Psychology 3051 Psychology 305: Theories of Personality Lecture 3.

Psychology 305 1

Psychology 305: Theories of Personality

Lecture 3

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Scoring Your Questionnaire

In order to score your questionnaire, you must compute 5 scores.

Score 1: Sum items 1, 6, 11, 16, 21

Score 2: Sum items 2, 7, 12, 17, 22

Score 3: Sum items 3, 8, 13, 18, 23

Score 4: Sum items 4, 9, 14, 19, 24

Score 5: Sum items 5, 10, 15, 20, 25

Office Hour Invitations by Student NumberMay 24th, 3:30-4:30, Kenny 2517

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Lecture 3

Research Methods and the Dispositional Perspective

1. How are the reliability and validity of personality measures assessed? (continued)

2.What are response sets and how do they threaten the validity of personality measures?

3.What are traits?

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4. What methods have been used to identify the traits that are most important in describing personality?

5. Has a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits been developed?

By the end of today’s class, you should be able to:

1. define content, predictive, convergent, and discriminant validity.

2. determine which forms of reliability and validity are necessary for the assessment of distinct constructs.

3. define acquiescence and socially desirable responding (SDR).

4. discuss methods to overcome acquiescence and SDR.

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6. describe factor analysis.

7. describe the five dimensions of the Five Factor Model (FFM) of personality.

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5. distinguish between the lexical, statistical, and theoretical methods of trait psychology.

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2. Content validity:

• Refers to the degree to which a measure assesses the underlying dimensions of the construct under study.

• E.g., Self-esteem

Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale: Assumes self-esteem is unidimensional.

Harter’s Self-Perception Profile: Assumes self-esteem is multidimensional; assesses self-esteem related to scholastic competence, athletic competence, social acceptance, physical appearance and behaviour.

How are the reliability and validity of personality

measures assessed? (continued)

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• Content validity is assessed in one of two ways:

(a) By having experts judge the adequacy with which the measure assesses the underlying dimensions of the construct.

(b) In the case of questionnaire measures, factor analyzing participants’ responses to the items.

Factor analysis is a procedure that identifies items that are highly correlated with one another; each group of highly correlated items is thought to reflect a single dimension of the construct under study.

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3. Predictive validity (or criterion validity):

• Refers to the degree to which a measure is able to predict the likelihood or extremity of a behaviour (i.e., a criterion) that is theoretically related to the construct under study.

• E.g., A self-esteem measure that is high in predictive validity should be able to predict: alcohol and drug use persistence in the face of failure number of sexual partners (i.e., sexual promiscuity)

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4. Convergent validity:

• Refers to the degree to which a measure relates to measures that assess conceptually similar constructs (i.e., constructs that are theoretically related to the construct of interest).

• E.g., A self-esteem measure that is high in convergent validity should be correlated with measures of:

depression neuroticism negative affectivity

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5. Discriminant validity:

• Refers to the degree to which a measure does not relate to measures that assess conceptually dissimilar constructs (i.e., constructs that are not theoretically related to the construct of interest).

• E.g., A self-esteem measure that is high in discriminant validity should not be correlated with measures of:

agreeableness need for cognition political attitudes (i.e., liberal vs. conservative)

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• Often, convergent and discriminant validity are examined simultaneously; this is a powerful method by which to demonstrate the validity of a measure.

• E.g., Results of a study that simultaneously examined the convergent and discriminant validity of a self-esteem measure:

Dep Neur NegAff Agree NCogn Polatt

SE -.68 -.57 -.63 .06 .09 -.02

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the validity of personality measures?

• Response set: A tendency to respond to the items that comprise a questionnaire in a biased manner (i.e., in a manner that does not reflect the content of the items)

• There are two response sets that present a significant threat to the validity of personality measures.

What are response sets and how do they threaten

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1. Acquiescence

Refers to a tendency to agree with an item, irrespective of the item’s content.

E.g., Rate the item “I like to socialize” using the following scale:

1 = SD, 2 = D, 3 = N, 4 = A, 5 = SA

A participant who acquiesces would select “5” = Strongly Agree.

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Remedy for acquiescence:

Include an equal number of positively-keyed items and negatively-keyed items in the questionnaire.

Positively-keyed items: Agreement indicates that the participant possesses the characteristic.

