest to view the greater vistas of life. When

we let our true selves awaken to the spiritual world, we can see

how much we are interconnected and related to one another. Global

awareness expands limitlessly, and a human being can be moved

into a greater state of enlightenment. Every step people take to

become more productive and enlightened members of society, the

more we can outwardly express in our world. Ancient spirituality

being integrated into modern psycho-therapy and self-discovery

starts the process at bedrock. Psychologists, and especially

shamanic therapists, have gone through a fire of creation. They

have journeyed inward and returned to extend an age old message;

change can be made, you just have to start within. By changing


our inner selves and transforming our lives with shamanic tools

we can individually change ourselves and thereby change the

world.

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Walsh, R. (1990). Spirit of shamanism. p 190 & 237. New York, NY:

G.P. Putnam's Sons.

Walsh, R. (2007). The world of shamanism: New views of an ancient tradition. p

9, 13, 15-16, 41, 43, 120, 211 & 133.Woodbury, Minnesota:

Llewellyn Publications.

Whitley, T. (2009). The new generation of altered states of consciousness and

perception: an interdisciplinary perspective. University of Texas at

Arlington,

Arlington, TX.


Table 1: The Hero's Journey

The World of Shamanism Riding the Ox Home


1. The hero's early conventional life.- Conventional slumber. - It is the hero that choosesto move out of it and awaken.

1. The Beginning, struggling to emerge from confusion. - This is we, immature, unknowing or innocent of the world, simply living based upon wants and desires.2. Sighting the tracks, Finding the Ox's Tracks.

2. The call to adventure and awakening.- An existential or spiritualemergence or emergency that will push the hero into action.

3. Glimpsing the Ox4. Catching the Ox to turn it around. - This stage is the one that training of oneself starts to take place.

3. Discipline and Training- At this next stage a teacher is essential. - Spirit Guides, Animal Spirits, and of course Physical Teachers can come tothe seeker or hero at this stage.

5. Leading the Ox on the Path. - Now it is time to radically reshape personality and motivations through discipline specifically.6. Riding the Ox Home, - After the stress of transformation, nowthe Ox can begin its journey home, or to the voices of our inner selves.

4. Culmination of the quest.- This next stage may take years. It is filled with breakthroughs, visions, journeys, inner truths and knowledge.- Deep understanding is foundhere of one's self and the world.

7. The Ox Forgotten, Leaving the boy to deeply meditate. -Now the boy is unburdened of past guiltor shame; he now knows his place in nature.8. Both Boy and Ox Forgotten. - This picture is the most interesting ofthe series, simply a circle, wholeness.


5. Return and contribution tosociety.- The seeker has now become the knower, and the student the potential teacher. - The Hero or Shaman now is compelled as if by grace or the spirit to contribute and help his/her fellow man. - Enlightenment then gives way to teaching others.

9. Returning to The Source. - This is the knowing that we are now part of all, part of the oneness of the world, when human beings know they are a part of everything.10. Meeting The Laughing Buddha on Life'sPlayful Road. - This final picture speaks of the recognition of others that a person, is coming back spiritually transformed and matured.

(Johnson, 1982) & (Walsh, 2007)

Table 2: Altered States

Intentionally Achieved Unintentionally Achieved Naturally OccurringMeditation Fever DreamsSensory Deprivation Sleep Deprivation Lucid DreamsHypnosis Indigestion EuphoriaPrayer Starvation PsychosisDisciplines ) Mantra Meditation,Sufism or Yoga)

Oxygen Deprivation Premonitions


Opiates of psychoactiveplants such as Peyote, Mescaline, MDMA, etc,

Nitrogen Narcosis ( Deep Sea Diving)

Out of Body Experiences

Chemicals such as LSD, DXM, 2C-I

Traumatic Accidents Channeling

Dimethyltryptamine (DMT)

DMT

(Whitley, 2009)

Psychology of Shamanism: The Transformative and Restorative

Documents