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Phonemes Phonemes a Cognitive a Cognitive Grammar Grammar perspective perspective David Tuggy David Tuggy SIL-Mexico SIL-Mexico
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Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Dec 13, 2015

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Page 1: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

PhonemesPhonemes

a Cognitive Grammar a Cognitive Grammar perspectiveperspective

David TuggyDavid TuggySIL-MexicoSIL-Mexico

Page 2: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Phonology is part of Phonology is part of cognitioncognition

Phonology is the study of the sounds of Phonology is the study of the sounds of language.language.

Language is something people do using Language is something people do using their minds; it is a kind of cognitive activity.their minds; it is a kind of cognitive activity.

Phonology is not different from the rest of Phonology is not different from the rest of language in this.language in this.

It involves moving body parts to make It involves moving body parts to make changes in the outside world (in this case, changes in the outside world (in this case, sounds), but so does a lot of other cognitive sounds), but so does a lot of other cognitive activity.activity.

Page 3: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Phonemes are CategoriesPhonemes are Categories

An extremely important aspect of An extremely important aspect of phonology, as with many other areas of phonology, as with many other areas of cognition, is categorization, the cognition, is categorization, the establishing of groups that can be establishing of groups that can be treated as one thing.treated as one thing.

Phonemes are a special kind of Phonemes are a special kind of phonological categories, in which phonological categories, in which different sounds are, for certain different sounds are, for certain purposes, treated by language users as purposes, treated by language users as one thing.one thing.

Page 4: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

CategorizationCategorization

So let’s talk about how we do categories.So let’s talk about how we do categories. I will be using the words “category” and I will be using the words “category” and

“class” to mean somewhat different things.“class” to mean somewhat different things. A “class” is a group of concepts (cognitive A “class” is a group of concepts (cognitive

structures) of whatever sort.structures) of whatever sort. A “category” is a class that has been A “category” is a class that has been

established in a person’s mind, established in a person’s mind, Especially if it has been conventionalized for Especially if it has been conventionalized for

a group of language users.a group of language users.

Page 5: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

CategorizationCategorization

A “class”, then, is a potential category.A “class”, then, is a potential category. Classes get turned into categories by Classes get turned into categories by

repeated usage thatrepeated usage that 1) entrenches (establishes) the grouping 1) entrenches (establishes) the grouping

in users’ mindsin users’ minds 2) establishes the grouping’s 2) establishes the grouping’s

conventionality (it’s being commonly conventionality (it’s being commonly established among all the relevant users).established among all the relevant users).

Page 6: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

CategorizationCategorization

A category is conventional when I A category is conventional when I know it, you know it, I know you know it, you know it, I know you know it and you know I know it. It is know it and you know I know it. It is shared among those in our group.shared among those in our group.

A language consists (*only!!*) of A language consists (*only!!*) of conventional categories. Its conventional categories. Its phonology is no exception.phonology is no exception.

(When you study phonetics, you (When you study phonetics, you study the effects of such categories study the effects of such categories on the outside world.) on the outside world.)

Page 7: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization

We learn categories through usage: We learn categories through usage: repeated occurrences (active or passive) repeated occurrences (active or passive) of them in our minds.of them in our minds.

They are *always* based on similarities.They are *always* based on similarities. (Though as a limiting case, such as that of (Though as a limiting case, such as that of

“cabbages … and whether pigs have wings”, “cabbages … and whether pigs have wings”, that similarity may be only that of occurring that similarity may be only that of occurring simultaneously in the mind.)simultaneously in the mind.)

Let’s look at a non-phonological example Let’s look at a non-phonological example or two.or two.

Page 8: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization Suppose a child learns (through Suppose a child learns (through

repeatedly encountering it) the repeatedly encountering it) the concept of a human baby.concept of a human baby.

The child then learns what a kitten The child then learns what a kitten and a puppy areand a puppy are

Page 9: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization

The child compares The child compares PUPPYPUPPY and and KITTENKITTEN with with BABYBABY perhaps after hearing a puppy and/or kitten perhaps after hearing a puppy and/or kitten

called a [called a [ˈbejbiˈbejbi] just like a human baby is.] just like a human baby is.

Page 10: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization The comparison shows both similarities and The comparison shows both similarities and

dissimilarities.dissimilarities. This is traditionally represented in CG by a dashed This is traditionally represented in CG by a dashed

arrow (from Standard to Target, S arrow (from Standard to Target, S - -- - T). T). The relationship so symbolized is one of The relationship so symbolized is one of partial partial

schematicityschematicity..

Page 11: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization

Such a comparison prompts the Such a comparison prompts the extraction of a extraction of a schemaschema..

The schema consists in what the The schema consists in what the compared concepts have in common.compared concepts have in common.

Page 12: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization The relationship is represented by The relationship is represented by

a solid-line arrow from schema a solid-line arrow from schema (Standard) to subcase(s) (Standard) to subcase(s) (Target(s)).(Target(s)).

SMALL YOUNG IMMATURE

VULNERABLE ANIMATE ENTITY

Page 13: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization This is a relationship of This is a relationship of full full

schematicityschematicity.. There is no conflict between the There is no conflict between the

specifications of thespecifications of thestandard and thosestandard and thoseof the target.of the target.

