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THE QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN Prepared By: Manoj Patel Assistant Professor JHUNJHUNWALA BUSINESS SCHOOL, FAIZABAD
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Page 1: Preparation of questionnaire

THE QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Prepared By: Manoj Patel

Assistant Professor

JHUNJHUNWALA BUSINESS SCHOOL, FAIZABAD

Page 2: Preparation of questionnaire

The Questionnaire

Definition: A questionnaire is a set of

carefully planned written questions related to a

particular research topic which, when submitted

to and answered accurately by properly selected

persons called respondents, will supply data to

complete the research project.

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Advantages of the Questionnaire

1. The questionnaire is easy to construct.

2. Distribution is easy and inexpensive.

3. Tabulation of responses is easy.

4. The respondent’s replies are of his own.

5. Confidential information may be given freely.

6. Respondents can fill out the questionnaire at their own

convenience.

7. More accurate replies may be given.

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Disadvantages of a Questionnaire

1. The questionnaire cannot be used with illiterates.

2. Some or many respondents may not return the questionnaire.

3. A respondent may give a wrong information.

4. Respondents may leave some or many items unanswered.

5. Some questions or items may be vague to the respondents.

6. The number of choices may be very limited.

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Construction of a Questionnaire

The following are the steps in the construction of a

questionnaire:

1. Making research in the library. There might be some

theses or dissertations dealing with studies similar to the

research problem at hand. The questionnaire in these studies

may serve as models in the construction of one.

2. Interviewing knowledgeable people. Talking to people

who know the principles of questionnaire construction may

help a lot.

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3. Mastering the guidelines. The guidelines learned from the

theses and dissertations and from knowledgeable people must

be mastered before writing a questionnaire.

4. Writing the questionnaire. Write the questionnaire

following as much as possible the guidelines learned.

5. Editing the questionnaire. After the questionnaire has been

written, it must be shown to people who know about

questionnaire construction, especially to an adviser if there is

one, for correction and suggestions for the improvement of the

questionnaire.

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6. Rewriting the questionnaire. The questionnaire must be rewritten according to corrections and suggestions for the improvement of the questionnaire.

7. Pretesting the questionnaire. This is called a dry run. This is the process of determining the validity and reliability of the questionnaire and determining the clarity of the items, the difficulty in answering them, the proper time length of answering, attractiveness and other problems.

8. Writing the questionnaire in its final form. The questionnaire should now be written in its final form after making the necessary corrections, adjustments, and revisions after the dry run.

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TYPES OF QUESTIONS ASKED IN SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRES

A. According to form:

1. The free – answer type. The respondent is free to answer

the question in his own words and his own way. This is called

the open form, open – ended, subjective, unrestricted, essay,

free response, and unguided response type.

2. The guided response type. This is also called the closed

form or restricted type. The respondent is guided in making his

reply. There are two kinds of this type (a) recall and (b)

recognition types.

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a. Recall Type. The replies are recalled and supplied.

Example: Please supply the following asked for:

(a) Graduate Course finished _________

(b) School graduated from ___________

(c) Year of graduation _______________

b. Recognition Type. There are options given and the respondent chooses his reply or replies. There are three types: dichotomous, multiple choice, and multiple response.

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1. Dichotomous. There are only two options and one is chosen.

Example: Are you employed? Yes ____ No____

2. Multiple Choice. Several options are given but only one is

elected as a reply.

Example: What program do you prefer to take? Please

check.

_____ Education _____ Nursing

_____ Commerce _____ Optometry

_____ Medicine _____ Computer

_____ Engineering _____ Others

_____ Dentistry

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3. Multiple Response. Two or more options may be chosen from those given.

Example: Why do you used Hapee toothpaste? Please

check your answers.

______ It sweetens my breath

______ It makes my mouth fresh

______ It prevents tooth decay

______ It is cheap

______ It is available all the time

______ It is made in the country

______ It is economical

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B. According to the Type of Data asked for:

1. Descriptive Data (Verbal Data)

Example: In What kind of community do you live. Please

check.

____ City

____ Town

____ Barrio

2. Quantitative Data (Numerical Data)

Examples: (1) What is your daily wage? ____

(2) What is the total income of your family?____

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3. Intensity of Feeling, Emotion or Attitude

Example: Do you agree that RH bill be implemented?

