Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy

Philosophy 1050: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Introduction to

PhilosophyPhilosophyWeek 9: Descartes and the SubjectWeek 9: Descartes and the Subject

Augustine and Self-Consciousness: Augustine and Self-Consciousness: SummarySummary

According to Augustine, both our According to Augustine, both our sensessenses and our and our understandingunderstanding and and reasonreason play a role in what we play a role in what we know. know.

Because we have an Because we have an inner senseinner sense that puts everything that puts everything together, we may be conscious of ourselves or together, we may be conscious of ourselves or self-self-consciousconscious..

The idea of The idea of self-consciousnessself-consciousness is the idea of is the idea of subjectivity. subjectivity. We can distinguish the We can distinguish the subjectivitysubjectivity of of our sensations, opinions, feelings, and perceptions our sensations, opinions, feelings, and perceptions from the from the objectivityobjectivity of what exists for all of us and of what exists for all of us and can be known through reasons or reasoning.can be known through reasons or reasoning.

Augustine and subjectivityAugustine and subjectivity

To help define the nature of the self, To help define the nature of the self, Augustine distinguishes between things that Augustine distinguishes between things that are subjective (or dependent on the self-are subjective (or dependent on the self-conscious subject) and those that are objective conscious subject) and those that are objective (or independent of the self-conscious subject).(or independent of the self-conscious subject).

Our problem (and Descartes’ problem): What Our problem (and Descartes’ problem): What is the relationship between the is the relationship between the subjectivesubjective and and the the objectiveobjective??

Subjectivity and ObjectivitySubjectivity and Objectivity

““By ‘our own’ and ‘personal,’ I mean that By ‘our own’ and ‘personal,’ I mean that which each one of us consumes for himself which each one of us consumes for himself and what each alone perceives in himself as and what each alone perceives in himself as belonging properly to his own nature. By belonging properly to his own nature. By ‘common’ and, as it were, ‘public,’ I mean ‘common’ and, as it were, ‘public,’ I mean what is perceived by everyone who perceives, what is perceived by everyone who perceives, without its being changed or destroyed.” (p. without its being changed or destroyed.” (p. 53). 53).

Subjective and ObjectiveSubjective and Objective

SubjectiveSubjective:: Sensations and Sensations and

ImpressionsImpressions OpinionsOpinions Pains and feelingsPains and feelings ExperiencesExperiences MemoriesMemories Value judgmentsValue judgments

Objective:Objective: TreesTrees HousesHouses BodiesBodies Things located in space Things located in space

outside meoutside me NumbersNumbers ShapesShapes ColorsColors

Rene DescartesRene Descartes

1596-16501596-1650 Born in France, travels Born in France, travels

as a young man to as a young man to Holland and Germany Holland and Germany to serve in the armyto serve in the army

In 1618, has a series of In 1618, has a series of dreams that he interprets dreams that he interprets as telling him he will as telling him he will found a new sciencefound a new science

Descartes and the Descartes and the Copernican RevolutionCopernican Revolution

In 1543, Copernicus In 1543, Copernicus proposed that the motion proposed that the motion of the planets could be of the planets could be explained by placing the explained by placing the sun at the center of the sun at the center of the solar systemsolar system

His ideas were developed His ideas were developed by Galileo Galilei, who by Galileo Galilei, who lived at almost the same lived at almost the same time as Descartestime as Descartes

Descartes and SubjectivityDescartes and Subjectivity

Building on ideas already suggested by St. Building on ideas already suggested by St. Augustine, Descartes will make the Augustine, Descartes will make the subjectsubject and the and the experiences it hasexperiences it has the center of the the center of the new science and a whole new way of thinking new science and a whole new way of thinking of knowledge, reason, and the world. of knowledge, reason, and the world.

He does so by He does so by testingtesting what he knows to find what he knows to find out what is truly reliable and what is not.out what is truly reliable and what is not.

Descartes and Subjectivity: Descartes and Subjectivity: Knowledge and FoundationsKnowledge and Foundations

““Several years have now passed since I first Several years have now passed since I first realized how numerous were the false opinions realized how numerous were the false opinions that in my youth I had taken to be true, and that in my youth I had taken to be true, and thus how doubtful were all those that I had thus how doubtful were all those that I had subsequently built upon them. And thus I subsequently built upon them. And thus I realized that once in my life I had to raze realized that once in my life I had to raze everything to the ground and begin again from everything to the ground and begin again from the original foundations.” (17)the original foundations.” (17)

Descartes and MeditationDescartes and Meditation

Descartes undertakes to Descartes undertakes to testtest all of his opinions all of his opinions to see if they are really knowledge. To do so, to see if they are really knowledge. To do so, he will ask himself if they are based on a he will ask himself if they are based on a securesecure foundation: that is, whether they are foundation: that is, whether they are certain and immune to doubt.certain and immune to doubt.