SMALL YOUNG IMMATURE

VULNERABLE ANIMATE ENTITY

Page 14: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization An intermediate An intermediate

schema may be schema may be extracted extracted embodying embodying what’s common what’s common to the puppy to the puppy and the kittenand the kitten

SMALL YOUNG IMMATURE

VULNERABLE ANIMATE ENTITYSMALL YOUNG

IMMATURE VULNERABLE

ANIMAL

Page 15: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization And so the And so the

category category (grouping of (grouping of concepts) concepts) growsgrows

SMALL YOUNG IMMATURE

VULNERABLE ANIMATE ENTITYSMALL YOUNG

IMMATURE VULNERABLE

ANIMAL

YOUNGEST SIBLING

(NEAR) YOUNGEST OF

FAMILY

PET PROJECT/MACHINE

OBJECT OF AFFECTION/

CARE

SMALL IMMATURE

VEGETABLE(S)

SMALL IMMATURE

ENTITY

Page 16: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization ALL these ALL these

concepts concepts are are schemasschemas

SMALL YOUNG IMMATURE

VULNERABLE ANIMATE ENTITYSMALL YOUNG

IMMATURE VULNERABLE

ANIMAL

YOUNGEST SIBLING

(NEAR) YOUNGEST OF

FAMILY

PET PROJECT/MACHINE

OBJECT OF AFFECTION/

CARE

SMALL IMMATURE

VEGETABLE(S)

SMALL IMMATURE

ENTITY

Page 17: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization Schema = Schema =

pattern = pattern = generalizatigeneralization over on over specific specific casescases

SMALL YOUNG IMMATURE

VULNERABLE ANIMATE ENTITYSMALL YOUNG

IMMATURE VULNERABLE

ANIMAL

YOUNGEST SIBLING

(NEAR) YOUNGEST OF

FAMILY

PET PROJECT/MACHINE

OBJECT OF AFFECTION/

CARE

SMALL IMMATURE

VEGETABLE(S)

SMALL IMMATURE

ENTITY

Page 18: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization AllAll linguistic linguistic

structures are structures are patterns—patterns—they are all they are all schematic in schematic in some degreesome degree

SMALL YOUNG IMMATURE

VULNERABLE ANIMATE ENTITYSMALL YOUNG

IMMATURE VULNERABLE

ANIMAL

YOUNGEST SIBLING

(NEAR) YOUNGEST OF

FAMILY

PET PROJECT/MACHINE

OBJECT OF AFFECTION/

CARE

SMALL IMMATURE

VEGETABLE(S)

SMALL IMMATURE

ENTITY

Page 19: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization BABYBABY, , KITTENKITTEN and and PUPPYPUPPY are generalizations over are generalizations over

different specific babies, kittens and puppies.different specific babies, kittens and puppies. The concept of a particular baby, kitten or The concept of a particular baby, kitten or

puppy is in its turn a generalization over even puppy is in its turn a generalization over even more specific experiences of that real-world more specific experiences of that real-world entity.entity.

PARTICULAR PUPPIES PARTICULAR

HUMAN INFANTSPARTICULAR

KITTENS

Page 20: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization As we have seen, categories can As we have seen, categories can

become very complex.become very complex. (The meaning of (The meaning of babybaby is of course is of course

considerably more considerably more complex than what we complex than what we have represented here.)have represented here.) SMALL YOUNG

IMMATURE VULNERABLE

ANIMATE ENTITYSMALL YOUNG IMMATURE

VULNERABLE ANIMAL

YOUNGEST SIBLING

(NEAR) YOUNGEST OF

FAMILY

PET PROJECT/MACHINE

OBJECT OF AFFECTION/

CARE

SMALL IMMATURE

VEGETABLE(S)

SMALL IMMATURE

ENTITY

Note that not all Note that not all the the members of the members of the category are category are equal.equal.

Page 21: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization Some concepts are better-Some concepts are better-

established (through usage) than established (through usage) than others, and hence others, and hence more more salientsalient..

SMALL YOUNG IMMATURE

VULNERABLE ANIMATE ENTITYSMALL YOUNG

IMMATURE VULNERABLE

ANIMAL

YOUNGEST SIBLING

(NEAR) YOUNGEST OF

FAMILY

PET PROJECT/MACHINE

OBJECT OF AFFECTION/

CARE

SMALL IMMATURE

VEGETABLE(S)

SMALL IMMATURE

ENTITY HUMAN HUMAN INFANT is the INFANT is the most salient most salient meaning of meaning of the word the word babybaby..

It is the It is the prototypeprototype for for the category.the category.

Page 22: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization Similarity relations involving the Similarity relations involving the

prototype are naturally likely to be prototype are naturally likely to be more salient and important than more salient and important than others.others.

SMALL YOUNG IMMATURE

VULNERABLE ANIMATE ENTITYSMALL YOUNG

IMMATURE VULNERABLE

ANIMAL

YOUNGEST SIBLING

(NEAR) YOUNGEST OF

FAMILY

PET PROJECT/MACHINE

OBJECT OF AFFECTION/

CARE

SMALL IMMATURE

VEGETABLE(S)

SMALL IMMATURE

ENTITY Relations of Relations of full and partial full and partial schematicity schematicity are, by are, by essence, essence, relations relations of full or of full or partial partial similarity.similarity.