Please check your attitude.

_____ Strongly agree

_____ Agree

_____ Fairly agree

_____ Disagree

_____ Strongly disagree

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4. Degree of Judgment

Examples:

(1) How serious is drug addiction in your university?

Please check.

______ Very Serious

______ Serious

______ Fairly Serious

______ Not Serious

______ Not a Problem

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(2) How efficient is your graduate statistics Professor? Please

check.

______ Very efficient

______ Efficient

______ Fairly efficient

______ Inefficient

______ Very inefficient

5. Understanding

Example: Explain what a dictatorship form of

government is.

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6. Reasoning

Example: Why do you prefer a surprise examinations in

statistics for research?

Important Characteristics of Research Instruments

including the Questionnaire

I. Validity – means the accuracy by which an instrument

gathers information for which it is intended to gather.

Example: If data about the teaching of statistics are needed,

then the instrument must gather data about the teaching of

statistics and not data about the teaching of any other subject.

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II. Reliability – means consistency of measurement that is, if

an instrument administered to the same group it should give the

same or about the same average measures of the two groups.

Guidelines in the Formulation of Items or Questions for a

Questionnaire

1. Make the questionnaire as valid and as reliable as

possible. To do this, the following suggestions are offered:

a. Make all directions brief, clear and unequivocal. While

there are general directions, there should be a direction for

every specific type of questions asked.

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Example:

Poor direction for multiple choice items: Answer the

following questions.

Better: For each question, choose the best answer from among

those given and put a check mark before your choice.

b. Use correct grammar. Punctuation marks should be placed

properly to avoid misinterpretation.

Example of poor grammar: Please accomplish the

questionnaire as soon as possible return it.

Better: Please accomplish the questionnaire and return it as

soon as possible.

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c. Make all questions brief, clear and unequivocal. Specify

the precise units in which the answer is to be given to avoid

misinterpretation.

Examples:

Vague Question: What is your income?

Better: What is your monthly income?

Poor Question: Are you married or not?

Better: Are you married?

d. Avoid asking biased or leading questions. A biased or

leading questions is one in which there is veiled suggestion for

answer.

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Example of a biased question: Do you use Hapee Toothpaste?

If no, what brand do you use? In this question, there is veiled

suggestion to make Hapee as the answer. The respondent may

think that because Hapee is mentioned, it is the best toothpaste,

and so has the tendency to say yes.

Better: What brand of toothpaste do you use?

Example of a leading question: Why do you use Hapee

toothpaste? This is a leading question if there is no preceding

question asking what brand of toothpaste the respondent is

using. If he says he is using Hapee toothpaste, the question is

good. However, if the respondent answers the question without

telling him first that he is using Hapee, that is an admission that

he is using Hapee although actually he is not.

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e. Objectify Responses. This is to make easier for the

respondent to make replies and for the standardization of

responses for easier tabulation.

Example: Why do you use Hapee toothpaste? Instead of

requiring the respondent to write his responses, give all the

possible reasons and let him check his replies.

____ It sweetens my breath better

____ It makes my mouth feel fresher

____ It is cheaper

____ It is available all the time

____ It last longer

____ Others, please specify

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f. Relate all questions to the topic under study. All questions

must gather data relevant to the study. If the study is about the

teaching of behavioral statistics, all questions should gather

data that have something to do with the teaching of behavioral

statistics.

g. Create categories or classes for approximate answers.

There are questions that cannot be answered with the precise

units desired. Create categories or classes that accommodate

such approximate replies. Such categories may be qualitative or

quantitative.

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Examples:

Qualitative

How adequate are the library references in USJ-R?

______ Very adequate

______ Adequate

______ Fairly adequate

______ Inadequate

______ Very inadequate

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Quantitative

How much commission do you earned a month by selling cars?

_____ P3,000 – under P6,000

_____ P6,000 – under P9,000

_____ P9,000 – under P12,000

_____ P 12,000 – under P15,000

_____ P15,000 – under P18,000

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h. Group the questions or items in logical sequence.

The following are some ways of grouping questions:

1. Questions or items may be grouped according to the specific

questions asked under “Statement of the Problem”. All

questions that gather data to answer one specific question

should be grouped together.

