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Page 1: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

PSY 3490 M TutorialPSY 3490 M Tutorial

April 1/10April 1/10

Page 2: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Chapter 9Chapter 9Social CognitionSocial Cognition

Page 3: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Social Judgment ProcessesSocial Judgment Processes

Impression formation: The way people form and Impression formation: The way people form and revise first impressionsrevise first impressions

Main findings from Hess et al: older adults are more willing Main findings from Hess et al: older adults are more willing to change their first impressions from positive to negative to change their first impressions from positive to negative

They are also less willing to change a negative initial They are also less willing to change a negative initial impression to a more positive viewimpression to a more positive view

Why? Why? Negativity biasNegativity bias: older adults let their initial : older adults let their initial impression stand because negative info was more impression stand because negative info was more striking to them and thus affected them more striking to them and thus affected them more stronglystrongly

Older adults rely more on life experiences, social Older adults rely more on life experiences, social rules and emotions vs situational consistencyrules and emotions vs situational consistency

Page 4: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

StereotypesStereotypes– Social belief about characteristics and Social belief about characteristics and

behaviors of a particular social groupbehaviors of a particular social group– help us process information and they affect help us process information and they affect

how we interpret new informationhow we interpret new information– Stereotype threat: Stereotype threat: an evoked fear of being an evoked fear of being

judged in accordance with a negative judged in accordance with a negative stereotype about a group to which you belongstereotype about a group to which you belong

– Stereotype lift: Stereotype lift: when a privileged group is when a privileged group is motivated to perform after exposure to an motivated to perform after exposure to an unflattering stereotype of a less advantaged unflattering stereotype of a less advantaged groupgroup

Page 5: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Causal AttributionsCausal Attributions

Are explanations people construct to Are explanations people construct to explain their behaviour. explain their behaviour.

Dispositional attributionsDispositional attributions– Behavioural explanations that reside within the person

Situational attributionsSituational attributions– Are behavioural explanations that reside outside of Are behavioural explanations that reside outside of

the person the person

Page 6: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Personal ControlPersonal Control

The degree to which one believes that performance in a situation depends on something one personally does

– High sense of personal control = the belief that performance is up to you (i.e. people who take personal responsibility for their behaviour)

– Low = your performance is under the influence of forces other than your own (i.e. people who believe that others/chance are responsible for their behaviour)

Page 7: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Differences in control Differences in control perceptions across the lifespan?perceptions across the lifespan?

Multidimensionality of personal controlMultidimensionality of personal control– Age differences in the degree of personal Age differences in the degree of personal

control depend on the domain studied (i.e. control depend on the domain studied (i.e. intelligence, marriage, health etc), and on the intelligence, marriage, health etc), and on the personal importance of that domainpersonal importance of that domain

– Control strategiesControl strategies: preservation and : preservation and stabilization of a positive view of self and stabilization of a positive view of self and personal development personal development

Page 8: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Assimilative activities: Assimilative activities: prevent or alleviate prevent or alleviate loses in domains that are personally loses in domains that are personally relevant for self-esteem/identityrelevant for self-esteem/identity

AccommodationsAccommodations: readjusting one’s : readjusting one’s goals/aspirations as a way to lessen the goals/aspirations as a way to lessen the effects of negative self-evaluationeffects of negative self-evaluation

Immunizing mechanismsImmunizing mechanisms: alter the effects : alter the effects of self-discrepant evidence of self-discrepant evidence

Page 9: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Chapter 10Chapter 10PersonalityPersonality

Page 10: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Dispositional traitsDispositional traits– Aspects of personality that are consistent across Aspects of personality that are consistent across

different contextsdifferent contexts

Personal concerns– Things that are important to people, their goals, and Things that are important to people, their goals, and

their major concerns in lifetheir major concerns in life

Life narrative Life narrative – Aspects of personality that pull everything together, Aspects of personality that pull everything together,

those integrative aspects that give a person an those integrative aspects that give a person an identity or sense of selfidentity or sense of self

Page 11: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Dispositional TraitsDispositional Traits

The Five-Factor ModelThe Five-Factor Model– Costa and McCrae developed a model of Costa and McCrae developed a model of

personality with five independent dimensionspersonality with five independent dimensionsNeuroticism, extroversion, openness to experience, Neuroticism, extroversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousnessagreeableness, and conscientiousness

Costa and McCrae believe that personality traits Costa and McCrae believe that personality traits stop changing by age 30 stop changing by age 30 Research evidence shows a high stability in Research evidence shows a high stability in personality traits across long time periods (up to personality traits across long time periods (up to 30 years) and across a wide range of ages (20 to 30 years) and across a wide range of ages (20 to 90 years)90 years)

Critiques?Critiques?