Page 23: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization Thus the whole network is based on Thus the whole network is based on

similarity relations.similarity relations. Which concepts are comparedWhich concepts are compared

and assimilated into aand assimilated into acategory is an category is an interesting questioninteresting question SMALL YOUNG

IMMATURE VULNERABLE

ANIMATE ENTITYSMALL YOUNG IMMATURE

VULNERABLE ANIMAL

YOUNGEST SIBLING

(NEAR) YOUNGEST OF

FAMILY

PET PROJECT/MACHINE

OBJECT OF AFFECTION/

CARE

SMALL IMMATURE

VEGETABLE(S)

SMALL IMMATURE

ENTITY

It depends It depends on two on two important important factors.factors.

Page 24: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization The first is “brute” or “etic” similarity: The first is “brute” or “etic” similarity:

more-similar concepts are more likely to more-similar concepts are more likely to be assimilated than less-similar ones.be assimilated than less-similar ones.

But the deciding factor isBut the deciding factor isthe effect of usage.the effect of usage.

SMALL YOUNG IMMATURE

VULNERABLE ANIMATE ENTITYSMALL YOUNG

IMMATURE VULNERABLE

ANIMAL

YOUNGEST SIBLING

(NEAR) YOUNGEST OF

FAMILY

PET PROJECT/MACHINE

OBJECT OF AFFECTION/

CARE

SMALL IMMATURE

VEGETABLE(S)

SMALL IMMATURE

ENTITY

The members of The members of a category are a category are not those that not those that mightmight have have been included, been included, but those that but those that have been.have been.

Page 25: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization A shoot from a tree root is similar to A shoot from a tree root is similar to

some concepts in the meaning of some concepts in the meaning of babybaby..

SMALL YOUNG IMMATURE

VULNERABLE ANIMATE ENTITYSMALL YOUNG

IMMATURE VULNERABLE

ANIMAL

YOUNGEST SIBLING

(NEAR) YOUNGEST OF

FAMILY

PET PROJECT/MACHINE

OBJECT OF AFFECTION/

CARE

SMALL IMMATURE

VEGETABLE(S)

SMALL IMMATURE

ENTITY

It might well be It might well be included in the included in the meaning of meaning of babybaby, but in fact, but in factit isn’t.it isn’t.

(A Nahuatl (A Nahuatl speaker might speaker might call it a call it a konēƛkonēƛ ‘baby’, ‘baby’, however.)however.)

SHOOT FROM TREE ROOT

Page 26: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Usage-based categorizationUsage-based categorization It would be perfectly natural to compare It would be perfectly natural to compare

the concepts the concepts LAMBLAMB and and KIDKID, extract a , extract a robust schema uniting them, and make robust schema uniting them, and make that category the meaning of a lexical that category the meaning of a lexical item.item.

In English we don’t do that.In English we don’t do that. In (Biblical) Hebrew they did.In (Biblical) Hebrew they did. This usage, often repeated, This usage, often repeated,

established theestablished thecategory ascategory asconventionalconventionalfor them. for them.

YOUNG ANIMAL FROM

THE FLOCKsehkɪd

læm

???

Page 27: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Natural classes & Classical Natural classes & Classical categoriescategories

In many Americans’ minds, the category In many Americans’ minds, the category COCKROACHCOCKROACH has a very well-entrenched schema has a very well-entrenched schema

Any sub-categories (sub-cases) are far from Any sub-categories (sub-cases) are far from salient.salient.

Undistinguished mass of cases, none standing

out from the others

In effect, the highest In effect, the highest schema of the category schema of the category is also its prototype.is also its prototype.

It is not necessary that It is not necessary that the category be the category be structured so in our structured so in our minds.minds.

Page 28: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Natural classes & Classical Natural classes & Classical categoriescategories

For my wife there are two salient sub-For my wife there are two salient sub-classesclasses

For an entomologist, For an entomologist, the six families might the six families might be salient, and therebe salient, and therewould be a strong prototype, would be a strong prototype, the American Cockroachthe American Cockroach

But for most of us a But for most of us a cockroach is a cockroach cockroach is a cockroach and there’s (hopefully) and there’s (hopefully) an end to it.an end to it.

LIVE COCK

ROACH

DEAD COCK

ROACH

BLABERIDAE

BLATTELIDAE

BLATTIDAE

CRYPTOCERCIDAE

POLYPHAGIDAE

NOCTICOLIDAE

PERIPLANETA AMERICANA

Undistinguished mass of cases, none standing

out from the others

Page 29: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Natural classes & Classical Natural classes & Classical categoriescategories

It is, then, natural (cognitively easy) to It is, then, natural (cognitively easy) to take cockroaches as a class without take cockroaches as a class without distinguishing among them.distinguishing among them.

Such a class may be Such a class may be called a called a natural classnatural class..

Natural classes, if they Natural classes, if they become entrenched and become entrenched and conventionalized, form conventionalized, form classical categoriesclassical categories. .

In classical categories, In classical categories, the highest schema is the highest schema is also the prototype.also the prototype.