Example: Specific Question: How qualified are the professors

handling statistics? All questions dealing with degrees earned,

majors or specializations, units in statistics, special training and

seminars in statistics attended, teaching experiences, and

aptitude in statistics should be grouped together.

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2. Questions that deal with items that are logically related

should be grouped together.

Example: Question about demographic characteristics such as

age, sex, civil status, place of birth, ethnic origin, native

language, etc. should be grouped together.

3. In each grouping, easier questions should be asked first.

4. Questions should be given in successive steps if the study

deals with a process such as rice farming, building

construction, etc.

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i. Create a sufficient number of response categories. This is

to include the respondent’s correct choice. If the correct choice

of the respondent is not included among the options and he is

required to make a response, his reply would be wrong.

Example: Do you agree that statistics be taught by

mathematicians?

______ Agree ______ Disagree

If the respondent does not know which is better, to

allow or not to allow mathematicians to teach

statistics, his response is not among the options and

if he is required to answer, his answer is wrong.

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Better number of responses or options:

______Strongly agree

______ Agree

______ Uncertain or do not know

______ Disagree

______ Strongly disagree

j. Word carefully or avoid questions that deal with

confidential or embarrassing information. Suppose a woman

respondent has left her husband. You want to know why she

left her husband in connection with your study on family

relations.

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Poor Question: Why did you leave your husband? The causes

might be too embarrassing to reveal and so she may give

distorted reasons that reduces the validity of the questionnaire.

Better Question: In your opinion, why do some wives leave their

husbands? If all possible reasons are given, she may check

those that apply to her since the question does not specifically

or directly refer to her.

k. Explain and/or illustrate difficult questions. Difficult

questions especially those with unfamiliar technical terms

should be clarified or illustrated to avoid misunderstanding and

a wrong reply.

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l. State all questions in the affirmative. A question in the

affirmative can be answered categorically but a categorical

reply to a question in the negative has to be explained.

Example: Are you employed or not? If the respondent is not

employed he can say yes but this is vague. So if he is employed

his answer should be “Yes, I am employed” or “ No, I am not

employed”.

Better: Are you employed? This can be answered by a

categorical yes if the respondent is employed or by categorical

no if he is not employed.

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m. Add catch – all word or phrase to options of multiple

response questions. This is important because the respondent

may have additional information which he may want to give.

Example: Why did you take up psychology as your

profession?

____ I am interested in HRD positions. I love to

deal with job applicants

____ It is unique from other courses

____ It is easy to get a position after graduation

____ The salary is good enough for me

____ Others (Please specify)

The word “Others” is the catch – all word.

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n. Make the respondents anonymous. This will make the

respondents give true information freely thinking that they will

not be held liable to any offense since they are not known.

o. Pre-test the questionnaire after writing it. This is

important to determine the worth of the questionnaire. The

process is to administer the questionnaire to at least ten persons

who have the same characteristics as those who are to be

requested to fill up the questionnaire but who will not be

involved anymore in the study. Then after the administration of

the questionnaire, the pre-test respondents may be asked to the

following questions:

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1. Are the directions, statements, questions, or items clear and

unequivocal? Are they brief but unambiguous?

2. Do the questions or items gather intended data? Are the

responses those called for?

3. Are there sufficient numbers of possible responses or choices

for multiple choice and multiple questions? Are all possible

replies to a question included?

4. Are all data to be gathered relevant to the topic of the study?

5. Is the questionnaire organized in its proper format? Are the

items grouped logically?

6. Is answering the questions easy enough? Are the replies so

objectified that replies are only in the form of check marks,

letters, numbers or short words or phrases? What difficulties

have been encountered in filing of the questionnaire.

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7. Are all questions or items worded carefully so as to avoid

embarrassment or indictment? Are they in correct grammar?

8. Are there catch – all words or phrases for multiple response

questions?

9. Is the questionnaire free from all kinds of bias?

10. Are the respondents anonymous?

11. Are the data to be gathered by the questionnaire sufficient

and adequate enough to complete the study and to make the

conclusions and other generalizations valid and tenable?

12. Is the questionnaire too long that it becomes boring to

finish filing it up?

13. If some questions are not answered, why are they not

answered?

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14. Are the spaces for writing the replies adequate and properly

placed?

15. What suggestions can you give to improve the questionnaire?

What items should be eliminated, added, or clarified?

2. The questionnaire should be accompanied by a good cover

letter.