He considers various possibilities of doubt or He considers various possibilities of doubt or skeptical scenariosskeptical scenarios to see whether he really to see whether he really knows what he thinks he knowsknows what he thinks he knows

Descartes: Radical DoubtDescartes: Radical Doubt

Descartes considers three Descartes considers three skeptical scenariosskeptical scenarios or possibilities of radical doubt:or possibilities of radical doubt: 1) Senses can be deceptive, for instance 1) Senses can be deceptive, for instance

when I mistake something far awaywhen I mistake something far away 2) I could be dreaming2) I could be dreaming 3) God, or an “evil genius,” could be 3) God, or an “evil genius,” could be

deceiving me by “feeding in” my thoughts deceiving me by “feeding in” my thoughts and experiencesand experiences

The Brain in a VatThe Brain in a Vat(a modern version of skepticism)(a modern version of skepticism)

If we are brains in vats, we If we are brains in vats, we may may thinkthink we are having we are having experiences such as being experiences such as being outside, walking in the sun, outside, walking in the sun, feeling the warmth on our feeling the warmth on our faces, etc.faces, etc.

But we are really just brains But we are really just brains wired up to electrical wired up to electrical stimulators, perhaps stimulators, perhaps controlled by a computercontrolled by a computer

Philosophy: Philosophy: The MatrixThe Matrix

NEO: This isn’t real?NEO: This isn’t real? MORPHEUS: What is real? MORPHEUS: What is real?

How do you define ‘real’? If How do you define ‘real’? If you're talking about your you're talking about your senses, what you feel, taste, senses, what you feel, taste, smell, or see, then all you're smell, or see, then all you're talking about are electrical talking about are electrical signals interpreted by your signals interpreted by your brain. brain.

How do we know that we are not dreaming?How do we know that we are not dreaming? How do we know that we are not being How do we know that we are not being

deceived by an evil genius more powerful than deceived by an evil genius more powerful than ourselves?ourselves?

How do we know that we are not brains in How do we know that we are not brains in vats?vats?

IF any of these SKEPTICAL SCENARIOS are IF any of these SKEPTICAL SCENARIOS are TRUE, then what (if anything) might we STILL TRUE, then what (if anything) might we STILL know and hold on to?know and hold on to?

Descartes and subjectivity: Descartes and subjectivity: Re-building knowledgeRe-building knowledge

If any of the skeptical scenarios holds true, If any of the skeptical scenarios holds true, then we apparently do not know of the then we apparently do not know of the existence of existence of anything outside usanything outside us. We do not . We do not know whether the things that we seem to see know whether the things that we seem to see actually exist or even that actually exist or even that wewe exist as the exist as the beings we seem to be.beings we seem to be.

Is there, nevertheless, anything that we can Is there, nevertheless, anything that we can still be certain of?still be certain of?

Descartes and Subjectivity: Descartes and Subjectivity: Re-building KnowledgeRe-building Knowledge

“…“…I have persuaded myself that there is I have persuaded myself that there is absolutely nothing in the world: no sky, no absolutely nothing in the world: no sky, no earth, no minds, no bodies. Is it then the case earth, no minds, no bodies. Is it then the case that I too do not exist? But doubtless I did that I too do not exist? But doubtless I did exist, if I persuaded myself of something … exist, if I persuaded myself of something … Thus, after everything has been most closely Thus, after everything has been most closely weighed, it must finally be admitted that this weighed, it must finally be admitted that this pronouncement ‘I am, I exist’ is necessarily pronouncement ‘I am, I exist’ is necessarily true every time I utter it or conceive it in my true every time I utter it or conceive it in my mind…” (25)mind…” (25)

Descartes and Subjectivity: Descartes and Subjectivity: Re-building knowledgeRe-building knowledge

Having undertaken to doubt everything he can, Having undertaken to doubt everything he can, Descartes finds that he cannot doubt that he exists as Descartes finds that he cannot doubt that he exists as a a thinking thing:thinking thing:

““Here I make my discovery: thought exists; it alone Here I make my discovery: thought exists; it alone cannot be separated from me. I am; I exist – this is cannot be separated from me. I am; I exist – this is certain…At this time I admit nothing that is not certain…At this time I admit nothing that is not necessarily true… I am therefore precisely nothing necessarily true… I am therefore precisely nothing but a thinking thing: that is, a mind, or intellect, or but a thinking thing: that is, a mind, or intellect, or understanding, or reason…” (27)understanding, or reason…” (27)

Descartes and Subjectivity: Descartes and Subjectivity: Re-building knowledgeRe-building knowledge

By the end of the Second Meditation, By the end of the Second Meditation, Descartes has discovered that he exists as a Descartes has discovered that he exists as a thinkingthinking thing or a thing or a subjectsubject:: ““But what then am I? A thing that thinks. What is But what then am I? A thing that thinks. What is

that? A thing that doubts, understands, affirms, that? A thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wills, refuses, and that also imagines and denies, wills, refuses, and that also imagines and senses.” (28)senses.” (28)

Descartes and Subjectivity: Descartes and Subjectivity: Re-building knowledgeRe-building knowledge

By the end of the second Meditation, By the end of the second Meditation, Descartes still does not know of the existence Descartes still does not know of the existence of any object outside himself. Yet he does of any object outside himself. Yet he does know: know: That That hehe exists as a thinking thing; and exists as a thinking thing; and That his actual processes of thinking, imagining, That his actual processes of thinking, imagining,

seemingseeming to see and to see and seemingseeming to perceive actually to perceive actually exist as well. exist as well.

““Seemings:” The Way of IdeasSeemings:” The Way of Ideas “…“…For although perhaps, as I supposed before, For although perhaps, as I supposed before,

absolutely nothing that I imagined is true, still the absolutely nothing that I imagined is true, still the very power of imagining really does exist, and very power of imagining really does exist, and constitutes a part of my thought. Finally, it is this constitutes a part of my thought. Finally, it is this same ‘I’ who senses or is cognizant of bodily things same ‘I’ who senses or is cognizant of bodily things as if through the senses. For example, I now see a as if through the senses. For example, I now see a light, I hear a noise, I feel heat. These things are false, light, I hear a noise, I feel heat. These things are false, since I am asleep. Yet I certainly do seem to see, since I am asleep. Yet I certainly do seem to see, hear, and feel warmth. This cannot be false. Properly hear, and feel warmth. This cannot be false. Properly speaking, this is what in me is called ‘sensing.’ But speaking, this is what in me is called ‘sensing.’ But this, precisely so taken, is nothing other than this, precisely so taken, is nothing other than thinking.” (p. 29)thinking.” (p. 29)

Descartes and Subjectivity: Descartes and Subjectivity: The Way Of IdeasThe Way Of Ideas

At this stage, Descartes does not know At this stage, Descartes does not know whether anything outside him exists, but he whether anything outside him exists, but he knows that he himself and his own processes knows that he himself and his own processes of thinking do existof thinking do exist

These processes of thinking – the way things These processes of thinking – the way things seem – can be called “seem – can be called “ideasideas.” For instance, .” For instance, Descartes does not know that the sun really Descartes does not know that the sun really exists, but he does know at least that his exists, but he does know at least that his ideaidea or or impressionimpression of the sun does. of the sun does.

Descartes and Subjectivity: Descartes and Subjectivity: SummarySummary

Trying to test all his beliefs for reliability, Descartes considers Trying to test all his beliefs for reliability, Descartes considers three three skeptical scenariosskeptical scenarios according to which much or all of according to which much or all of what he believes could be false. If anything survives these what he believes could be false. If anything survives these scenarios, it will be scenarios, it will be truetrue and and certaincertain no matter what. no matter what.

He discovers that even if the skeptical scenarios hold, still he He discovers that even if the skeptical scenarios hold, still he exists as a exists as a thinking thingthinking thing or or subjectsubject that can think, doubt, that can think, doubt, reason, and have experiences.reason, and have experiences.

Even if nothing in the external world is known for sure, this Even if nothing in the external world is known for sure, this thinking thingthinking thing or or subject subject can be known to exist, with absolute can be known to exist, with absolute certainty, together with all its processes of thinking, certainty, together with all its processes of thinking, imagining, reasoning, and so forth. Even if we do not know imagining, reasoning, and so forth. Even if we do not know whether any things in the external world actually exist, still we whether any things in the external world actually exist, still we can know for certain that our own can know for certain that our own representationsrepresentations or or ideasideas of of them do. them do.