BLABERIDAE

BLATTELIDAE

BLATTIDAE

CRYPTOCERCIDAE

POLYPHAGIDAE

NOCTICOLIDAE

PERIPLANETA AMERICANA

Undistinguished mass of cases, none standing

out from the others

Page 30: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Classical categoriesClassical categories ““Classical” categories are the kind assumed by Classical” categories are the kind assumed by

many theories to be the only kind. many theories to be the only kind. They are modeled whenThey are modeled when (a) a salient (well-entrenched) pattern or (a) a salient (well-entrenched) pattern or

schemaschema (b) has many less salient sub-cases, and(b) has many less salient sub-cases, and (c) any other schemas based on those sub-(c) any other schemas based on those sub-

cases can be reasonably ignored. As a result,cases can be reasonably ignored. As a result, (d) The category does not overlap with (d) The category does not overlap with

neighboring categories.neighboring categories. (e) The result is that you can almost treat the (e) The result is that you can almost treat the

category as if the schema were all there was to category as if the schema were all there was to it.it.

Page 31: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

CategoriesCategories

Well-behaved “classical” categories look Well-behaved “classical” categories look like this:like this:

Or, even better, like this:Or, even better, like this: Such a set of classical categories with no Such a set of classical categories with no

overlap between them is a overlap between them is a classical classical categorial systemcategorial system..

Schema1

Subcase1b Subcase1c

Subcase1a Subcase1n

Schema2

Subcase2b Subcase2c

Subcase2a Subcase2n

Schema3

Subcase3b Subcase3c

Subcase3a Subcase3n

Schema3Schema2Schema1

Undistinguished mass of cases, none standing

out from the others

Undistinguished mass of cases, none standing

out from the others

Undistinguished mass of cases, none standing

out from the others

nooverlap

nooverlap

Page 32: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

CategoriesCategories

But “classical categories” are just one But “classical categories” are just one case of the range of kinds of categories case of the range of kinds of categories we find in language.we find in language.

(The meaning of (The meaning of babybaby, for instance, is , for instance, is nowhere nearly a classical category.)nowhere nearly a classical category.)

Schema3Schema2Schema1

Undistinguished mass of cases, none standing

out from the others

Undistinguished mass of cases, none standing

out from the others

Undistinguished mass of cases, none standing

out from the others

nooverlap

nooverlap

Page 33: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

CategoriesCategories Another way to Another way to

model model categories is to categories is to think of the mind think of the mind as slightly loose as slightly loose soil or swampy soil or swampy terrain. terrain.

A usage event is A usage event is like a kid on a like a kid on a pogo stick: each pogo stick: each time he jumps time he jumps he tamps the he tamps the dirt down a bit.dirt down a bit.

Page 34: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

CategoriesCategories Each concept is at Each concept is at

a particular a particular location, so each location, so each time the language time the language user activates that user activates that concept, that concept, that location gets location gets tamped down a tamped down a little further.little further.

Every time a Every time a closely similar closely similar concept is used, a concept is used, a neighboring spot is neighboring spot is tamped down a tamped down a little further.little further.

Page 35: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

CategoriesCategories The complex The complex

hole so formed hole so formed is a category.is a category.

Wider parts of Wider parts of the hole the hole correspond to correspond to schemas.schemas.

Narrower parts Narrower parts are subcases.are subcases.

The widest part The widest part is the highest-is the highest-level schema.level schema.

Schema

Category

subcase

Page 36: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

CategoriesCategories In a classical In a classical

category, the category, the hole is deep hole is deep and uniform: no and uniform: no one particular one particular subcase within subcase within it gets activated it gets activated differently differently enough to draw enough to draw attention to attention to itself. itself.

Classical Category

Page 37: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

CategoriesCategories But of course But of course

any number of any number of other kinds of other kinds of holes holes (categories) (categories) are likely to are likely to develop.develop.

Classical Category

Non-Classical CategoryNear-Classical

Categories

Page 38: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

CategoriesCategories Classical Classical

categories can categories can occur, but more occur, but more often you get often you get near-classical or near-classical or non-classical non-classical categories.categories.

Classical Category

Non-Classical CategoryNear-Classical

Categories

Page 39: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Phonological CategoriesPhonological Categories

Phonological structures, as much as Phonological structures, as much as semantic structures, are cognitive in nature.semantic structures, are cognitive in nature.

Phonological categories are of the same Phonological categories are of the same kinds as any other linguistic categories.kinds as any other linguistic categories.

Phonology, too, is founded on usage.Phonology, too, is founded on usage.

Schema1

Concepta Conceptb

Conceptc

Conceptd

Schema2

Subcaseb Subcasec

Subcasea Subcasen

Schema

Schema

Undistinguished mass of cases, none standing

out from the others

Classical Category

Non-Classical CategoryNear-Classical

Categories

Page 40: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

PhonemesPhonemes Perhaps the most important thing I can say Perhaps the most important thing I can say

about about phonemesphonemes is that they is that they are near-are near-classical categoriesclassical categories..

Classical phonemic theory insisted that they Classical phonemic theory insisted that they were pure classical categories forming were pure classical categories forming classical categorial systems.classical categorial systems.

Theorists since then have tended to point to Theorists since then have tended to point to evidence that evidence that they fail of absolute puritythey fail of absolute purity

and conclude that and conclude that therefore they do not exist therefore they do not exist at allat all..