A good cover letter in the form of a request should be made

as cordially and politely as possible to make the instrument more

acceptable to the respondents. The letter should explain the

purpose of the study, the importance of accomplishing it and

within reasonable period of time, that the information gathered

should be kept and treated as confidentially as possible to avoid

any embarrassment or trouble to anyone, and with a promise that

the respondents shall be informed of the results of the study if

they so desire.

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3. The questionnaire must be accompanied,

if possible, by a letter of recommendation

from a sponsor. The sponsor should be one

who has some influence over the respondent to

insure the accomplishment and return of the

questionnaire.

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THE INTERVIEW

Definition: An interview is a verbal interaction between two

persons, one called the interviewer who ask questions to gather

information and the other called the interviewee who supplies

the information ask for.

Advantages of the Interview

Among the advantages of the interview are the

following:

1. It yields a more complete and valid information.

If there is a reply of doubtful value, the interviewer can at once

check veracity of such information.

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2. It can be used with all kinds of people. Anybody, literate

or uneducated, rich or poor, laborer or otherwise, can be

interviewed.

3. Any vague point can be clarified at once. This will enable

the interviewee to give accurate information.

4. Subliminal cues may be observed by the interviewer. The

non – verbal reactions of the interviewee such as the expression

of his face, the nodding or shaking of his head, and the gestures

of his hands may reveal some important facts that are useful to

the study

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5. Only the interviewee can make a reply.

The responses are truly of the respondent’s,

unlike in the questionnaire in which the

respondent may delegate somebody to

accomplish it making the responses of doubtful

value.

6. There is flexibility. The interviewer can

always modify the conduct of the interview

whenever there is a need.

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DISADVANTAGES OF THE INTERVIEW

Among the disadvantages of the interview are the

following:

1. Some respondents are hard to contact. This is true

especially if the respondents are too busy or are abroad at the

time of the interview.

2. It is expensive. This is true if the study is big and many

interviewers are needed. Expenses for training of interviewers

plus their salaries may be too big.

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3. Some responses may be inaccurate. This is true if the

respondent has no time to consult his records if pressed for an

immediate answer.

4. It is time consuming. This is true if the researcher alone

conducts the interview.

5. It is inconvenient for both interviewer and interviewee.

There is inconvenience if the interview is conducted in an

unholy hour or if the interviewee is too busy. The interviewer

has to travel also long distances

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6. Important data may be witheld. Since there is no

anonymity, the interviewee may evade to answer some

embarrassing questions or may withold some

important confidential information if he does not trust

the interviewer.

7. Some bias may be introduced. There is always the

tendency for interviewers to get some information that

would redound to their expectations or benefit or that

would benefit their interview employers and so they

unknowingly introduce what is known as

interviewer’s bias.

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8. Standardization of questions and

responses may be lessened. When an

interviewer revises a question because of

certain reasons, the standardization of the

questions and the responses is lessened and

categorization and tabulation become difficult.

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TYPES OR CLASSES OF INTERVIEWS

Treece and Treece Jr. Classify interviews as follows:

1. Standardized interview. In this type of interview, the

interviewer is not allowed to change the specific wordings

of the questions in the interview instrument. This is the

same as the formal interview and structured interview.

2. Non-standardized interview. In this type of interview, the

interviewer is not tied up to the interview instrument. He

may revise or explain the questions as he sees fit depending

upon the situation. This is the same as the informal interview

and non – structured interview.

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3. Semi – standardized interview. In this

type, there are listed major questions to be

asked and once they are asked and

answered, the interviewer is free to ask any

question as he sees fit depending upon the

situation. This is the same as the semi –

formal or semi – structured interview.

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THE INTERVIEW INSTRUMENT

Types of Interview Instruments

I. The interview schedule. The interview schedule is the same

as a questionnaire. The preparation and validation of an

interview schedule are the same as those of the questionnaire.

The only difference is that in the interview schedule the

questions are asked orally by the interviewer and the

interviewee answers also orally. Besides, it is the interviewer

who writes the answer of the interviewee. In the questionnaire,

the respondent himself reads the questions and writes his

answers.

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Remark: The interview schedule is usually used in

standardized or structured interviews.

II. The interview guide. The interview guide does not ask

specific questions but only provides general ideas from

which the interviewer derives his questions to get the

needed information. The interviewer is free to ask any

question depending upon the situation but of course the

questions must be relevant to the major question or idea

provided by the interview guide.

