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White Australia’s Demise and Post Vietnam Refugee Crisis

Prof Richard Broome La Trobe University

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1: Background Understanding

• 19thC Racism• Origins of White

Australia Policy• Connections of

whiteness and nationality

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Anti-Chinese Sentiment Re-emerges in 1870s

• Tolerance ends • Workers’ anxiety• Maritime Strike 1878 • Anti-Chinese

Immigration Act 1881• Chinese in Melbourne

furniture trade • Extends to migration

morals & nationalism

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Anti-Chinese Campaign

• Anxieties re. Chinese Commissioners’ Visit 1887

• ‘Afghan’ Crisis 1888• Legislation in NSW>

all colonies • Racism underpins

these moves• stereotyping

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Bulletin: Anti-Chinese Campaign

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Late 19thC. Invasion Novels• International genre• Anxiety re national

strength, unity, race fitness

• William Lane’s White or Yellow (1888)

• Critique of Brit.capitalism• Of urban masculinity• Lane and the labour

movement• Creation ‘New Australia’

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Discourse of Asia Rising• Charles Pearson:reformer• His National Life and

Character (1893)• Influential: why?• His views of white and

other races • Challenged racial

determinism• Transnational influence

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3: Alfred Deakin & Immigration Act

• Brilliant rise - MP @ 24• Most eminent colonial• Cosmopolitan man• American influences 1888• Race hierarchy-whiteness• Nation & homogeneity• Mississippi/Natal test• Immig Restrict’n Act 1901• London Morning Post• Rationale‘New Protection’

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Achieving Whiteness

• Pacific Islanders Expulsion Act 1906

• Aust. Constitution ignores Aboriginal presence

• State Aboriginal Acts• Non-white decline• Diplomatic exceptions

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Sydney 1908: Burns v. Johnson

• 1900c:Colour line in US-controlled boxing

• Not in UK – Peter Jackson’s bouts

• Or Australia• Whiteman’s counties

not exact replicas• But race dominant

Western discourse

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Australia’s Tri-level of Identity

• 1: Australian nationalism

• 2: British patriotism• 3: Race patriotism• Hancock (1930):

‘Independent Australian Britons’

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Paris Peace Conference 1918-1919

• Pres. Wilson idealism • Japan seeks racial

equality• Diplomatic struggles • Dominions dominate• Hughes outspoken • Japan’s humiliation• Treaty’s legacy -

Whiteness & Japanese militarism Prime Minister Billy Hughes Aust Nat

Lib pic an 12266389

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Deportation Controversies 1946-9

• Malaysian seamen• International & local

disapproval• Not just Asians > pic. • O’Keefe case 1949• Calwell’s opposition• WAP dented

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Modifications in the 1950s

• Special cases cause difficulty: Chinese nationals; Eurasians and the 50% rule; war brides and Cherry Parker case

• Asian students • Asian engagement and the Columbo Plan• Holt’s 1956 administrative refinements• Migration Act 1958: end of dictation test

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1960s Policy Debate: For Change

• Principle: academics, churches & NGOs• Cosmopolitanism: students & elites• Pragmatism: Foreign Affairs Dept• Immigration Reform Group: Mackie, Rivett• Peter Heydon, Secretary Immigration Dept• Hubert Opperman, Minister of Immigration

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1960s Policy Debate: For Status Quo

• Inertia: Many officers of Immigration Dept.• Tradition: Most unions• Defence/Cold War fears: RSL• 60-70% of public opinion- racial world-view• Arthur Calwell Leader of Opposition • Prime Minister Robert Menzies

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Shifts within Labor Party

• 1966 Whitlam replaces Calwell as leader –seeks to modernise ALP

• 1971 ALP National Conf’ence: 3 principles• 1972 win: immigration no election issue: • But WAP ended + reduced targets• 1973: Aust Citizenship Act –ends British

preference

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Consequences of New Policy

• Al Grassby tours Asia to bury WAP• Dept of Immigration reformed• Lower annual targets: change minimised• 1973 changes: evolutionary from 1956+• Acceptable responses to a changing

context - sig. public acceptance• 1975 Racial Discrimination Act

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Rise of Multiculturalism

• Aim of the Whitlam Govt: integration within non–discriminatory Australian society

• Aust. Reality: poly-ethnic by 1971• Labor govt focussed on migrant problems• Al Grassby introduced new paradigm and

shifted the debate - ‘family of the nation’• Subsequent Govts adopt - Frazer

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The end of ‘White Australia’ tested by Asian Refugee Crisis 1976-82

• End of Vietnam War April 1975• Aust. accepts few at fall of Saigon• Vietnam’s internal problems & war with

Kampuchea, China create mass exodus• Two million displaced in Indo-China• Flee by land and in boats• 1 M+ seek refuge overseas; 0.4 m in 1979 alone• Malaysia & Thailand’s solution• Boat people arrive in Australia April 1976+

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Australia’s Strategies

• Stem flow and introduce orderly arrival• Internationalise the issue- internat. law• Geneva Conferences 1978, 1979• Australia’s intake 1976-82: 176K• Comparative international intake –largest• Success: internal divisions ameliorated

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Yet: 1984 Immigration Debate

• Blainey claims: minority driving the policy• West: ‘Asianisation of Australia’, misread?• Protests from Blainey’s colleagues • Blainey’s All for Australia (1984): ‘the

secret room’ & conspiracy of elites theory• Surrender Australia? (1985)• First modern History War

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John Howard & ‘One Australia’

• 1985 becomes Opposition Leader• 1988 rejects Aboriginal treaty & guilt• 1989 Attacks multiculturalism ‘One

Australia’ • Immigration: opposes family reunion &

large-scale Asian immigration (//s Blainey)• 1989 Howard ousted• Lazarus rises 1994, Hanson 1996

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Bibliography• Lake Marilyn & Reynolds. Henry, Drawing the Global Colour Line,

MUP, 2008.• Markus, Andrew. Fear & Hatred. Purifying Australia and California,

1850-1901, H & I, 1979.• Walker, David. Anxious Nation. Australia and the Rise of Asia 1850-

1939, UQP, 1999.• Broome, Richard, ‘The Australian Reaction to Jack Johnson’, R.

Cashman & M. McKernan, Sport in History, UQP 1979.• Tavan, Gwenda. The Long Slow Death of White Australia, Scribe,

Melb. 2005• Viviani, Nancy. The Long Journey. Vietnamese Migration and

Settlement in Australia, Melbourne University Press, Melb. 1984.