This conclusion not just logically flawed and This conclusion not just logically flawed and unnecessary; it is pernicious. It distorts your unnecessary; it is pernicious. It distorts your conception of phonology.conception of phonology.

Page 41: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

PhonemesPhonemes Phonemes exist, and are important.Phonemes exist, and are important. Most if not all languages do in fact have Most if not all languages do in fact have

a set of contrasting sounds that tend to a set of contrasting sounds that tend to be structured close to the norm for be structured close to the norm for classical categories. classical categories.

They are abstracted from millions of They are abstracted from millions of individual usage events. As usage individual usage events. As usage changes, they too will change.changes, they too will change.

They tend to consist of a single They tend to consist of a single articulatory position or gesture, though articulatory position or gesture, though sometimes a complex one.sometimes a complex one.

Page 42: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

PhonemesPhonemes They are of two main types: syllable They are of two main types: syllable

peaks, and syllable margins (onsets or peaks, and syllable margins (onsets or endings).endings).

Among them they cover the range of Among them they cover the range of articulatory gestures of the language articulatory gestures of the language pretty completely, with little overlap.pretty completely, with little overlap.

These are the phonemes of the These are the phonemes of the language.language. The syllable peaks are vowels, at syllable The syllable peaks are vowels, at syllable

margins are the consonants.margins are the consonants.

Page 43: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

PhonemesPhonemes They tend to be formed around natural They tend to be formed around natural

classes, i.e. usage (the pogo stick jumper) classes, i.e. usage (the pogo stick jumper) tends to respect the natural contours of the tends to respect the natural contours of the land.land.

But they don’t do so perfectly enough to be But they don’t do so perfectly enough to be 100% predictable. 100% predictable.

They are *not* necessarily They are *not* necessarily consciouslyconsciously prominent in the minds of naive speakers, prominent in the minds of naive speakers, but they are discoverable.but they are discoverable.

The classical techniques for investigating The classical techniques for investigating phonemic structure, if not applied phonemic structure, if not applied mindlessly, work well for helping discover mindlessly, work well for helping discover them.them.

Page 44: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

PhonemesPhonemes Their existence is the best explanation Their existence is the best explanation

for the fact that reasonable alphabets for the fact that reasonable alphabets can be made for most if not all can be made for most if not all languages.languages.

It does not follow that all contrastive It does not follow that all contrastive elements fall into well-formed classical elements fall into well-formed classical categories. categories.

(There are serious difficulties in some (There are serious difficulties in some cases, notably in the analysis and cases, notably in the analysis and writing of tone.)writing of tone.)

Page 45: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

PhonemesPhonemes They show up through examination of They show up through examination of

general patternsgeneral patterns and particularly of and particularly of alternationsalternations..

Alternations are cases where a Alternations are cases where a morpheme with a constant meaning morpheme with a constant meaning consistently changes in one small place, consistently changes in one small place, especially when it occurs in different especially when it occurs in different environments.environments.

The following examples are from The following examples are from MösiehualMösiehualii (Tetelcingo Aztec or (Tetelcingo Aztec or Nahuatl).Nahuatl).

Page 46: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

A “classical” phonemeA “classical” phoneme

The phoneme The phoneme tt consists largely of a group of sounds consists largely of a group of sounds which, though differing slightly among each other, have in which, though differing slightly among each other, have in common a (non-nasal) apico-dental gesture at the margin common a (non-nasal) apico-dental gesture at the margin of a syllable (and its acoustic correlates).of a syllable (and its acoustic correlates).

Although specific pronunciations (subcases) differ in Although specific pronunciations (subcases) differ in detail, none of those details particularly stand out. detail, none of those details particularly stand out.

The highest-level schema is the prototype (most salient The highest-level schema is the prototype (most salient member).member).

So this is a good example of a “classical” category.So this is a good example of a “classical” category.

(apico-dental stop)

t

(…) tə ( •C…)

(…V) t � (#) (… •) t (V…)

(…e) t (c…)=

Undistinguished mass of cases, none standing

out from the others

(apico-dental stop)

t

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A “classical” phonemeA “classical” phoneme

The particular pronunciations are called The particular pronunciations are called “allophones”.“allophones”.

The whole point about them is that they The whole point about them is that they do not stand out much.do not stand out much.

If they did, they would make it easier If they did, they would make it easier not to take the category as a whole.not to take the category as a whole.

(apico-dental stop)

t

(…) tə ( •C…)

(…V) t � (#) (… •) t (V…)

(…e) t (c…)=

Undistinguished mass of cases, none standing

out from the others

(apico-dental stop)

t

Page 48: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

A “classical” phonemeA “classical” phoneme

Note that, even though an alveolar stop would be Note that, even though an alveolar stop would be very similar to these other sounds, and you might very similar to these other sounds, and you might expect it to be assimilated to the category, it isn’t expect it to be assimilated to the category, it isn’t there.there.

That’s just because MösiehualThat’s just because Mösiehualii speakers don’t hear speakers don’t hear that kind of a that kind of a tt very often, and don’t learn how to very often, and don’t learn how to pronounce it. Again, it is usage that dictates what’s pronounce it. Again, it is usage that dictates what’s in the category.in the category.