Remark: The interview guide is usually used in non-

standardized or semi – standardized interviews.

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Example: An interview guide for gathering data about the

teaching of statistics in the tertiary level.

INTERVIEW GUIDE

Name (Optional) ______________________ Date _________

Address ___________________________________________

Educational Qualifications of statistics instructors/professors

Methods and strategies in teaching college statistics

Facilities in the teaching of college statistics

Supervisory assistance to the instructors / professors

Problems encountered in teaching statistics

Proposed solutions to the problems

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STEPS IN THE INTERVIEW

The following are the steps or pointers to be followed in the interview:

1. Preparatory step. The following are included in the planning

stage:

a. Preparation of the instrument whether interview schedule or

interview guide.

b. Selection of the population and locale of the interviews.

c. Selection of the interviewees.

d. Selection of the type of interview whether structured or

unstructured.

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2. Making a survey of the specific places for interviews. For

general research, the interviewer naturally goes to the dwelling

places of the interviewees or to their places of work. What is

important is that the place of the interview must be as quiet as

possible with minimum distractions.

3. Established rapport. There must be a cordial and friendly

atmosphere between the interviewer and the interviewee. The

interviewer must take pains in establishing one. He must

explain as politely as he can the purpose and importance of the

interview. The interviewee may have some benefit otherwise it

must be clear to him the information he imparts will be treated

with the utmost confidentiality and that he will not be placed in

any compromising or embarrassing situation nor will there be

any indictment brought against him for any information he

reveals.

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4. Carrying out the interview. Conduct in a polite, friendly, and conversational manner. Praise and thank the interviewee for many important information that he imparts. If the interviewee finds difficult in expressing himself, the interviewer may help him out but he must maintain his objectivity. He must avoid being biased . The interviewer must also be very tactful. If the respondents becomes uncooperative , the interviewer must use all his resourcefulness in winning back the cooperation of the interviewee.

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5. Recording the interview. Record the interview

results immediately with the utmost objectivity.

Record exactly what the respondent said and shown

overtly. Do not interpret yet.

6. Closing the interview. In closing the interview.

Thank the interviewee for the data he has given and

the inconvenience he has gone through. Make him

feel that he has contributed a great deal to the

completion of the data you need.

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WHAT TO AVOID IN INTERVIEWS

There are things that may spoil an interview and

should be avoided. Among of these are the following:

1. Avoid forcing an interview upon a respondent.

He may not give accurate and reliable information.

2. Avoid arguing. Disagreeing with or contradicting

the interviewee often may make him withhold vital

data for fear of being contradicted again.

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3. Avoid pressing unduly the respondent for a

reply. He may give wrong information just to comply.

4. Avoid using unfamiliar language to the

interviewee. If he does not understand the language,

he may make a wrong reply or does not reply at all.

5. Avoid talking about things not related to the

topic of the interview. This will prolong the

interview and will bring more inconvenience to both

interviewer and interviewee.

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6. Avoid embarrassing the interviewee. Word very carefully

questions that deal with morality, integrity, or sexual habits.

Touch very gently, if unavoidable.

7. Avoid appearing too high in social status. If the

interviewee feels that he is too low in education, knowledge

and social status compared with his interviewer he becomes

shy and may not cooperate.

8. Avoid conducting the interview in an unholy hour. When

the respondent is too busy attending to some important matter,

or when he is hungry, or the like, it is not wise to interview him

specially if the interview is a long one. He may not cooperate

fully. Wait for some opportune time.

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OBSERVATION

Definition: Observation is gathering data by

means of the senses such as sight, hearing,

taste, touch, and smell. The sense of sight is the

most important and the most used among the

senses. Observation is very much used in

studying overt behavior.

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PURPOSES OF OBSERVATION

The following are purposes of observation (why

observation is needed).

1. To gather empirical data difficult to gather by other

means. This is especially true in anthropological studies where

the life cycle, social and economic activities, the motivations

and aspirations, and other beliefs and practices of a group are

to be described in more detail.

2. To gather data to supplement or to verify data gathered

by other means. For instance, data gathered by a questionnaire

show that the library is rich. An occular inspection may verify

the truth of the data gathered by the questionnaire.