Page 12: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Personal ConcernsPersonal Concerns

Reflect what people want during particular times Reflect what people want during particular times of their lives and within specific domainsof their lives and within specific domains

Take into account a person’s developmental Take into account a person’s developmental context and distinguish between ‘having’ traits context and distinguish between ‘having’ traits and ‘doing’ everyday behaviours and ‘doing’ everyday behaviours

Personality constructs are viewed as conscious Personality constructs are viewed as conscious descriptions of what a person is trying to descriptions of what a person is trying to accomplish during a given period of developmentaccomplish during a given period of development

Expect to find considerable changeExpect to find considerable change

Page 13: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Research on Personal Research on Personal ConcernsConcerns

Jung, Erikson, LoevingerJung, Erikson, Loevinger

Erikson: first to develop a lifespan theory Erikson: first to develop a lifespan theory of personality development and the of personality development and the interaction between person and their interaction between person and their environment environment

Theory and research both provide support Theory and research both provide support for much change in personal concerns for much change in personal concerns people report at various times in adulthood people report at various times in adulthood

Page 14: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Life Narratives, Identity Life Narratives, Identity and the Selfand the Self

McAdam’s Life-Story ModelMcAdam’s Life-Story Model– People create a life story that’s based on People create a life story that’s based on

where they’ve been, where they are going, where they’ve been, where they are going, and who they will becomeand who they will become

– It is created and revised throughout adulthood It is created and revised throughout adulthood as people change and their environments as people change and their environments place varying demands upon themplace varying demands upon them

– Most importantMost important: changing personal identity : changing personal identity reflect in the emotions conveyed in the storyreflect in the emotions conveyed in the story

Page 15: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Possible SelvesPossible SelvesAre created by projecting yourself into the Are created by projecting yourself into the future and thinking about what you would future and thinking about what you would like to become (e.g self as leaders, rich, in like to become (e.g self as leaders, rich, in shape) shape)

and what you’re afraid of becoming e.g. and what you’re afraid of becoming e.g. fear of being undervalued, overweight, fear of being undervalued, overweight, lonely)lonely)

Page 16: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Research Research young adults young adults report family issues (i.e. marrying the right report family issues (i.e. marrying the right person) to be most importantperson) to be most important

middle adults middle adults (25-39, main issues concerned personal things (25-39, main issues concerned personal things (i.e. being a more loving and caring person)(i.e. being a more loving and caring person)

By age 40-59, By age 40-59, family issues again become most common family issues again become most common (i.e. being a parent who can let go of kids)(i.e. being a parent who can let go of kids)

For all age groups, For all age groups, physical issues listed as most common physical issues listed as most common fear regarding a possible self (e.g. being overweight, fear regarding a possible self (e.g. being overweight, developing wrinkles) developing wrinkles)

Adolescent and young adults believe more strongly that they Adolescent and young adults believe more strongly that they can actually become the hoped for self and successfully can actually become the hoped for self and successfully avoid the feared self (high personal control)avoid the feared self (high personal control)

Page 17: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Chapter 11Chapter 11RelationshipsRelationships

Page 18: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

FriendshipsFriendships– Grounded in reciprocity and choiceGrounded in reciprocity and choice

– Young adults tend to have more friends than any another Young adults tend to have more friends than any another age groupage group

– The quality and quantity of friendships in old age are The quality and quantity of friendships in old age are related to life satisfaction. Why? Friends foster related to life satisfaction. Why? Friends foster independence and reduce reliance on family, they are independence and reduce reliance on family, they are maintained by a sense of mutuality called global maintained by a sense of mutuality called global reciprocityreciprocity

– Information seeking Information seeking is he primary goal for younger adults is he primary goal for younger adults (i.e. meeting new people and having many friends)(i.e. meeting new people and having many friends)

– Emotional regulation Emotional regulation is the primary goal for older adults is the primary goal for older adults (i.e. choosing people who are familiar and having few (i.e. choosing people who are familiar and having few friends) friends)

Relationship Types and IssuesRelationship Types and Issues

Page 19: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Sibling RelationshipsSibling RelationshipsGold et al identified five types of sibling Gold et al identified five types of sibling relationshipsrelationships– Sibling relationships are strongest in adolescents & later in lifeSibling relationships are strongest in adolescents & later in life– Sibling ties among sisters tend to be the strongest and Sibling ties among sisters tend to be the strongest and

intimate, while brothers tend to have less contact intimate, while brothers tend to have less contact