(apico-dental stop)

t

(…) tə ( •C…)

(…V) t � (#) (… •) t (V…)

(…e) t (c…)=

Undistinguished mass of cases, none standing

out from the others

(apico-dental stop)

t

Page 49: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

A “classical” phonemic A “classical” phonemic systemsystem

tt fits in with a number of other similar categories in a fits in with a number of other similar categories in a system which pretty well covers the territory of system which pretty well covers the territory of sounds pronounced at syllable margins. sounds pronounced at syllable margins. (Only the (Only the obstruents are represented here.)obstruents are represented here.)

(apico-dental stop)

t

Undistinguished subcases

(bilabial stop)

p

Undistinguished subcases

(velar stop)

k

Undistinguished subcases

(labialized

velar stop)

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

affricate)

Undistinguished subcases

(lateral alveolar

affricate)

ƛ

Undistinguished subcases

(palato-alveolar

affricate)

č

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

fricative)

s

Undistinguished subcases

(palato-alveolar

fricative)

š

Undistinguished subcases

Page 50: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

A “classical” phonemic A “classical” phonemic systemsystem

These sounds, by and large, contrast clearly with each other, These sounds, by and large, contrast clearly with each other, each potentially occurring between vowels, for instance. each potentially occurring between vowels, for instance.

This looks like a good “classical” categorial system. If the This looks like a good “classical” categorial system. If the phonemes didn’t overlap, it would be perfect.phonemes didn’t overlap, it would be perfect.

(apico-dental stop)

t

Undistinguished subcases

(bilabial stop)

p

Undistinguished subcases

(velar stop)

k

Undistinguished subcases

(labialized

velar stop)

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

affricate)

Undistinguished subcases

(lateral alveolar

affricate)

ƛ

Undistinguished subcases

(palato-alveolar

affricate)

č

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

fricative)

s

Undistinguished subcases

(palato-alveolar

fricative)

š

Undistinguished subcases

nooverlap

nooverlap

nooverlap

nooverlap

Page 51: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

A “classical” phonemic A “classical” phonemic systemsystem

Schemas can be extracted to group or categorize these Schemas can be extracted to group or categorize these phonemes, but they are not likely to be as useful or phonemes, but they are not likely to be as useful or prominent as the phonemes themselves are.prominent as the phonemes themselves are. These are CG counterparts to the traditional “archiphonemes”, or These are CG counterparts to the traditional “archiphonemes”, or

in some cases to phonological features or feature combinations.in some cases to phonological features or feature combinations.

(apico-dental stop)

t

Undistinguished subcases

(bilabial stop)

p

Undistinguished subcases

(velar stop)

k

Undistinguished subcases

(labialized

velar stop)

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

affricate)

Undistinguished subcases

(lateral alveolar

affricate)

ƛ

Undistinguished subcases

(palato-alveolar

affricate)

č

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

fricative)

s

Undistinguished subcases

(palato-alveolar

fricative)

š

Undistinguished subcases

velar O

grave Oapical O

Page 52: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

A messy phonemeA messy phoneme

Not all phonemes present such a pretty picture, Not all phonemes present such a pretty picture, however.however.

For example, the phoneme For example, the phoneme ww in Mösiehual in Mösiehualii includes a range of pronunciations including [includes a range of pronunciations including [ww], ], [[w!w! ], [], [ββ], and [], and [ɸɸ].].

These “allophones” are clearly salient in people’s These “allophones” are clearly salient in people’s minds, to such an extent that /minds, to such an extent that /ww/’s unity can be /’s unity can be (and certainly has been) questioned.(and certainly has been) questioned.

(… •) w (V…)[+bk]

(… •) β (V…)[-bk]

(… •) ɸ (V…)[-bk]

{ }h

(… •) (V…)[+bk]

{ }h

Page 53: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

A messy phonemeA messy phoneme

Yet when the allophones are compared a Yet when the allophones are compared a schema is easily extractible.schema is easily extractible.

They clearly have a lot in common.They clearly have a lot in common. Yet they are different enough that one Yet they are different enough that one

could easily separate them, and many could easily separate them, and many languages do.languages do.

(… •) w (V…)[+bk]

(… •) β (V…)[-bk]

(… •) ɸ (V…)[-bk]

{ }h

(… •) (V…)[+bk]

{ }h

(labial and/or velar

approximant/fricative)

Page 54: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

A messy phonemeA messy phoneme

How do MösiehualHow do Mösiehualii speakers learn not to speakers learn not to separate them? Through usage.separate them? Through usage.

The usage they hear gives them two very The usage they hear gives them two very important kinds of evidence; pattern important kinds of evidence; pattern evidence and alternation evidence.evidence and alternation evidence.

(… •) w (V…)[+bk]

(… •) β (V…)[-bk]

(… •) ɸ (V…)[-bk]

{ }h

(… •) (V…)[+bk]

{ }h

(labial and/or velar

approximant/fricative)

Page 55: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

A messy phonemeA messy phoneme

In fact, there are other sub-generalizations that In fact, there are other sub-generalizations that can (and should) be included in the picture.can (and should) be included in the picture.