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3. To gather data which can be obtained only through

observation. In individual case studies, especially in clinical,

psychiatric cases, observation of the behavior of the subjects is

an indispensable tool in gathering data for the case studies.

4. To gather directly primary or first-hand information.

This is to make description and interpretation more valid and

reliable.

5. To gather data through experimentation. Observation is

indispensable in experimentation. The results of experiments

are collected only through observation. Generally, data

gathered by means of experimentation are more valid and

reliable because the variables involved are under the control of

the experimenter.

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TYPES OF OBSERVATION

I. Participant and nonparticipant observation

a. In participant observation, the observer engages himself in

the activities of the group being observed. He may even live

and work with the group for a length of time to enable him to

learn all the ins and outs of the activities of the group, its

beliefs, customs, and traditions, etc. Anthropologists usually do

this in studying tribal groups.

b. In nonparticipant observation, the observer does not

participate in the activities of the group being observed. He is

just a bystander using his five senses gathering data for his

study.

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II. Structured and Unstructured Observation.

a. In structured observation, the items of a variable to be

observed are specified and listed down. This is usually used in

nonparticipant observation.

b. Unstructured observation, on the other hand, is one in

which the observer does not have any list of items to be

observed. Any object, condition, situation, or behavior that is

relevant to the research investigation is included in the

observation. Unstructured observation is generally used in

participant or uncontrolled observation.

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III. Controlled and Uncontrolled Observation.

a. Controlled observation is used in experimental

studies in which the experimental as well as the non-

experimental variables are manipulated and controlled

by the experimenter. While the experimental variable

is manipulated by the researcher, the non-

experimental variables are kept constant or are kept

equal so that change in the dependent variables is

attributable only to the independent variable.

Controlled observation is usually done in the

laboratory.

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b. In uncontrolled observation, no attempt is made

to control the variables to be observed. In many cases,

the variables to be observed are beyond the control of

the observer. This is especially true in observing

natural phenomena and the behavior of subjects

involved in status studies. Uncontrolled observation is

similar to unstructured observation and is usually

utilized in participant observation.

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ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION

The following are the advantages of observation:

1. The information gathered is more accurate, valid, and

reliable. This is so because the information is direct, first-hand

information.

2. Observation can be made as long and as many times it is

needed. The observer can make long and several observations

to ensure the accuracy and reliability of his data.

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3. Observation is the only technique of collecting data from

inanimate objects and nonverbal behavior. No other means

can be used to collect such data

4. The subjects of the inquiry can be observed in their

natural setting. This will ensure a more accurate and valid

interpretation of data. This is especially true in participant,

uncontrolled and unstructured or even in controlled

observation.

5. Observation results can be checked and verified. If

observation has been delegated and the results are of doubtful

value, the results can be checked and verified by another or

repeated observations by different observers may be made.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF OBSERVATION FOR RESEARCH

PURPOSES

Observation for systematic investigational purposes

may be distinguished from ordinary observation as follows:

(Good and Scates)

1. Observation is specific. The observation is specific with

carefully defined data to look for, not just looking around for

general impressions.

2. Observation is systematic. There must be a system in the

observation. It is not merely a chance “dropping in” on a

situation at any time when one happens to be passing by. The

length of the periods of observation, the interval between them,

and the number of observations are carefully planned.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF OBSERVATION FOR RESEARCH

PURPOSES

3. Observation is quantitative. The observation is

quantitative, usually with a tally of the number of instances of a

particular type of behavior has occurred; sometimes a total

duration of the particular conduct during the period of

observation, or some other accountable or measurable

characteristic; sometimes a diagram is made showing special

relationship, etc.

4. Observation is recorded immediately. A record is made of

the observation immediately, or as promptly as possible, not

entrusting the recording of the results to memory.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF OBSERVATION FOR RESEARCH

PURPOSES

5. Observation is expert. Observation is expert, that is, it is

done by an investigator who has special training for such

work. This is essentially true in clinical and psychiatric cases

where expert observation skills and techniques are very much

needed. However, in ordinary community and school surveys

where graduate students are generally engaged, the investigator

– observer need not be very trained to be able to gather data for

his study.

6. Observation is objective. The results of observation must

be recorded as they are and treated as they are even if they are

not in accordance with expectations. That is research. Bias

must not influence the treatment of the results.