Level of closeness

Level of Involvement

Degree of Contact

Degree of Envy/resentment

Congenial High High Average Low

Loyal Average Average Average Low

Intimate High High High Low

Apathetic Low Low Low Low

Hostile Low High Low High

Page 20: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Lifestyles & Love RelationshipsLifestyles & Love Relationships

Approx. 75% of men and 60% of women are Approx. 75% of men and 60% of women are single between ages 20 and 25 in industrial single between ages 20 and 25 in industrial nationsnations– Men tend to stay single longer, but are less likely to Men tend to stay single longer, but are less likely to

stay single throughout adulthoodstay single throughout adulthood– Men more likely to marry someone younger and less Men more likely to marry someone younger and less

well educated (mating gradient), while women with well educated (mating gradient), while women with higher levels of education overrepresented among higher levels of education overrepresented among unmarried adultsunmarried adults

Page 21: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Divorce and RemarriageDivorce and Remarriage

Rates of divorce have slowly been decreasing from a high of 30% of all marriages in 1987

Gender differences in adjustment: men have more short-term problems but women have more long-term, especially financial difficulties– Many older men who are divorced/widowed tend to

remarry; many older women do not

The older the individuals at the time of the divorce, the more difficult the adjustment process will be

Page 22: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Chapter 12Chapter 12Work, Leisure, and Work, Leisure, and

RetirementRetirement

Page 23: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

The Meaning of WorkThe Meaning of WorkAlthough most people work for money, other Although most people work for money, other reasons are highly variablereasons are highly variable

Regardless of occupational priorities people Regardless of occupational priorities people have, the view their occupation as a key element have, the view their occupation as a key element in their sense of identityin their sense of identity

Alienation: Alienation: feeling that what one is doing is feeling that what one is doing is meaningless and efforts are devaluedmeaningless and efforts are devalued

– Providing more opportunities or involvement and flexibilityProviding more opportunities or involvement and flexibility

BurnoutBurnout: a depletion of a person’s energy and : a depletion of a person’s energy and motivation, feeling that one is being exploited motivation, feeling that one is being exploited

– Stress reduction techniques, more appropriate expectations Stress reduction techniques, more appropriate expectations of self, better communication with organizationsof self, better communication with organizations

Page 24: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Bias and DiscriminationBias and Discrimination

Gender bias and the glass ceilingGender bias and the glass ceiling– Evidence found in government, nonprofit and private Evidence found in government, nonprofit and private

companies for companies for glass ceiling effect glass ceiling effect (i.e. the level to which (i.e. the level to which women may rise in a company but beyond which they may women may rise in a company but beyond which they may not gonot go

– One barrier is a workplace’s failure to accommodate to the One barrier is a workplace’s failure to accommodate to the needs of new mothers needs of new mothers

– E.g. women in academia who delay motherhood, E.g. women in academia who delay motherhood, presumably until skills and seniority are acquired, achieve presumably until skills and seniority are acquired, achieve higher rates of payhigher rates of pay

– Glass elevator: men in traditionally female occupations rise at a quicker rate than female counterparts

Page 25: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

RetirementRetirement

Retirement can be crisp (making a clean break from employment by stopping work entirely) or blurred (repeatedly leaving and returning to work, with some periods of unemployment)

Research: Research: – Less than half of older men who retire fit the crisp patternLess than half of older men who retire fit the crisp pattern– Most individuals in their postretirement years are working in Most individuals in their postretirement years are working in

part-time jobs (primarily to supplement their incomes but also part-time jobs (primarily to supplement their incomes but also to maintain adequate levels of activity)to maintain adequate levels of activity)

Page 26: PSY 3490 M Tutorial April 1/10. Chapter 9 Social Cognition.

Adjustment to RetirementAdjustment to Retirement

Adjustment evolves over time and is influenced by:

– Physical health, financial status, voluntary Physical health, financial status, voluntary retirement status, feelings of personal controlretirement status, feelings of personal control

– For both men and women, high personal For both men and women, high personal competence is associated with higher retirement competence is associated with higher retirement satisfactionsatisfaction

– Social relationships help buffer the stress of Social relationships help buffer the stress of retirementretirement

– Community ties and participation in community Community ties and participation in community organizations also helps raise satisfactionorganizations also helps raise satisfaction