(The relations between these sub-generalizations (The relations between these sub-generalizations embody CG’s analogue of phonological rules)embody CG’s analogue of phonological rules)

This phoneme is a much messier category than This phoneme is a much messier category than tt,, čč, and the others., and the others.

(… •) β (V…)[-bk]

(… •) ɸ (V…)[-bk]

{ }h

(… •) (V…)[+bk]

{ }h(… •) w (V…)

[+bk]

(… •) labial and/or velar

approximant/fricative (V…)(… •) w (V…)

[+bk][±vd]

(… •) β (V…)[-bk][±vd]

(… •) w/β (V…)

(… •) /ɸ (V…){ }h

Page 56: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

A messy phonemeA messy phoneme

In fact, In fact, ww is already such a messy category that is already such a messy category that adding adding hh to it may not seem like that big a change. to it may not seem like that big a change.

This extension is well-established by alternation This extension is well-established by alternation evidence: e.g. evidence: e.g. kʷaβɪƛkʷaβɪƛ = = kʷaw-iƛkʷaw-iƛ ~ ~ kʷahmekʷahme = = kʷaw-kʷaw-me me ‘tree~trees’, or ‘tree~trees’, or kɪhtowakɪhtowa = = ki-htow-aki-htow-a ‘3p says it’ ‘3p says it’ ~ ~ okɪhtohkɪokɪhtohkɪ = = o-ki-htow-ki o-ki-htow-ki ‘3p pl said it’.‘3p pl said it’.

(… •) β (V…)[-bk]

(… •) ɸ (V…)[-bk]

{ }h

(… •) (V…)[+bk]

{ }h(… •) w (V…)

[+bk]

(… •) labial and/or velar

approximant/fricative (V…)(… •) w (V…)

[+bk][±vd]

(… •) β (V…)[-bk][±vd]

(… •) w/β (V…)

(… •) /ɸ (V…){ }h

(…) h ( •C…)

Page 57: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

A messy phonemeA messy phoneme

Still, it is less than clear what schema (if any) one Still, it is less than clear what schema (if any) one should posit as extracted from the extension.should posit as extracted from the extension.

Certainly that schema would not fit well into the Certainly that schema would not fit well into the nice set of phonemes in Mösiehualnice set of phonemes in Mösiehualii..

(… •) β (V…)[-bk]

(… •) ɸ (V…)[-bk]

{ }h

(… •) (V…)[+bk]

{ }h(… •) w (V…)

[+bk]

(… •) labial and/or velar

approximant/fricative (V…)(… •) w (V…)

[+bk][±vd]

(… •) β (V…)[-bk][±vd]

(… •) w/β (V…)

(… •) /ɸ (V…){ }h

(…) h ( •C…)

(…) approximant /

fricative (…)

Page 58: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Neutralization to Neutralization to hh

More importantly (perhaps), this More importantly (perhaps), this hh “allophone” (or “allophone” (or particular subcases of it) is shared by other particular subcases of it) is shared by other phonemes. phonemes.

These phoneme categories overlap at this point.These phoneme categories overlap at this point.

(labial and/or velar

approximant/fricative)

Clearly distinguished subcases

w

(…) h ( •C…)

(palatal approx-

imant/fricative)

y

Lessclearly distinguished

subcases

(…) h ( • …)(apico-dental stop)

t

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

affricate)

Undistinguished subcases

(palato-alveolar

affricate)

č

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

fricative)

s

Undistinguished subcases

(…) h ( •č…)

(palato-alveolar

fricative)

š

Undistinguished subcases

Page 59: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Neutralization to Neutralization to hh

What is more, these What is more, these h h “allophones” fit “allophones” fit quite well among the non-distinguished quite well among the non-distinguished allophones of another phoneme, namely allophones of another phoneme, namely hh..

(labial and/or velar

approximant/fricative)

Clearly distinguished subcases

w

(…) h ( •C…)

(palatal approx-

imant/fricative)

y

Lessclearly distinguished

subcases

(…) h ( • …)(apico-dental stop)

t

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

affricate)

Undistinguished subcases

(palato-alveolar

affricate)

č

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

fricative)

s

Undistinguished subcases

(…) h ( •č…)

(palato-alveolar

fricative)

š

Undistinguished subcases

h(unarticulated

pause in voicing)

Undistinguished subcases

Page 60: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Neutralization to Neutralization to hh

What had looked like a nice neat classical What had looked like a nice neat classical system suddenly isn’t—it allows massive system suddenly isn’t—it allows massive overlap.overlap.

(labial and/or velar

approximant/fricative)

Clearly distinguished subcases

w

(…) h ( •C…)

(palatal approx-

imant/fricative)

y

Lessclearly distinguished

subcases

(…) h ( • …)(apico-dental stop)

t

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

affricate)

Undistinguished subcases

(palato-alveolar

affricate)

č

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

fricative)

s

Undistinguished subcases

(…) h ( •č…)

(palato-alveolar

fricative)

š

Undistinguished subcases

h(unarticulated

pause in voicing)

Undistinguished subcases

Page 61: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

NeutralizationNeutralization

This sort of thing shows up in many languagesThis sort of thing shows up in many languages even though not quite on such a scale in most even though not quite on such a scale in most

languages languages

(labial and/or velar

approximant/fricative)

Clearly distinguished subcases

w

(…) h ( •C…)

(palatal approx-

imant/fricative)

y

Lessclearly distinguished

subcases

(…) h ( • …)(apico-dental stop)

t

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

affricate)

Undistinguished subcases

(palato-alveolar

affricate)

č

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

fricative)

s

Undistinguished subcases

(…) h ( •č…)

(palato-alveolar

fricative)

š

Undistinguished subcases

h(unarticulated

pause in voicing)

Undistinguished subcases

Page 62: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

NeutralizationNeutralization

The conclusion, however, should not be that the The conclusion, however, should not be that the phonemes do not exist.phonemes do not exist.