E.g. I like to socialize.

Negatively-keyed items: Disagreement indicates that the participant possesses the characteristic.

E.g. I like to spend a lot of time by myself.

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E.g., Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale

Negatively-keyed items are reverse scored (5 1, 4 2, 3 = 3, 2 4, 1 5); this prevents the

participant who acquiesce from obtaining an extremely high score.

I take a positive attitude toward myself

On the whole, I am satisfied with myself

I certainly feel useless at times

At times I think I’m no good at all

(+ keyed)

(+ keyed)

(-) keyed

(-) keyed

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I take a positive attitude 1 2 3 4 5toward myself.

I certainly feel useless at times. 1 2 3 4 5

Reverse score negatively-keyed item:

Average Score = 5

Average Score = 3

I take a positive attitude 1 2 3 45

toward myself.

I certainly feel useless at times. 5 4 3 21

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2. Socially desirable responding (SDR)

Refers to a tendency to respond to items in a way that promotes a favorable self-image.

A pervasive problem in personality research because, for most personality characteristics, one pole is more desirable than the other.

E.g., Honest vs. DishonestFriendly vs. UnfriendlyOptimistic vs. Pessimistic

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Three remedies for SDR:

(b) Use neutral items to describe positive and negative characteristics.

E.g., I am friendly vs. I am comfortable talking to people who I don’t know well.

(c) Use a separate measure to assess participants’ tendency to engage in SDR.

E.g., Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, Paulhus Deception Scales

(a) Administer questionnaires anonymously.

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Items from the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (T/F)

I never hesitate to go out of my way to help someone. (T)

I have never intensely disliked anyone. (T)

No matter who I’m talking to, I’m always a good listener. (T)

There have been times when I was quite jealous of the good fortune of others. (F)

On occasion I have had doubts about my ability to succeed in life. (F)

There have been occasions when I felt like smashing something. (F)

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Items from the Paulhus Deception Scales (T/F)

Items assessing impression management:

I never swear. (T)

I always obey laws, even if I’m unlikely to get caught. (T)

When I hear people talking privately, I avoid listening. (T)

I have never dropped litter on the street. (T)

I sometimes drive faster than the speed limit. (F)

I have received too much change from a salesperson without telling him or her. (F)

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Items from the Paulhus Deception Scales, Continued

Items assessing self-deceptive enhancement:

My first impressions of people usually turn out to be right. (T)

I am very confident of my judgments. (T)

I am fully in control of my own fate. (T)

I always know why I like things. (T)

I don’t care to know what other people really think of me. (T)

It would be hard for me to break any of my bad habits. (F)

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• According to the trait approach, personality is best described as a constellation of traits (e.g., anxious, conscientious, outgoing).

• E.g., Peter is jealous.

“Jealous” describes Peter’s behaviour.

• Traits are viewed as descriptive summaries of behaviour.

Dispositional Perspective: Trait Approach

What are traits?

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What methods have been used to identify the traits

that are most important in describing personality?

1. Lexical Method

Based on lexical hypothesis: “All important differences in personality are encoded in natural language.”

• Trait psychologists have used three methods to identify the traits that are most important in describing personality:

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Employs two criteria to identify the traits that are most important in describing personality:

(a) Synonym frequency: The number of synonyms that exist for a given trait reflect the importance of that trait.

E.g.,

Dominant vs. manipulative.

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(b) Cross-cultural universality: Traits that are represented in many languages are more important than traits that are represented in only a few languages.

E.g.,

Trait among the Yanomamo Indians of Venezuela: Unokai = trait ascribed to a male who has achieved manhood by killing another male.

A comparable trait does not exist in any English-speaking culture.

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2. Statistical Method

An atheoretical approach.

Typically, involves collecting S-data with structured questionnaires (e.g., adjectives or statements accompanied by rating scales).

The resulting data are analyzed using a statistical procedure referred to as factor analysis.

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Factor analysis examines the correlations between all pairs of items and identifies groups of items that are highly correlated with one another.

Each group of items that is identified is thought to reflect a single dimension of personality.

Each dimension is interpreted and labeled by the researcher (a highly subjective process).