They just aren’t perfect. We shouldn’t have expected They just aren’t perfect. We shouldn’t have expected them to be.them to be.

(labial and/or velar

approximant/fricative)

Clearly distinguished subcases

w

(…) h ( •C…)

(palatal approx-

imant/fricative)

y

Lessclearly distinguished

subcases

(…) h ( • …)(apico-dental stop)

t

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

affricate)

Undistinguished subcases

(palato-alveolar

affricate)

č

Undistinguished subcases

(alveolar

fricative)

s

Undistinguished subcases

(…) h ( •č…)

(palato-alveolar

fricative)

š

Undistinguished subcases

h(unarticulated

pause in voicing)

Undistinguished subcases

Page 63: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Consonant Neutralizations Consonant Neutralizations in Mösiehualin Mösiehualii

Under at least some other theoretical Under at least some other theoretical models this sort of thing is models this sort of thing is essentially inexplicable.essentially inexplicable.

If purely classical categories are the If purely classical categories are the basis of phonology, why would you basis of phonology, why would you ever get this kind of a mess?ever get this kind of a mess?

But, it is in fact quite normal, But, it is in fact quite normal, empirically, to get this kind of messempirically, to get this kind of mess

(even though not usually on this scale).(even though not usually on this scale).

Page 64: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Summary:Summary:Phonemes as categoriesPhonemes as categories

The main points I would draw from all this The main points I would draw from all this are:are:

Phonological categories are like other Phonological categories are like other categories we find in language.categories we find in language.

Like other categories, they are usage-Like other categories, they are usage-based. based.

It is usage (It is usage (along withalong with , not , not instead ofinstead of brute “etic” similarity) that lets us know brute “etic” similarity) that lets us know which sounds (or other concepts) are to which sounds (or other concepts) are to be compared and categorized together.be compared and categorized together.

What we call phonemes are a kind of What we call phonemes are a kind of phonological categories.phonological categories.

Page 65: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Phonemes as categoriesPhonemes as categories

Like other categories, phonological Like other categories, phonological categories may be nice, neat and categories may be nice, neat and orderly (“classical”), or they may be orderly (“classical”), or they may be messy. Phonemes are near the messy. Phonemes are near the classical end of this spectrum.classical end of this spectrum.

However, most of the time they are However, most of the time they are at least a little bit messy.at least a little bit messy.

Page 66: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Phonemes as cognitive Phonemes as cognitive categoriescategories

From the CG perspective, From the CG perspective, aberrations from the classical aberrations from the classical phonemic model are perfectly phonemic model are perfectly normal and to be expected.normal and to be expected.

What needs explaining is not why What needs explaining is not why the phonemic model isn’t perfect, the phonemic model isn’t perfect, but rather why it works so well but rather why it works so well (comes so close to the facts) in so (comes so close to the facts) in so many cases.many cases.

Page 67: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Phonemes as cognitive Phonemes as cognitive categoriescategories

(fwiw, though we haven’t shown it) The (fwiw, though we haven’t shown it) The CG perspective on categories allows us CG perspective on categories allows us to characterize, in natural and naturally to characterize, in natural and naturally related ways, such traditional structures related ways, such traditional structures and mechanisms as:and mechanisms as:

Morphemic alternation rulesMorphemic alternation rules Morphophonemic and other phonological Morphophonemic and other phonological

rulesrules Rule orderingRule ordering Phonemes and allophonesPhonemes and allophones ArchiphonemesArchiphonemes FeaturesFeatures NeutralizationNeutralization

Page 68: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Phonemes as cognitive Phonemes as cognitive categoriescategories

I think this is important. I think this is important. If a model obliges me to say that older If a model obliges me to say that older

thinkers were all wrong, something is thinkers were all wrong, something is probably wrong with the model. probably wrong with the model.

If it helps me understand what those If it helps me understand what those older thinkers were talking about, that older thinkers were talking about, that it is a point in its favor.it is a point in its favor.

Page 69: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Phonemes as cognitive Phonemes as cognitive categoriescategories

And, finally, And, finally, Aren’t languages like MösiehualAren’t languages like Mösiehualii

beautiful? beautiful? Isn’t it admirable how a community of Isn’t it admirable how a community of

language-speakers can allow, and even language-speakers can allow, and even encourage to the point of enforcing, encourage to the point of enforcing, such massive neutralizations, such massive neutralizations,

and still be able to tell perfectly well and still be able to tell perfectly well what they are talking about?what they are talking about?

Page 70: Phonemes a Cognitive Grammar perspective David Tuggy SIL-Mexico.

Power Point to be available atPower Point to be available at

www.sil.org/~tuggydwww.sil.org/~tuggyd