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E.g., Results of a Factor Analysis

Adjective Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3

Humourous .66 - .06 .19

Amusing .65 .23 .02

Popular .57 .13 .22

Hard-working .05 .63 .01

Productive .04 .52 - .19

Determined .23 .59 .08

Imaginative -.01 .09 .62

Original .13 .05 .53

Inventive .06 .26 .47

“Extraversion” “Conscientiousness” “Openness”Factor label

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Thus, factor analysis allows the researcher to reduce a large number of personality traits to a small number of personality dimensions.

Each dimension is thought of as a superordinate trait that encompasses several more narrowly defined traits.

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E.g., Results of a Factor Analysis

Adjective Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3

Humourous .66 - .06 .19

Amusing .65 .23 .02

Popular .57 .13 .22

Hard-working .05 .63 .01

Productive .04 .52 - .19

Determined .23 .59 .08

Imaginative -.01 .09 .62

Original .13 .05 .53

Inventive .06 .26 .47

“Extraversion” “Conscientiousness” “Openness”Factor label

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3. Theoretical Method

The traits that are most important in describing personality are identified on the basis of a pre-existing

theory.

E.g., Psychoanalytic Theory

Anal-expulsive personality type: Disorganized, hostile, destructive.

Anal-retentive personality type: Stubborn, stingy, orderly.

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Has a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits

• Taxonomy: A classification system (e.g., Periodic Table of Elements).

• Over the past century, dozens of taxonomies have been proposed for personality traits.

E.g., Cattell’s taxonomyEysenck’s taxonomy

• In recent years, however, one taxonomy has been particularly influential—the Big 5 taxonomy of

personality traits.

been developed?

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• The Big 5 taxonomy emerged from decades of research by dozens of researchers.

• This research combined the lexical and statistical methods described earlier:

Personality traits identified from English language dictionaries were administered to participants in the form of self-report questionnaires.

The resulting data were factor analyzed in order to reduce the large number of personality traits to a small number of personality dimensions.

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• Using these methods, dozens of studies demonstrated that there are 5 personality dimensions, each of which encompasses a number of more narrowly defined traits.

• The 5 dimensions are:

1. Extraversion

Reflects engagement with the social world.

Encompasses traits such as assertive, outspoken, talkative vs. inhibited, quiet, shy.

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2. Agreeableness

Reflects a concern with cooperation and social harmony.

Encompasses traits such as kind, sympathetic, understanding vs. cold, cruel, harsh.

3. Conscientiousness

Reflects ability to control and regulate impulses.

Encompasses traits such as meticulous, organized, practical vs. careless, disorderly, sloppy.

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4. Neuroticism

Reflects a tendency to experience negative emotions.

Encompasses traits such as calm, optimistic, stable vs. anxious, emotional, insecure.

5. Openness to Experience

Reflects an open and creative cognitive style.

Encompasses traits such as artistic, intellectual, philosophical vs. uncreative, unimaginative, unreflective.

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• Today, trait psychologists tend to assess participants’ scores on the Big 5 using one of two types of measures:

(a) Self-report questionnaires containing adjectives accompanied by rating scales.

E.g., the Big Five Test administered in class.

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Score 1: Openness to Experience

Females X = 19.4 SD = 2.9 25%ile = 18 75%ile = 21Males X = 20.3 SD = 2.8 25%ile = 18 75%ile = 22

Score 2: Conscientiousness


Big Five Test

X = MeanSD = Standard deviation25%ile and below = Low scores75%ile and above = High scores

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Score 4: Agreeableness


Score 5: Neuroticism


Score 3: Extraversion


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(b) Self-report questionnaires containing statementsaccompanied by rating scales.

E.g., the NEO-PI-R

“I don’t find it easy to take charge of a situation.”

“Most people I know like me.”

“I keep my belongings neat and clean.”

“I have frequent mood swings.”

“I enjoy trying new and foreign foods.”

(E)

(A)

(C)

(O)

(N)

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Lecture 3

Research Methods and the Dispositional Perspective

1. How are the reliability and validity of personality measures assessed? (continued)

2.What are response sets and how do they threaten the validity of personality measures?

3.What are traits?

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4. What methods have been used to identify the traits that are most important in describing personality?

5. Has a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits been developed?

Psychology 3051 Psychology 305: Theories of Personality Lecture 3.

Documents

predictive validity

content validity

convergent validity

sum items

criterion validity

discriminant validity

correlated items

factor analysis